Psalms

"Psalm", "Psalmody", and "Tehilim" redirect here. For the wine grape variety, seePsalmody (grape).For the Hebrew film, seeTehilim(film).For other uses, seePsalm (disambiguation).

Davidcomposing the Psalms,Paris Psalter,10th century

TheBook of Psalms(ግዕዝ መዝሙረ ቅዱስ ዳዊት)/sɑː(l)mz/SAH(L)MZ,USalso/sɔː(l)mz/SAW(L)MZ;Biblical Hebrew:תְּהִלִּים‎,romanized:Tehillīm,lit. 'praises';Ancient Greek:Ψαλμός,romanized:Psalmós;Latin:Liber Psalmorum;Arabic:زَبُورُ,romanized:Zabūr), also known as thePsalms,or thePsalter,is the first book of the third section of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) calledKetuvim('Writings'), and a book of theOld Testament.

The book is ananthologyofHebrewreligioushymns.In theJewishandWestern Christiantraditions, there are 150 psalms, and several more in theEastern Christianchurches.The book is divided into five sections, each ending with adoxology,or a hymn of praise. There are several types of psalms, including hymns or songs of praise, communal and individual laments,royal psalms,imprecation,and individual thanksgivings. The book also includes psalms of communal thanksgiving, wisdom, pilgrimage and other categories.

While many of the psalms contain attributions to the name ofKing Davidand other Biblical figures includingAsaph,thesons of Korah,andSolomon,David's authorship is not accepted by most modern Bible scholars, who instead attribute the composition of the psalms to various authors writing between the 9th and 5th centuries BC. The psalms were written from the time of theIsraelite conquest of Canaanto thepost-exilic periodand the book was probably compiled and edited into its present form during the post-exilic period in the 5th century BC.

In English, the title of the book is derived from theGreekwordψαλμοί(psalmoi), meaning 'instrumental music' and, by extension, 'the words accompanying the music'.The Hebrew name of the book,Tehillim(תהילים), means 'praises', as it contains many praises and supplications to God.

Structure

For theOrthodox Christiandivision into twentykathismata,seebelow.

An 1880Baxter processillustration ofPsalm 23,from theReligious Tract Society's magazineThe Sunday at Home

Sections

The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, each closing with adoxology(i.e., abenediction). These divisions were probably introduced by the final editors to imitate the five-fold division of theTorah:

• Book 1 (Psalms 1–41)
• Book 2 (Psalms 42–72)
• Book 3 (Psalms 73–89)
• Book 4 (Psalms 90–106)
• Book 5 (Psalms 107–150)

Superscriptions

Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments to a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster", including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies". Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song", or directions regarding the occasion for using the psalm ( "On the dedication of the temple", "For the memorial offering", etc.). Many carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms—75 if including the two Psalms attributed by the New Testament to David) being 'of David', and thirteen of these relate explicitly to incidents in the king's life.Others named includeAsaph(12), thesons of Korah(11),Solomon(2),Moses(1),Ethan the Ezrahite(1), andHeman the Ezrahite(1). TheSeptuagint,thePeshitta (the Syriac Vulgate),and theLatin Vulgateeach associate several Psalms (such as111and145) withHaggaiandZechariah.The Septuagint also attributes several Psalms (like112and135) toEzekielandJeremiah.

Numbering

Hebrew numbering (Masoretic)	Greek numbering (Septuagint)
1–8	1–8
9–10	9
11–113	10–112
114–115	113
116	114–115
117–146	116–145
147	146–147
148–150	148–150

Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one—between the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts.Protestanttranslations (Lutheran,Anglican,Calvinist) use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary:

• Catholicofficialliturgicaltexts, such as theRoman Missal,use the Greek numbering
• Modern Catholic translations often use the Hebrew numbering (noting the Greek number)
• Eastern OrthodoxandEastern Catholictranslations use the Greek numbering (noting the Hebrew number)

The variance betweenMasorahand Septuagint texts in this numeration is likely enough due to a gradual neglect of the original poetic form of the Psalms; such neglect was occasioned by liturgical uses and carelessness of copyists. It is generally admitted that Psalms 9 and 10 (Hebrew numbering) were originally a single acrostic poem, wrongly separated by Massorah and rightly united by the Septuagint and the Vulgate.Psalms 42 and 43 (Hebrew numbering) are shown by identity of subject (yearning for the house of Yahweh), of metrical structure and of refrain (comparing Psalms 42:6, 12; 43:5, Hebrew numbering), to be threestrophesof one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Psalm 146 and Psalm 147. Later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and several other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes: Psalms 1, 2, 3, 4; 6 + 13; 9 + 10; 19, 20, 21; 56 + 57; 69 + 70; 114 + 115; 148, 149, 150.A choral ode would seem to have been the original form of Psalms 14 and 70. The two strophes and theepodeare Psalm 14; the two antistrophes are Psalm 70.It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the original ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter: Psalm 14 = 53, Psalm 70 = 40:14–18. Other such duplicated portions of psalms are Psalm 108:2–6 = Psalm 57:8–12; Psalm 108:7–14 = Psalm 60:7–14; Psalm 71:1–3 = Psalm 31:2–4. This loss of the original form of some of the psalms is considered by the Catholic Church'sPontifical Biblical Commission(1 May 1910) to have been due to liturgical practices, neglect by copyists, or other causes.

