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Syntheticmescaline,the first psychedelic compound to be extracted and isolated[1]

Psychedelicsare a subclass ofhallucinogenic drugswhose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states (known aspsychedelic experiencesor "trips" ) and a perceived "expansion of consciousness".[2][3]Also referred to asclassic hallucinogensorserotonergic hallucinogens,the termpsychedelicis sometimes used more broadly to include various types of hallucinogens, such as those which are atypical or adjacent topsychedelialikesalviaandMDMA,respectively.[4]

Classic psychedelics generally cause specific psychological, visual, and auditory changes, and oftentimes a substantiallyaltered state of consciousness.[5][6]They have had the largest influence on science and culture, and includemescaline,LSD,psilocybin,andDMT.[7][8]

Most psychedelic drugs fall into one of the three families of chemical compounds:tryptamines,phenethylamines,orlysergamides(LSD is considered both a tryptamine and lysergamide). They act viaserotonin 2A receptor agonism.[2][9][10][11][4]When compounds bind to serotonin5-HT2Areceptors,[12]they modulate the activity of key circuits in the brain involved with sensory perception and cognition. However, the exact nature of how psychedelics induce changes in perception and cognition via the 5-HT2Areceptor is still unknown.[13]The psychedelic experience is often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as those experienced in meditation,[14][3]mystical experiences,[6][5]andnear-death experiences,[5]which also appear to be partially underpinned by altered default mode network activity.[15]The phenomenon ofego deathis often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience.[14][3][5]

Many psychedelic drugs are illegal worldwide under theUN conventions,with occasional exceptions for religious use or research contexts. Despite these controls,recreational useof psychedelics is common.[16][17]Legal barriers have made the scientific study of psychedelics more difficult. Research has been conducted, however, and studies show that psychedelics are physiologically safe and rarely lead to addiction.[18][19]Studies conducted using psilocybin in apsychotherapeuticsetting reveal that psychedelic drugs may assist with treatingdepression,alcohol addiction,andnicotine addiction.[11][20]Although further research is needed, existing results suggest that psychedelics could be effective treatments for certain forms of psychopathology.[21][22][23][17]A 2022 survey found that 28% of Americans had used a psychedelic at some point in their life.[24]

Etymology and nomenclature[edit]

5-HT2Areceptor

The termpsychedelicwas coined by the psychiatristHumphrey Osmondduring written correspondence with authorAldous Huxleyand presented to the New York Academy of Sciences by Osmond in 1957.[25]It is irregularly[26]derived from theGreekwords ψυχή (psychḗ,meaning 'mind, soul') and δηλείν (dēleín,meaning 'to manifest'), with the intended meaning "mind manifesting" or alternatively "soul manifesting", and the implication that psychedelics can reveal unused potentials of the human mind.[27]The term was loathed by AmericanethnobotanistRichard Schultesbut championed by American psychologistTimothy Leary.[28]

Aldous Huxley had suggested his own coinagephanerothyme(Greekphaneroein- "to make manifest or visible" and Greekthymos"soul", thus "to reveal the soul" ) to Osmond in 1956.[29]Recently, the termentheogen(meaning "that which produces the divine within" ) has come into use to denote the use of psychedelic drugs, as well as various other types of psychoactive substances, in a religious, spiritual, and mystical context.[30]

In 2004,David E. Nicholswrote the following about the nomenclature used for psychedelic drugs:[30]

Many different names have been proposed over the years for this drug class. The famous German toxicologist Louis Lewin used the name phantastica earlier in this century, and as we shall see later, such a descriptor is not so farfetched. The most popular names—hallucinogen, psychotomimetic, and psychedelic ( "mind manifesting" )—have often been used interchangeably.Hallucinogenis now, however, the most common designation in the scientific literature, although it is an inaccurate descriptor of the actual effects of these drugs. In the lay press, the termpsychedelicis still the most popular and has held sway for nearly four decades. Most recently, there has been a movement in nonscientific circles to recognize the ability of these substances to provoke mystical experiences and evoke feelings of spiritual significance. Thus, the termentheogen,derived from the Greek wordentheos,which means "god within", was introduced by Ruck et al. and has seen increasing use. This term suggests that these substances reveal or allow a connection to the "divine within". Although it seems unlikely that this name will ever be accepted in formal scientific circles, its use has dramatically increased in the popular media and on internet sites. Indeed, in much of the counterculture that uses these substances, entheogen has replaced psychedelic as the name of choice and we may expect to see this trend continue.

