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Prunus

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Prunus
Temporal range:Eocene- recent[1]
Prunus cerasus(sour cherry) in bloom
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Subfamily: Amygdaloideae
Tribe: Amygdaleae
Genus: Prunus
L.
Type species
P. domestica
Synonyms

Prunusis a genus of trees and shrubs in theflowering plantfamilyRosaceaethat includes plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots, and almonds. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution,[3]being native to the North American temperate regions, theneotropicsof South America, and temperate and tropical regions of Eurasia and Africa,[4]There are about 340 accepted species as of March 2024.[3][5]Many members of the genus are widely cultivated for their fruit and for decorative purposes.Prunusfruit aredrupes,or stone fruits. The fleshymesocarpsurrounding theendocarpis edible while the endocarp itself forms a hard, inedible shell called thepyrena( "stone" or "pit" ).[6]This shell encloses the seed (or "kernel" ), which is edible in some species (such as sweet almonds), but poisonous in many others (such asapricot kernels). Besides being eaten off the hand, mostPrunusfruit are also commonly used in processing, such as jam production, canning, drying, and the seeds for roasting.[7]

'Kanzan' Cherry treein full bloom in April in Virginia, USA.
View of the inner canopy ofKanzan Cherryduring full bloom.

Botany

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Members of the genus are eitherdeciduousorevergreen.A few species have spiny stems. The leaves are simple, alternate, usuallylanceolate,unlobed, and often withnectarieson the leaf stalk along withstipules.The flowers are usually white to pink, sometimes red, with five petals and fivesepals.Numerousstamensare present. Flowers are borne singly, or inumbelsof two to six or sometimes more onracemes.The fruit is a fleshy drupe (a "prune" ) with a single relatively large, hard-coated seed (a "stone" ).[8]

Within the rose family Rosaceae, it was traditionally placed as a subfamily, theAmygdaloideae(incorrectly "Prunoideae" ), but was sometimes placed in its own family, the Prunaceae (or Amygdalaceae). More recently,Prunusis thought to have evolved from within a much larger clade now called subfamily Amygdaloideae (incorrectly "Spiraeoideae" ).[2]

Classification

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Evolutionary history

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The oldest fossils confirmed to belong toPrunusdate to theEocene,and are found across the Northern Hemisphere. Older potential Late Cretaceous records are unconfirmed.[9]

Linnean classification

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In 1737,Carl Linnaeusused four genera to include the species of modernPrunus—Amygdalus, Cerasus, Prunus,andPadus—but simplified it toAmygdalusandPrunusin 1758.[10]Since then, the various genera of Linnaeus and others have become subgenera and sections, as all the species clearly are more closely related.Liberty Hyde Baileysaid: "The numerous forms grade into each other so imperceptibly and inextricably that the genus cannot be readily broken up into species."[11]

Traditional classification

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Historical treatments break the genus into several different genera, but this segregation is not currently widely recognised other than at the subgeneric rank. TheITISrecognises just the single genusPrunus,with an open list of species,[a]all of which are given atList of Prunus species.[b]

One treatment of the subgenera derives from the work ofAlfred Rehderin 1940. Rehder hypothesized five subgenera:Amygdalus, Prunus, Cerasus, Padus,andLaurocerasus.[12]To them C. Ingram addedLithocerasus.[13]The six subgenera are described as follows:

  • SubgenusAmygdalus,almonds and peaches: axillary buds in threes (vegetative bud central, two flower buds to sides); flowers in early spring, sessile or nearly so, not on leafed shoots; fruit with a groove along one side; stone deeply grooved; type species:Prunus dulcis(almond)
  • SubgenusPrunus,plums and apricots: axillary buds solitary; flowers in early spring stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit with a groove along one side, stone rough; type species:Prunus domestica(plum)
  • SubgenusCerasus,true cherries: axillary buds single; flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species:Prunus cerasus(sour cherry)
  • SubgenusLithocerasus,bush cherries: axillary buds in threes; flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species:Prunus pumila(sand cherry)
  • SubgenusPadus,bird cherries: axillary buds single; flowers in late spring in racemes on leafy shoots, short-stalked; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species:Prunus padus(European bird cherry), now known to be polyphyletic[14]
  • SubgenusLaurocerasus,cherry laurels: mostly evergreen (all the other subgenera are deciduous); axillary buds single; flowers in early spring in racemes, not on leafed shoots, short-stalked; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species:Prunus laurocerasus(European cherry-laurel)

Phylogenetic classification

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An extensive phylogenetic study based on different chloroplast and nuclear sequences dividesPrunusinto three subgenera:[15]

Species

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Main article:List of Prunus species

The lists below are incomplete, but include most of the better-known species.[by whom?][citation needed]

Afro-Eurasian species

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Japanese cherry(Prunus serrulata) blossoms
Tibetan cherry(Prunus serrula) bark

Species found in the Americas

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Black cherry(Prunus serotina) in bloom

Cultivation

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The development sequence of anectarine(P. persica) over a 7.5-month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer

The genusPrunusincludes thealmond,the nectarine andpeach,several species ofapricots,cherries,andplums,all of which havecultivarsdeveloped for commercialfruitand nut production. The almond is not a truenut;the edible part is the seed. Other species are occasionally cultivated or used for their seed and fruit.