Verse numbers were first printed in 1509.Different traditions exist whether to include the original heading into the counting or not. This leads to inconsistent numbering in 62 psalms, with an offset of 1, sometimes even 2 verses.

Additional psalms

The Septuagint, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes aPsalm 151;a Hebrew version of this was found in thePsalms Scrollof theDead Sea Scrolls.Some versions of thePeshitta(the Bible used inSyriac churchesmainly in the Middle East) includePsalms 152–155.There are also thePsalms of Solomon,which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek andSyriactranslation. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set.

Primary types

Hermann Gunkel's pioneering form-critical work on the psalms sought to provide a new and meaningful context in which to interpret individual psalms—not by looking at their literary context within the Psalter (which he did not see as significant), but by bringing together psalms of the samegenre(Gattung) from throughout the Psalter. Gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types:

Hymns

Hymnsare songs of praise for God's work in creation or history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, and conclude with a repetition of the call. Two sub-categories are "enthronement psalms", celebrating the enthronement ofYahwehas king, and Zion psalms, glorifying MountZion,God's dwelling-place in Jerusalem.Gunkel also described a special subset of "eschatological hymns" which includes themes of future restoration (Psalm 126) or of judgment (Psalm 82).

Communal laments

David is depicted giving a psalm to pray for deliverance in this 1860 woodcut byJulius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

Communal laments are psalms in which the nation laments some communal disaster.Both communal and individual laments typically but not always include the following elements:

1. address to God,
2. description of suffering,
3. cursing of the party responsible for suffering,
4. protestation of innocence or admission of guilt,
5. petition for divine assistance,
6. faith in God's receipt of prayer,
7. anticipation of divine response, and
8. a song of thanksgiving.

In general, the individual and communal subtypes can be distinguished by the use of the singular "I" or the plural "we". However, the "I" could also be characterising an individual's personal experience that was reflective of the entire community.

Royal psalms

David is depicted giving a penitential psalm in this 1860 woodcut byJulius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

Royal psalmsdeal with such matters as the king's coronation, marriage and battles.None of them mentions any specific king by name, and their origin and use remain obscure;several psalms, especially Psalms 93–99, concern the kingship of God, and might relate to an annual ceremony in which Yahweh would be ritually reinstated as king.

Individual laments

Individual laments are psalms lamenting the fate of the psalmist. By far the most common type of psalm, they typically open with an invocation of God, followed by the lament itself and pleas for help, and often ending with an expression of confidence.

Individual thanksgiving psalms

In individual thanksgiving psalms, the opposite of individual laments, the psalmist thanks God for deliverance from personal distress.

In addition to these five major genres, Gunkel also recognised a number of minor psalm-types, including:

• communal thanksgiving psalms, in which the whole nation thanks God for deliverance;
• wisdom psalms, reflecting the Old Testamentwisdom literature;
• pilgrimage psalms, sung by pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem;
• entrance and prophetic liturgies; and
• a group of mixed psalms which could not be assigned to any category.

Composition

Scroll of the Psalms

Origins

The composition of the psalms spans at least five centuries, from Psalm 29 (not later than the tenth century BC) to others clearly from the post-Exilic period (not earlier than the fifth century BC.) The majority originated in the southernkingdom of Judahand were associated with theTemple in Jerusalem,where they probably functioned aslibrettoduring the Templeworship.Exactly how they did this is unclear, although there are indications in some of them: "Bind the festal procession with branches, up to the horns of the altar," suggests a connection with sacrifices, and "Let my prayer be counted as incense" suggests a connection with the offering of incense.

According toJewish tradition,the Book of Psalms was composed by the First Man (Adam),Melchizedek,Abraham,Moses,David,Solomon,Heman,Jeduthun,Asaph,and the threesons of Korah.According toAbraham ibn Ezra,the final redaction of the book was made by theMen of the Great Assembly.

Influences

Some of the psalms show influences from related earlier texts from the region; examples include variousUgaritic textsand the BabylonianEnūma Eliš.These influences may be either of background similarity or of contrast. For examplePsalm 29seems to share characteristics with Canaanite religious poetry and themes. Not too much should be read into this, however.Robert Alterpoints out that the address to "sons of God" at the opening "are best thought of the flickering literary afterlife of a polytheistic mythology" but that "belief in them...is unlikely to have been shared by the scribal circles that producedPsalms".The contrast against the surrounding polytheistic religion is well seen in Psalms 104:26where their convention of a monstrous sea-god in fierce conflict, such as the BabylonianTiamat,CanaaniteYamand theLeviathanwhich also appears in the Hebrew Bible, is "reduced to an aquatic pet with whomYHWHcan play ".