Robin Carhart-HarrisandGuy Goodwinwrite that the termpsychedelicis preferable tohallucinogenfor describing classical psychedelics because of the termhallucinogen's "arguably misleading emphasis on these compounds' hallucinogenic properties."[31]

While the termpsychedelicis most commonly used to refer only to serotonergic hallucinogens,[11][10][32][33]it is sometimes used for a much broader range of drugs, includingempathogen–entactogens,dissociatives,and atypical hallucinogens/psychoactives such asAmanita muscaria,Cannabis sativa,Nymphaea nouchaliandSalvia divinorum.[22][34]Thus, the termserotonergic psychedelicis sometimes used for the narrower class.[35][36]It is important to check the definition of a given source.[30]This article uses the more common, narrower definition ofpsychedelic.

Examples[edit]

From top to bottom: pills containing2C-B,4-HO-METset ingelatine,and a strip ofLSDtabs
Free baseN,N-DMT extracted fromMimosa hostilisroot bark (left); vape cartridge made with freebaseN,N-DMT extract (right)
Main article:List of psychedelic drugs
  • 2C-B(2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine) is asubstituted phenethylaminefirst synthesised in 1974 byAlexander Shulgin.[37][page needed]2C-B is both a psychedelic and a mildentactogen,with its psychedelic effects increasing and its entactogenic effects decreasing with dosage. 2C-B is the most well known compound in the2C family,theirgeneral structurebeing discovered as a result of modifying the structure of mescaline.[37][page needed]
  • DMT(N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is anindole alkaloidfound in various species of plants. Traditionally it is consumed by tribes in South America in the form ofayahuasca.A brew is used that consists of DMT-containing plants as well as plants containingMAOIs,specificallyharmaline,which allows DMT to be consumed orally without being rendered inactive bymonoamine oxidaseenzymes in the digestive system.[38]In the Western world DMT is more commonly consumed via the vaporisation of freebase DMT. Whereas Ayahuasca typically lasts for several hours, inhalation has an onset measured in seconds and has effects measured in minutes, being significantly more intense.[39]Particularly in vaporised form, DMT has the ability to cause users to enter a hallucinatory realm fully detached from reality, being typically characterised byhyperbolic geometry,and described as defying visual or verbal description.[40]Users have also reported encountering and communicating with entitites within this hallucinatory state.[41]DMT is the archetypalsubstituted tryptamine,being the structural scaffold of psilocybin and – to a lesser extent – the lysergamides.
  • LSD(Lysergic acid diethylamide) is a derivative oflysergic acid,which is obtained from thehydrolysisofergotamine.Ergotamine is analkaloidfound in the fungusClaviceps purpurea,which primarily infects rye. LSD is both the prototypical psychedelic and the prototypicallysergamide.As a lysergamide, LSD contains both atryptamineandphenethylaminegroup within its structure. As a result of containing a phenethylamine group LSDagonisesdopamine receptors as well as serotonin receptors,[42]making it more energetic in effect in contrast to the more sedating effects of psilocin, which is not a dopamine agonist.[43]
  • Mescaline(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is aphenethylaminealkaloid found in various species of cacti, the best-known of these beingpeyote(Lophophora williamsii) and the San Pedro cactus (Trichocereus macrogonusvar.pachanoi,syn.Echinopsis pachanoi). Mescaline has effects comparable to those of LSD and psilocybin, albeit with a greater emphasis on colors and patterns.[44][page needed]Ceremonial San Pedro use seems to be characterized by relatively strong spiritual experiences, and low incidence of challenging experiences.[45]
  • Psilocin(4-HO-DMT) is thedephosphorylatedactive metaboliteof theindole alkaloidpsilocybinand asubstituted tryptamine,which is produced inover 200 species of fungi.Of the Classical psychedelics psilocybin has attracted the greatest academic interest regarding its ability to manifest mystical experiences,[46]although all psychedelics are capable of doing so to variable degrees.O-Acetylpsilocin(4-AcO-DMT) is an acetylated analog of psilocin. Additionally, replacement of a methyl group at the dimethylatednitrogenwith an isopropyl or ethyl group yields4-HO-MIPTand4-HO-MET,respectively.[47]

Uses[edit]

Traditional[edit]

Preparation ofAyahuasca,province ofPastaza,Ecuador
Religious statues involving Psilocybe Mushrooms
Echinopsis pachanoiin Peru