A number of species,hybrids,andcultivarsare grown asornamental plants,usually for their profusion of flowers, sometimes for ornamental foliage and shape, and occasionally for theirbark.

Because of their considerable value as both food and ornamental plants, manyPrunusspecies have beenintroducedto parts of the world to which they are not native, some becoming naturalised.

TheTree of 40 Fruithas 40 varieties grafted on to one rootstock.[16][17]

Species such as blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), are grown for hedging, game cover, and other utilitarian purposes.

The wood of some species (notablyblack cherry) is prized as afurnitureandcabinetrytimber,especially in North America.

Many species produce an aromatic gum from wounds in the trunk; this is sometimes used medicinally. Other minor uses include dye production.

Pygeum,a herbal remedy containing extracts from the bark ofPrunus africana,is used as to alleviate some of the discomfort caused by inflammation in patients withbenign prostatic hyperplasia.

Prunusspecies are food plants for the larvae of manyLepidopteraspecies (butterflies and moths).

Prunusspecies are included in theTasmanianFire Service's list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.[18]

OrnamentalPrunus

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See also:List of Award of Garden Merit flowering cherries

Ornamentals include the group that may be collectively called "flowering cherries"(includingsakura,the Japanese flowering cherries).

Toxicity

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Many species arecyanogenic;that is, they contain compounds called cyanogenicglucosides,notablyamygdalin,which, onhydrolysis,yieldhydrogen cyanide.[19]Although the fruits of some may be edible by humans and livestock (in addition to the ubiquitous fructivory of birds), seeds, leaves and other parts may be toxic, some highly so.[20]The plants contain no more than trace amounts of hydrogen cyanide, but on decomposition after crushing and exposure to air or on digestion, poisonous amounts may be generated. The trace amounts may give a characteristic taste ( "bitter almond" ) with increasing bitterness in larger quantities, less tolerable to people than to birds, which habitually feed on specific fruits.

Benefits to human health

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People are often encouraged to consume many fruits because they are rich in a variety of nutrients and phytochemicals that are supposedly beneficial to human health. The fruits ofPrunusoften contain manyphytochemicalsandantioxidants.[7][21][22]These compounds have properties that have been linked to preventing different diseases and disorders.[21][23][24]Research suggests that the consumption of these fruits reduces the risk of developing diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and other age-related declines.[23][24]Many factors can affect the levels of bioactive compounds in the different fruits of the genusPrunus,including the environment, season, processing methods, orchard operations, and postharvest management.[7]

Cherries

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Cherries contain many differentphenolic compoundsandanthocyanins,which are indicators of being rich in antioxidants.[25][23]Recent research has linked the phenolic compounds of the sweet cherry (Prunus avium) with antitumor properties.[26]

Reactive oxygen species(ROS) includesuperoxide radicals,hydrogen peroxide,hydroxyl radicals,andsinglet oxygen;they are the byproducts of metabolism. High levels of ROS lead to oxidative stress, which causes damage to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The oxidative damage results in cell death, which ultimately leads to numerous diseases and disorders. Antioxidants act as a defense mechanism against the oxidative stress.[23][24]They are used to remove thefree radicalsin a living system that are generated as ROS.[27][23]Some of those antioxidants includegutathione S-transferase,glutathione peroxidase,superoxide dismutase,andcatalase.[27]The antioxidants present in cherry extracts act as inhibitors of the free radicals.[21]However, the DNA and proteins can be damaged when an imbalance occurs in the level of free radicals and the antioxidants. When not enough antioxidants are available to remove the free radicals, many diseases can occur, such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, etc.[24]Recent studies have shown that using natural antioxidants as a supplement in chemotherapy can decrease the amount of oxidative damage. Some of these natural antioxidants include vitamin C,tocopherol,andepigallocatechin gallate;they can be found in certain cherry extracts.[27]

Almonds

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Similar to cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, almonds are also rich inphenolics.Almonds have a high oxygen radical absorbing capacity (ORAC), which is another indicator of being rich in antioxidants.[7][28]As stated before, high levels of free radicals are harmful, thus having the capacity to absorb those radicals is greatly beneficial. The bioactive compounds, polyphenols and anthocyanins, found in berries and cherries are also present in almonds.[29][28]Almonds also contain nonflavonoid andflavonoidcompounds, which contribute to their antioxidant properties.[7][30][28]Flavonoids are a group of structurally related compounds that are arranged in a specific manner and can be found in all vascular plants on land. They also contribute to the antioxidant properties of almonds.[30]Some of the nonflavonoid compounds present areprotocatechuic,vanillic,andp-hydroxybenzoicacids. Flavonoid compounds that can be found in the skin of the almond areflavanols,dihydroflavonols,andflavanones.[30][28]

Plums

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Of all of the different species of stone fruits, plums are the richest in antioxidants and phenolic compounds. The total antioxidant capacity (TAC) varies within each fruit, but in plums, TAC is much higher in the skin than in the flesh of the fruit.[7][31][22]