Poetic characteristics

Thebiblical poetryof Psalms usesparallelismas its primary poetic device. Parallelism is a kind ofsymmetry,in which an idea is developed by the use of restatement, synonym, amplification, grammatical repetition, or opposition.Synonymous parallelism involves two lines expressing essentially the same idea. An example of synonymous parallelism:

• "The LORDis my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? The LORDis the stronghold of my life; of whom shall I be afraid? "(Psalm 27:1).

Two lines expressing opposites is known asantithetic parallelism.An example of antithetic parallelism:

• "And he led them in a cloud by day/ and all the night by a fiery light" (Psalm 78:14).

Two clauses expressing the idea of amplifying the first claim is known as expansive parallelism. An example of expansive parallelism:

• "My mouth is filled with your praise/ all the day with your lauding" (Psalm 71:8).

Editorial agenda

Psalm 11in the ninth-centuryUtrecht Psalter,where the illustration of the text is often literal.

Many scholars believe the individual Psalms were redacted into a single collection during theSecond Templeperiod.It had long been recognized that the collection bore the imprint of an underlying message ormetanarrative,but that this message remained concealed, asAugustine of Hipposaid, "The sequence of the Psalms seems to me to contain the secret of a mighty mystery, but its meaning has not been revealed to me." (Enarr.on Ps. 150.1) Others pointed out the presence of concatenation, that is, adjacent Psalms sharing similar words and themes. In time, this approach developed into recognizing overarching themes shared by whole groups of psalms.

In 1985,Gerald H. Wilson'sThe Editing of the Hebrew Psalterproposed – by parallel with other ancient eastern hymn collections – that psalms at the beginning and end (or "seams" ) of the five books of Psalms have thematic significance, corresponding in particular with the placement of the royal psalms. He pointed out that there was a progression of ideas, from adversity, through the crux of the collection in the apparent failure of thecovenantin Psalm 89, leading to a concert of praise at the end. He concluded that the collection was redacted to be a retrospective of the failure of theDavidic covenant,exhorting Israel to trust in God alone in a non-messianic future.Walter Brueggemannsuggested that the underlying editorial purpose was oriented rather towards wisdom or sapiential concerns, addressing the issues of how to live the life of faith. Psalm 1 calls the reader to a life of obedience; Psalm 73 (Brueggemann's crux psalm) faces the crisis when divine faithfulness is in doubt; Psalm 150 represents faith's triumph, when God is praised not for his rewards, but for his being.In 1997, David. C. Mitchell'sThe Message of the Psaltertook a quite different line. Building on the work of Wilson and others,Mitchell proposed that the Psalter embodies an eschatological timetable like that of Zechariah 9–14.This programme includes the gathering of exiled Israel by a bridegroom-king; his establishment of a kingdom; his violent death; Israel scattered in the wilderness, regathered and again imperilled, then rescued by a king from the heavens, who establishes his kingdom from Zion, brings peace and prosperity to the earth and receives the homage of the nations.

These three views—Wilson's non-messianic retrospective of the Davidic covenant, Brueggemann's sapiential instruction, and Mitchell's eschatologico-messianic programme—all have their followers, although the sapiential agenda has been somewhat eclipsed by the other two. Shortly before his untimely death in 2005, Wilson modified his position to allow for the existence of messianic prophecy within the Psalms' redactional agenda.Mitchell's position remains largely unchanged, although he now sees the issue as identifying when the historical beginning of the Psalms turns to eschatology.

The ancient music of the Psalms

The Psalms were written not merely as poems, but as songs for singing. According to Bible exegeteSaadia Gaon(882–942) who served in thegeonateof Babylonian Jewry, the Psalms were originally sung in theTemple precinctsby theLevites,based on what was prescribed for each psalm (lineage of the singers, designated time and place, instruments used, manner of execution, etc.), but are permitted to be randomly read by anyone at any time and in any place.More than a third of the psalms are addressed to the Director of Music. Some psalms exhort the worshipper to sing (e.g. Pss. 33:1-3; 92:1-3; 96:1-3; 98:1; 101:1; 150). Some headings denote the musical instruments on which the psalm should be played (Pss. 4, 5, 6, 8, 67). Some refer to the Levites who sang one of eight melodies, one of which was known simply as "the eighth" (Hebrew:sheminit) (Pss. 6, 12).And others preserve the name for ancient eastern modes, likeayelet ha-shachar(hind of the dawn; Ps. 22);shoshanim/shushan(lilies/lily;Pss. 45; 60), said to be describing a certain melody;or ʻalmuth /ʻalamoth(mute;Pss. 9, 46), which, according to Saadia Gaon, is "a silent melody, nearly inaudible."

Despite the frequently heard view that their ancient music is lost, the means to reconstruct it are still extant. Fragments of temple psalmody are preserved in ancient synagogue and church chant, particularly in thetonus peregrinusmelody to Psalm 114.Cantillation signs, to record the melody sung, were in use since ancient times; evidence of them can be found in the manuscripts of the oldest extant copies of Psalms in theDead Sea Scrollsand are even more extensive in theMasoretic text,which dates to theEarly Middle Agesand whose Tiberian scribes claimed to be basing their work on temple-period signs. (See Moshe ben Asher's 'Song of the Vine' colophon to the Codex Cairensis).