A number of frequently mentioned or traditional psychedelics such asAyahuasca(which containsDMT),San Pedro,Peyote,andPeruvian torch(which all containmescaline),Psilocybe mushrooms(which containpsilocin/psilocybin) andTabernanthe iboga(which contains the unique psychedelicibogaine) all have a long and extensive history ofspiritual,shamanicand traditional usage byindigenous peoplesin various world regions, particularly in Latin America, but alsoGabon,Africa in the case of iboga.[48]Different countries and/or regions have come to be associated with traditional or spiritual use of particular psychedelics, such as the ancient and entheogenic use of psilocybe mushrooms by the nativeMazatecpeople ofOaxaca,Mexico[49]or the use of the ayahuasca brew in theAmazon basin,particularly in Peru for spiritual and physical healing as well as for religious festivals.[50]Peyote has also been used for several thousand years in theRio Grande Valleyin North America by native tribes as anentheogen.[51]In theAndeanregion of South America, the San Pedro cactus (Trichocereus macrogonusvar.pachanoi,syn.Echinopsis pachanoi) has a long history of use, possibly as atraditional medicine.Archaeological studies have found evidence of use going back two thousand years, toMocheculture,[52]Nazca culture,[53]andChavín culture.Although authorities of theRoman Catholicchurch attempted to suppress its use after the Spanish conquest,[54]this failed, as shown by the Christian element in the common name "San Pedro cactus" –Saint Petercactus. The name has its origin in the belief that just as St Peter holds the keys to heaven, the effects of the cactus allow users "to reach heaven while still on earth."[55]In 2022, the Peruvian Ministry of Culture declared the traditional use of San Pedro cactus in northern Peru ascultural heritage.[56]

Although people ofWestern culturehave tended to use psychedelics for eitherpsychotherapeuticorrecreationalreasons, most indigenous cultures, particularly in South America, have seemingly tended to use psychedelics for moresupernaturalreasons such asdivination.This can often be related to "healing" or health as well but typically in the context of finding out what is wrong with the individual, such as using psychedelic states to "identify" a disease and/or its cause, locate lost objects, and identify a victim or even perpetrator ofsorcery.[57]In some cultures and regions, even psychedelics themselves, such as ayahuasca and the psychedeliclichenof eastern Ecuador (Dictyonema huaorani) that supposedly contains both5-MeO-DMTand psilocybin, have also been used by witches and sorcerers to conduct theirmalicious magic,similarly tonightshadedeliriantslikebrugmansiaandlatua.[57][citation needed]

Psychedelic therapy[edit]

Main article:Psychedelic therapy

Psychedelic therapy (or psychedelic-assisted therapy) is the proposed use of psychedelic drugs to treatmental disorders.[58]As of 2021, psychedelic drugs are controlled substances in most countries and psychedelic therapy is not legally available outside clinical trials, with some exceptions.[33][59]

The procedure for psychedelic therapy differs from that of therapies using conventionalpsychiatric medications.While conventional medications are usually taken without supervision at least once daily, in contemporary psychedelic therapy the drug is administered in a single session (or sometimes up to three sessions) in a therapeutic context.[60]The therapeutic team prepares the patient for the experience beforehand and helps them integrate insights from the drug experience afterwards.[61][62]After ingesting the drug, the patient normally wears eyeshades and listens to music to facilitate focus on the psychedelic experience, with the therapeutic team interrupting only to provide reassurance if adverse effects such as anxiety or disorientation arise.[61][62]

As of 2022, the body of high-quality evidence on psychedelic therapy remains relatively small and more, larger studies are needed to reliably show the effectiveness and safety of psychedelic therapy's various forms and applications.[21][22]On the basis of favorable early results, ongoing research is examining proposed psychedelic therapies for conditions includingmajor depressive disorder,[21][63]andanxietyand depression linked toterminal illness.[21][64]The United StatesFood and Drug Administrationhas granted "breakthrough therapy" status, which expedites the assessment of promising drug therapies for potential approval,[note 1]to psilocybin therapy for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder.[33]

Recreational[edit]

Further information:Recreational drug use § Hallucinogens

Recreational use of psychedelics has been common since thepsychedelic eraof the mid-1960s and continues to play a role in various festivals and events, includingBurning Man.[16][17]A survey published in 2013 found that 13.4% of American adults had used a psychedelic.[66]

A June 2024 report by theRAND Corporationsuggests psilocybin mushrooms may be the most prevalent psychedelic drug among adults in the United States. The RAND national survey indicated that 3.1% of U.S. adults reported using psilocybin in the past year. Roughly 12% of respondents acknowledged lifetime use of psilocybin, while a similar percentage reported having usedLSDat some point in their lives.MDMA,also known as ecstasy, showed a lower prevalence of use at 7.6%. Notably, less than 1% of U.S. adults reported using any psychedelic drugs within the past month.[67]

Microdosing[edit]