Apricots

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Apricots are high incarotenoids,which play a key role in light absorption during development. Carotenoids are the pigments that give the pulp and peel of apricots and otherPrunusfruits their yellow and orange colors. Moreover, it is an essential precursor for vitamin A, which is especially important for vision and the immune system in humans.[7][32]Moreover, these fruits are quite rich in phenolic substances, includingcatechin,epicatechin,p-coumaric acid,caffeic acid,andferulic acid.[32][33]

Peaches and nectarines

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Similar to the plum, peaches and nectarines also have higher TAC in the skin than in the flesh.[7][31]They also contain moderate levels of carotenoids and ascorbic acid.[34][31][22]Peaches and nectarines are orange and yellow in color, which can be attributed to the carotenoids present.[7]

Pests and diseases

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Cherries are prone togummosis.

VariousPrunusspecies are winter hosts of the Damson-hop aphid,Phorodon humuli,which is destructive to hopsHumulus lupulusjust at the time of their maturity,[35]so plum trees should not be grown in the vicinity of hop fields.

Corking is the drying or withering of fruit tissue.[36]In stone fruit, it is often caused by a lack ofboronand/orcalcium.[37]

Gummosisis a nonspecific condition of stone fruits (peach, nectarine, plum, and cherry) in which gum is exuded and deposited on the bark of trees. Gum is produced in response to any type of wound – insect, mechanical injury, or disease.[38]

Apiosporina morbosais a major fungal disease in the Northern Americas, with many urban centres running black knot fungus management programs.[39]This disease is best managed by physical removal of knot-bearing branches to prevent spore spread and immediate disposal of infected tissue.[39]Chemical treatment is not largely effective, as trees can easily be re-infected by neighbouring knots.

Laetiporus gilbertsoni(commonly sulfur shelf and chicken of the woods), is a serious cubic brown rot parasite which attacks certain species of decorative red-leaf plum trees in the genusPrunuson the Pacific coast of North America.[40][41]

Palaeobotanical models

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The earliest known fossilPrunusspecimens are wood, drupe, seed, and a leaf from the middleEoceneof thePrinceton Chertof British Columbia, Canada.[42]Using the known age as calibration data, a partialphylogenyof some of the Rosaceae from a number ofnucleotide sequenceswas reconstructed.[43]Prunusand its sister cladeMaloideae(apple subfamily) has been suggested to have diverged44.3million years agowhich is within theLutetian,or older middleEocene.[c]Stockey and Wehr report: "The Eocene was a time of rapid evolution and diversification inAngiospermfamilies such as the Rosaceae.... "[42]The oldest fossil species isPrunus cathybrownaefrom theKlondike Mountain Formation.[44]

The Princeton finds are among a large number of angiosperm fossils from theOkanagan Highlandsdating to the late early and middle Eocene.Crataegusis found at three locations: theMcAbee Fossil Beds, British Columbia;theKlondike Mountain FormationaroundRepublic, Washington,and theAllenby FormationaroundPrinceton, British Columbia,whilePrunusis found at those locations plus theColdwater BedsofQuilchena, British ColumbiaandChu Chua Formationaround Chu Chua, British Columbia. A review of research on theEocene Okanagan Highlands[45]reported that the Rosaceae were more diverse at higher altitudes. The Okanagan highlands formations date to as early as 52 mya, but the 44.3 mya date[citation needed],which is approximate, depending on assumptions, might still apply. The authors state: "... the McAbee flora records a diverse early middle Eocene angiosperm-dominated forest."[45]: 165 

Etymology

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TheOnline Etymology Dictionarypresents the customary derivations of plum[46]and prune[47]from Latinprūnum,[48]the plum fruit. The tree isprūnus;[49]andPlinyusesprūnus silvestristo mean theblackthorn.The word is not native Latin, but is a loan from Greek προῦνον (prounon), which is a variant of προῦμνον (proumnon),[50]origin unknown. The tree is προύμνη (proumnē).[51]Most dictionaries follow Hoffman,Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen,in making some form of the word a loan from a pre-Greek language ofAsia Minor,related toPhrygian.

The first use ofPrunusas a genus name was by Carl Linnaeus inHortus Cliffortianusof 1737,[52]which went on to becomeSpecies Plantarum.

Notes

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  1. ^Do a search in the ITIS database on the scientific namePrunusfor its current list.
  2. ^Other species appear, as well, which for whatever reasons are not yet in ITIS.
  3. ^A date of 76 mya is given for Rosaceae, which is within the lateCretaceous.

References

[edit]
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  47. ^"prune".Online Etymological Dictionary.
  48. ^"prūnum".Lewis's Elementary Latin Dictionary.Perseus Digital Library. 1890.
  49. ^"prūnus".Lewis's Elementary Latin Dictionary.Perseus Digital Library. 1890.
  50. ^"προῦμνον".Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon.Perseus Digital Library.
  51. ^"προύμνη".Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon.Perseus Digital Library.
  52. ^Linnaeus, Carolus (1737).Hortus Cliffortianus.Amsterdam. p.186.doi:10.5962/bhl.title.690.Retrieved5 December2017.
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