Several attempts have been made to decode the Masoretic cantillation, but the most "successful" is that ofSuzanne Haïk-Vantoura(1928–2000) in the last quarter of the 20th century.Her reconstruction assumes the signs represent the degrees of various musical scales – that is, individual notes – which puts it at odds with all other existing traditions, where the signs invariably represent melodic motifs; it also takes no account of the existence of older systems of notation, such as theBabylonianandPalestiniansystems. Musicologists have therefore rejected Haïk-Vantoura's theories, with her results dubious, and her methodology flawed.In spite of this, Mitchell has repeatedly defended it, showing that, when applied to the Masoretic cantillation of Psalm 114, it produces a melody recognizable as thetonus peregrinusof church and synagogue.Mitchell includes musical transcriptions of the temple psalmody of Psalms 120–134 in his commentary on the Songs of Ascents.

Views on the division into five books

In "The Flow of the Psalms," O. Palmer Robertson posits a thematic progression throughout the five books of Psalms, delineating distinctive characteristics and emphases:

Book 1: Opposition - Predominantly attributed to David, these Psalms are perceived as the earliest in origin, characterized by a focus on trust in God, with Yahweh as the dominant name.

Book 2: Communication - Despite continued opposition, this book reflects an outreach even to enemies of God. The prevalent name for God shifts to Elohim, especially when borrowing sections from Book 1. Robertson suggests Book 2 may have Northern Kingdom origins.

Book 3: Devastation - Marked by the overtaking of Jerusalem, this book holds out hope for Jacob and Joseph, possibly symbolizing the Southern and Northern kingdoms. Expressions like "trust in God" diminish.

Book 4: Maturity - Notably, with over 10 quotes fromChronicles,indicating a temporal progression beyond the initial three books.

Book 5: Consummation - Robertson proposes that the Psalms of Ascent and Hallel Psalms are post-Babylonian exile compositions, portraying a culmination of themes and perspectives

Themes and execution

Most individual psalms involve the praise of God for his power and beneficence, for his creation of the world, and for his past acts of deliverance for Israel. They envision a world in which everyone and everything will praise God, and God in turn will hear their prayers and respond. Sometimes God "hides his face" and refuses to respond, questioning (for the psalmist)the relationship between God and prayerwhich is the underlying assumption of the Book of Psalms.

Some psalms are called "maskil"(maschil), meaning "enlightened" or "wise saying", because they impart wisdom. Most notable of these is Psalm 142 which is sometimes called the "Maskil of David"; others include Psalm 32 and Psalm 78.

A special grouping and division in the Book of Psalms are fifteen psalms (Psalms 120–134) known in the construct case,shir ha-ma'aloth( "A Song of Ascents", or "A Song of degrees" ), and one asshir la-ma'aloth(Psalm 121). According toSaadia Gaon,these songs differed from the other psalms in that they were to be sung by the Levites in a "loud melody" (Judeo-Arabic:בלחן מרתפע‎).Every psalm designated for Asaph (e.g. Psalms 50, 73–83) was sung by his descendants while making use ofcymbals,in accordance with 1 Chronicles 16:5.Every psalm wherein is found the introductory phrase "Upon Mahalath" (e.g. Psalms 53 and 88) was sung by the Levites by using large percussion instruments having wide and closed bezels on both sides and beaten with two wooden sticks.

O. Palmer Robertsonobserves that many of the Psalms concern the subject of death and says "This unatural conclusion to every human life can be understood only in the context of the original threat to the original man: 'in the day you shall eat of it you shall surely die.'"Robertson goes on to say "The anticipation from redemption fom the grave overcomes the inevitability of death. The psalmist is fully aware of his need for total deliverance from the last great enemy, and attests to expectation of deliverance."

Later interpretation and influence

David Playing the HarpbyJan de Bray,1670

Hebrewtext of Psalm 1:1-2

AJewishman readsPsalm 119at theWestern Wall.

Overview

Individual psalms were originally hymns, to be used on various occasions and at various sacred sites; later, some were anthologised, and might have been understood within the various anthologies (e.g., ps. 123 as one of the Psalms of Ascent); finally, individual psalms might be understood within the Psalter as a whole, either narrating the life of David or providing instruction like the Torah. In later Jewish and Christian tradition, the psalms have come to be used as prayers, either individual or communal, as traditional expressions of religious feeling.

Commentaries

Many authors have commented on the psalms, including:

• Hilary of Poitiers
• Augustine of Hippo
• Saadia Gaon
• Salmon ben Jeroham
• Yefet ben Ali
• Rashbam
• Abraham ibn Ezra
• David Kimhi
• Obadiah Sforno
• Joseph Gikatilla
• Joseph Kara
• Benjamin ben Judah
• Rashi
• Menachem Meiri
• Isaiah di Trani
• Thomas Aquinas
• John Calvin
• Emmanuel (pseudonym), Jewish Commentary on the Psalms.
• Isaac Satanow

Use in Jewish ritual

Some of the titles given to the Psalms have descriptions which suggest their use in worship:

• Some bear theHebrewdescriptionshir(שיר;Greek:ᾠδή,ōdḗ,'song'). Thirteen have this description. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This description includes secular as well as sacred song.
• Fifty-eight Psalms bear the descriptionmizmor(מזמור;ψαλμός), a lyricode,or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument.
• Psalm 145alone has the designationtehillah(תהלה;ὕμνος), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God.
• Thirteen psalms are described asmaskil('wise'):32,42,44,45,52–55,74,78,88,89,and142.Psalm 41:2, although not in the above list, has the descriptionashrei maskil.
• Six Psalms (16,56–60) have the titlemichtam(מכתם,'gold').Rashisuggests thatmichtamrefers to an item that a person carries with him at all times, hence, these Psalms contain concepts or ideas that are pertinent at every stage and setting throughout life, deemed vital as part of day-to-day spiritual awareness.
• Psalm 7(along withHabakkukchapter 3)bears the titleshigayon(שיגיון). There are three interpretations:(a) According to Rashi and others, this term stems from the rootshegaga,meaning "mistake" —David committed some sin and is singing in the form of a prayer to redeem himself from it; (b)shigayonwas a type of musical instrument; (c)Ibn Ezraconsiders the word to mean "longing", as for example in the verse inProverbs5:19tishge tamid.

Psalms are used throughout traditionalJewish worship.Many complete Psalms and verses from Psalms appear in themorning services(Shacharit). Thepesukei dezimracomponent incorporates Psalms 30, 100 and 145–150.Psalm 145(commonly referred to as "Ashrei",which is really the first word of two verses appended to the beginning of the Psalm), is read three times every day: once inshacharitas part ofpesukei dezimrah,as mentioned; once, along with Psalm 20, as part of the morning'sconcluding prayers;and once at the start of theafternoon service.OnFestival daysand Sabbaths, instead of concluding the morning service, it precedes theMussafservice. Psalms 95–99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction (Kabbalat Shabbat) to the Friday night service. Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day" —Shir shel yom—is read after themorning serviceeach day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in theMishnah(the initial codification of the Jewishoral tradition) in the tractateTamid.According to the Talmud, these daily Psalms were originally recited on that day of the week by the Levites in the Temple in Jerusalem. FromRosh ChodeshEluluntilHoshanah Rabbah,Psalm 27 is recited twice daily following the morning and evening services. There is aMinhag(custom) to recite Psalm 30 each morning ofChanukkahafter Shacharit: some recite this in place of the regular "Psalm for the Day", others recite this additionally.

When aJewdies, a watch is kept over the body andtehillim(Psalms) are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family, usually in shifts, but in contemporary practice this service is provided by an employee of the funeral home orchevra kadisha.

Many Jews complete the Book of Psalms on a weekly or monthly basis. Each week, some also say a Psalm connected to that week's events or theTorah portion read during that week.In addition, many Jews (notablyLubavitch,and otherChasidim) read the entire Book of Psalms prior to the morning service, on theSabbath precedingthecalculated appearance of the new moon.

The reading of psalms is viewed in Jewish tradition as a vehicle for gaining God's favor. They are thus often specially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger; in many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of theState of Israel.Sefer ha-Chinuchstates that this practice is designed not to achieve favor, as such, but rather to inculcate belief inDivine Providenceinto one's consciousness, consistently withMaimonides'general view on Providence.(Relatedly, the Hebrew verb for prayer,hitpalalהתפלל, is in fact thereflexive formofpalalפלל, to intervene, petition, judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the connotation of "judging oneself": ultimately, the purpose of prayer—tefilahתפלה—is to transform ourselves.)

In Christian prayer and worship

St. Florian's psalter, 14th or 15th century,Polish translation

Children singing and playing music, illustration ofPsalm 150(Laudate Dominum)

David is depicted as a psalmist in this 1860 woodcut byJulius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

New Testamentreferences show that the earliest Christians used the Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part ofworshipin most Christian Churches. TheEastern Orthodox,Catholic,Presbyterian,LutheranandAnglicanChurches have always made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate forbishopwould be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically during their time asmonks.Christians have usedPater Noster cordsof 150 beads to pray the entire Psalter.

Paul the Apostlequotes psalms (specificallyPsalms 14and53,which are nearly identical) as the basis for his theory oforiginal sin,and includes the scripture in theEpistle to the Romans,chapter 3.

Several conservative Protestant denominations sing only the Psalms (some churches also sing the small number of hymns found elsewhere in the Bible) in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-Biblical hymns; examples are theReformed Presbyterian Church of North America,the Presbyterian Reformed Church (North America) and theFree Church of Scotland (Continuing).

• Psalm 22is of particular importance during the season ofLentas a Psalm of continued faith during severe testing.
• Psalm 23,The LORDis My Shepherd,offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for churchfuneralservices, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings;
• Psalm 51,Have mercy on me O God,called theMisererefrom the first word in its Latin version, in bothDivine LiturgyandHours,in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings;
• Psalm 82is found in theBook of Common Prayeras a funeral recitation.
• Psalm 137,By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept,theEastern Orthodox Churchuses this hymn during the weeks preceding GreatLent.
• Psalm 145by title 'A psalm of praise ", is an accrostic of praise and David's final Psalm. Verses from it are frequently used in many contemporary worship songs and read by many contemporary worship leaders in services.

New translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. An individually printed volume of Psalms for use in Christian religious rituals is called aPsalter.

Imam-ud-Din Shahbaz(or ID Shahbaz) was a Punjabi evangelist and a poet.His notable work is the first metrical translation of the Psalms in Punjabi known as Punjabi Zabur. For last 100 years, Punjabi Zabur are being used as an essential part of singing and praising in majority of Urdu & Punjabi Churches around the globe.

Furthermore, psalms often serve as the inspiration for much ofmodernorcontemporary Christianworship musicin a variety ofstyles.Some songs are entirely based on a particular psalm or psalms, and many quote directly from the Book of Psalms (and other parts of the Bible).

Eastern Orthodox Christianity

See also:Kathisma

Orthodox Christiansand Greek-Catholics (Eastern Catholicswho follow theByzantine rite) have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. The official version of thePsalterused by the Orthodox Church is the Septuagint. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20kathismata(Greek: καθίσματα; Slavonic: кафизмы,kafizmy;lit. "sittings" ) and eachkathisma(Greek: κάθισμα; Slavonic: каѳисма,kafisma) is further subdivided into threestases(Greek: στάσεις,staseislit. "standings", sing. στάσις,stasis), so-called because the faithful stand at the end of eachstasisfor theGlory to the Father....

AtVespersandMatins,differentkathismataare read at different times of theliturgical yearand on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20kathismata) are read in the course of a week. DuringGreat Lent,the number ofkathismatais increased so that the entire Psalter is read twice a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks.

Aside fromkathismareadings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including theservices of the Hoursand theDivine Liturgy.In particular, the penitentialPsalm 50is very widely used. Fragments of Psalms and individual verses are used asProkimena(introductions to Scriptural readings) andStichera.The bulk ofVesperswould still be composed of Psalms even if the kathisma were to be disregarded;Psalm 118,"The Psalm of the Law", is the centerpiece ofMatinson Saturdays, some Sundays, and theFuneralservice. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition.

Oriental Christianity

Several branches ofOriental Orthodoxand thoseEastern Catholicswho follow one of the Oriental Rites will chant the entire Psalter during the course of a day during theDaily Office.This practice continues to be a requirement ofmonasticsin the Oriental churches.

Catholic usage

See also:Responsorial psalmody

The Psalms have always been an important part ofCatholic liturgy.TheLiturgy of the Hoursis centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixedmelodic formulasknown aspsalm tones.Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also; however, as knowledge ofLatin(the language of theRoman Rite) became uncommon, this practice ceased among the unlearned. However, until the end of the Middle Ages, it was not unknown for the laity to join in the singing of theLittle Office of Our Lady,which was a shortened version of the Liturgy of the Hours providing a fixed daily cycle of twenty-five psalms to be recited, and nine other psalms divided across Matins.

The work of BishopRichard Challonerin providing devotional materials in English meant that many of the psalms were familiar to English-speaking Catholics from the eighteenth century onwards. Challoner translated the entirety of the Little Office into English, as well as Sunday Vespers and daily Compline. He also provided other individual Psalms such as 129/130 for prayer in his devotional books. Bishop Challoner is also noted for revising theDouay–Rheims Bible,and the translations he used in his devotional books are taken from this work.

Until theSecond Vatican Councilthe Psalms were either recited on a one-week or, less commonly (as in the case ofAmbrosian rite), two-week cycle. Different one-week schemata were employed: mostsecular clergyfollowed the Roman distribution, whileregular clergyalmost universally followed that ofSt Benedict,with only a few congregations (such as theBenedictinesof St Maur) following individualistic arrangements. TheBreviaryintroduced in 1974 distributed the psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely. Some use the four-week cycle of the secular clergy, many retain a one-week cycle, either following St Benedict's scheme or another of their own devising, while others opt for some other arrangement.

Official approval was also given to other arrangementsby which the complete Psalter is recited in a one-week or two-week cycle. These arrangements are used principally by Catholic contemplative religious orders, such as that of theTrappists.

TheGeneral Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours,122 sanctions three modes of singing/recitation for the Psalms:

• directly (all sing or recite the entire psalm);
• antiphonally(two choirs or sections of the congregation sing or recite alternate verses or strophes); and
• responsorially(the cantor or choir sings or recites the verses while the congregation sings or recites a given response after each verse).

Of these three the antiphonal mode is the most widely followed.

Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in theliturgydeclined. After theSecond Vatican Council(which also permitted the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy), longer psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. Therevisionof theRoman Missalafter the Second Vatican Council reintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture. This Psalm, called theResponsorial Psalm,is usually sung or recited responsorially, although theGeneral Instruction of the Roman Missal,61 permits direct recitation.

Lutheran and Reformed usage

A singing and dancing David leads theArk of the Covenant,c. 1650.

Psalm 1in a form of theSternhold and Hopkinsversion widespread inAnglicanusage before theEnglish Civil War(1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle.

Following theProtestant Reformation,many of the Psalms were set ashymns.These vernacular translations of the psalms were arranged into rhyming strict-metreverses, known asmetrical psalmsand used forcongregational singing.The metrical psalms were particularly popular in theCalvinisttradition, where in the past they were often sung to the exclusion of other hymns (exclusive psalmody).John Calvinhimself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage, but the completedGenevan Psaltereventually used in church services consisted exclusively of translations byClément MarotandThéodore de Bèze,on melodies by a number of composers, includingLouis Bourgeoisand a certain Maistre Pierre.Martin Luther's"Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ( "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God" )is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were theScottish Psalterand the paraphrases byIsaac Watts.The first book printed in North America was a collection of Psalm settings, theBay Psalm Book(1640).

By the 20th century, they were mostly replaced by hymns in church services. However, the Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants and still used in many churches for traditional worship.There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter ofProverbsa day, corresponding to the day of the month.

Metrical psalms are still widely sung in manyReformedcongregations.

Anglican usage

Anglican chantis a method of singing prose versions of the Psalms.

In the early 17th century, when theKing James Biblewas introduced, the metrical arrangements by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins were also popular and were provided with printed tunes. This version and theNew Version of the Psalms of Davidby Tate and Brady produced in the late seventeenth century (see article onMetrical psalter) remained the normal congregational way of singing psalms in the Church of England until well into the nineteenth century.

In Great Britain, the 16th-centuryCoverdalepsalter still lies at the heart of daily worship inCathedralsand manyparish churches.The newCommon Worshipservice book has a companion psalter in modern English.

The version of the psalter in the AmericanBook of Common Prayerprior to the 1979 edition is the Coverdale psalter. The Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer of 1979 is a new translation, with some attempt to keep the rhythms of the Coverdale psalter.

Islam

Main article:Zabur

According to the Islamic holy book, theQur'an,Godhas sent many messengers to mankind. Five universally acknowledged messengers (rasul) areAbraham,Moses,David,JesusandMuhammad,each believed to have been sent with ascripture.Muslims believe David (Dāwūd) received Psalms, orZabur(cf.Q38:28); Jesus (Īsā) theGospel,orInjeel;Muhammadreceived theQur'an;and Abraham (Ibrahim) theScrolls of Abraham;meanwhile, theTawratis the Arabic name for the Torah within its context as anIslamic holy bookbelieved byMuslimsto have been given byGodto theprophets and messengersamongst theChildren of Israel,and often refers to the entire Hebrew Bible.God is considered to have authored the Psalms.

Psalms in the Rastafari movement

The Psalms are one of the most popular parts of the Bible among followers of theRastafarimovement.Rasta singerPrince Far Ireleased an atmospheric spoken version of the psalms,Psalms for I,set to aroots reggaebackdrop fromThe Aggrovators.

Psalms set to music

Multiple psalms as a single composition

Psalms have often been set as part of a larger work. The psalms feature large in settings ofVespers,including those byClaudio Monteverdi,Antonio Vivaldi,Marc-Antoine Charpentier(84 settings H.149 - H.232) andWolfgang Amadeus Mozart,who wrote such settings as part of their responsibilities as church musicians. Psalms are inserted inRequiemcompositions, such as Psalm 126 inA German RequiemofJohannes Brahmsand Psalms 130 and 23 inJohn Rutter'sRequiem.

• Melodie na psałterz polskibyMikołaj Gomółka—1580
• Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales(6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143) byOrlande de Lassus—1584
• Psalmen Davids(1619),Symphoniae sacrae I(1629) andBecker Psalter(1661) byHeinrich Schütz
• Chandos AnthemsbyGeorge Frideric Handel—1717–18
• Zwei englisch Psalmen(1842),Sieben Psalmen nach Lobwasser(1843),Elijah(1846), andDrei Psalmen(1849) byFelix Mendelssohn
• Eighteen Liturgical PsalmsbyLouis Lewandowski—1879
• Biblické písněbyAntonín Dvořák—1894
• Le Roi DavidbyArthur Honegger—1921
• Symphony of Psalms(38, 39, 150) byIgor Stravinsky—1930
• Chichester PsalmsbyLeonard Bernstein—1965
• TehillimbySteve Reich—1981
• Four Psalms(114, 126, 133, 137) byJohn Harbison—1998

Individual psalm settings

There are many settings of individual psalms. One of the better known examples is Gregorio Allegri'sMiserere mei,afalsobordonesetting ofPsalm 51( "Have mercy upon me, O God" ). Settings of individual psalms by later composers are also frequent: they include works from composers such asGeorge Frideric Handel,Felix Mendelssohn,Franz Liszt,Johannes BrahmsandRalph Vaughan Williams.Psalms also feature in more modern musical movements and popular genres.

See also

• Exclusive psalmody
• History of music in the biblical period
• Penitential Psalms
• Psalm of communal lament
• Selah
• Zabur
• Genevan Psalter
• Pesher

Bibliography

• Alter, Robert(2007).The Book of Psalms.W. W. Norton.ISBN9780393062267.
• Berlin, Adele;Brettler, Marc Zvi(2004)."Psalms".In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Fishbane, Michael A. (eds.).The Jewish Study Bible.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780195297515.
• Bray, G. (1996).Biblical Interpretation: Past and Present.Intervarsity Press.
• Bullock, C. Hassell (2004).Encountering the Book of Psalms: A Literary and Theological Introduction.Baker Academic.ISBN9780801027956.
• Clifford, Richard J. (2010)."Psalms".In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.).The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version: with the Apocrypha: an Ecumenical Study Bible.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780195289558.
• Day, John(2003).Psalms.Continuum.ISBN9780567084545.
• Harris, Stephen L. (1985).Understanding the Bible.Mayfield.
• Hayes, John H. (1998)."The Songs of Israel".In McKenzie, Steven L.; Graham, Matt Patrick (eds.).The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues.Westminster John Knox Press.ISBN9780664256524.
• Kselman, John S. (2007)."Psalms".In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.).The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-528880-3.
• Mazor, Lea (2011)."Book of Psalms".In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine (eds.).The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780199730049.
• Mitchell, David C.(1997).The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Book of Psalms.JSOT: Sheffield Academic Press.ISBN978-1-85075-689-7.
• Mitchell, David C.(2015).The Songs of Ascents: Psalms 120 to 134 in the Worship of Jerusalem's Temples.Campbell: Newton Mearns.
• Murphy, Roland E. (1993)."Psalms".In Coogan, Michael D.; Metzger, Bruce (eds.).The Oxford Companion to the Bible.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780199743919.
• Prinsloo, Willem S. (2003)."Psalms".In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.).Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible.Eerdmans.ISBN9780802837110.
• Saadia Gaon(2010). Qafih, Yosef (ed.).תהלים עם תרגום ופירוש הגאון רבינו סעדיה בן יוסף פיומי זצ "ל[Book of Psalms, with a Translation and Commentary made by Rabbi Saadia Gaon] (in Hebrew). Kiryat-Ono: Makhon Moshe (Makhon Mishnat haRambam).OCLC741156698.
• Simon, Uriel[in Hebrew](1982).ארבע גישות לספר תהלים: מר׳ סעדיה גאון עד ר׳ אברהם אבן עזרא: כולל שריד מ׳שיטה ראשונה׳ של פירוש ראב״ע לתהלים שעדיין לא ראתה אור[Four Approaches to the Book of Psalms: from Saadiah Gaon to Abraham Ibn Ezra] (in Hebrew). Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University.ISBN978-965-226-031-4.OCLC10751226.
• Theodore, Antony(2021).Psalms of Love.Kohinoor Books.ISBN9788195254613.
• Zenner, Johannes Konrad (1896).Die Chorgesänge im Buche der Psalmen: ihre Existenz und ihre Form nachgewiesen.Herder.

External links

• TehillimForAllto read Psalms (Tehillim) together with others
• Tehillim Onlineto read psalms of David in Hebrew or transliterated.
• Learn Tehillim Onlineto read and hear TEHILIM OF THE DAY in Hebrew.
• Full reading and translation of all 150 Psalms
• Psalms from Dead Sea Scrolls (Psalms 151–154)
• Book of PsalmsAudiobook—King James Version
• Psalmspublic domain audiobook atLibriVoxVarious versions

Translations

• Jewishtranslations:
  • Tehillim—Psalms (Judaica Press)translation [withRashi's commentary] atChabad.org
• Christiantranslations:
  • Book of Psalms—NIV
  • Revised Grail Psalms(see:Grail Psalms)

Commentary and others

• Online encyclopedia
  • "Psalms."Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
• Jewish
  • reading of Tehillim—Psalms and many explanation.
  • Psalms (Judaica Press)translation [withRashi's commentary] atChabad.org
  • Penetrating beneath the surface level of the Tehillim—Psalms
  • Reading of Tehillim—Psalms in ancient tunes and explanation.Also afree seriesthat teaches how to read the cantillation notes of Psalms
• Christian
  • St. Augustine of Hippo(1888).Homelies on Psalms.Translated byPhilip Schaff.
  • Spurgeon, Charles H.(1885).The Treasury of David.
  • Commentary on the Psalmsby Gordon Churchyard, at www.easyenglish.bible
  • Introduction to the Psalmsby Wilbert R. Gawrisch
  • Introduction to the PsalmsaForward Movementpublication
  • Fordham, David, ed. (October 1986),The Book of Psalms: In the Authorized Version(illuminated ed.),ISBN978-0805000467.