Main article:Psychedelic microdosing

Psychedelic microdosing is the practice of using sub-threshold doses (microdoses) of psychedelics in an attempt to improve creativity, boost physical energy level, emotional balance, increase performance on problems-solving tasks and to treat anxiety, depression and addiction.[68][69]The practice of microdosing has become more widespread in the 21st century with more people claiming long-term benefits from the practice.[70][71]

A 2022 study recognized signatures of psilocybin microdosing innatural languageand concluded that low amount of psychedelics have potential for application, and ecological observation of microdosing schedules.[72][73]

Pharmacology[edit]

While the method of action of psychedelics is not fully understood, they are known to show affinities for various 5-HT (serotonin) receptors in different ways and levels, and may be classified by their activity at different 5-HT sub-types, particularly 5-HT1A,5-HT2A,and 5-HT2C.[30]It is almost unanimously agreed that psychedelics produce their effect by acting as strong partialagonistsat the 5-HT2Areceptors.[2][9][10][11]How this produces the psychedelic experience is unclear, but it is likely that it acts by increasing excitation in the cortex, possibly by specifically facilitating input from thethalamus,the major relay for sensory information input to thecortex.[30][74]Additionally, researchers discovered that many psychedelics are potentpsychoplastogens,compounds capable of promoting rapid and sustainedneural plasticity.[75][76]

Tryptamines[edit]

N,N-DMT

Tryptamine,along with othertrace amines,is found in thecentral nervous systemofmammals.It is hypothesized to play a role as aneuromodulatoron classicalmonoamine neurotransmitters,such asdopamine,serotonin,norepinephrineandepinephrine.Tryptamine acts as a non-selectiveserotonin receptor agonistto activate serotonin receptors, and aserotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agent(SNDRA) to release more monoamine neurotransmitter, with a preference for evoking serotonin and dopaminereleaseover norepinephrine (epinephrine) release.[77][78][79]Psychedelic tryptamines found in nature include psilocin,DMT,5-MeO-DMT, and tryptamines that have been synthesized in the laboratory include4-HO-MET,[80]4-HO-MiPT,[47]and5-MeO-DALT.[81]

Mescaline

Phenethylamines[edit]

Phenethylamineis also a trace amine but to a lesser extent acts as aneurotransmitterin the human central nervous system (CNS). Phenethylamine instead regulates monoamine neurotransmission by binding totrace amine-associated receptor 1(TAAR1), which plays a significant role in regulatingneurotransmissionin dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotoninneuronsin the CNS and inhibitingvesicular monoamine transporter 2(VMAT2) in monoamine neurons.[82][83]When VMAT2 is inhibited monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine cannot be released into the synapse via typical release mechanisms.[84]Mescaline is a naturally occurring psychedelicprotoalkaloidof thesubstituted phenethylamineclass.

Lysergamides[edit]

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

Amidesoflysergic acidare collectively known aslysergamides,and include a number of compounds with potent agonist and/or antagonist activity at various serotonin and dopaminereceptors.The structure of lysergamides contains the structure of both tryptamines and phenethylamines.LSD(Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) is one of many lysergamides. A wide range of lysergamides have emerged in recent years, inspired by existing scientific literature. Others, have appeared from chemical research.[85]1P-LSDis aderivativeandfunctional analogueof LSD and ahomologueofALD-52.It modifies the LSD molecule by adding apropionyl groupto the nitrogen atom of LSD'sindole.[86]

Psychedelic experiences[edit]

Main article:Psychedelic experience

Although several attempts have been made, starting in the 19th and 20th centuries, to define commonphenomenologicalstructures of the effects produced by classic psychedelics, a universally accepted taxonomy does not yet exist.[87][88]At lower doses, features of psychedelic experiences include sensory alterations, such as the warping of surfaces, shape suggestibility, pareidolia and color variations. Users often report intense colors that they have not previously experienced, and repetitive geometric shapes orform constantsare common as well. Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental alterations of sensory (notablyvisual) perception, such assynesthesiaor the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions.[89]Tryptamines are well documented to cause classic psychedelic states, such as increasedempathy,visual distortions (drifting, morphing, breathing, melting of various surfaces and objects), auditory hallucinations, ego dissolution orego deathwith high enough dose, mystical,transpersonaland spiritual experiences, autonomous "entity"encounters, time distortion,closed eye hallucinationsand complete detachment from reality with a high enough dose.[90]Luis Lunadescribes psychedelic experiences as having a distinctlygnosis-like quality, and says that they offer "learning experiences that elevate consciousness and can make a profound contribution topersonal development."[91]Czech psychiatristStanislav Grofstudied the effects of psychedelics like LSD early in his career and said of the experience, that it commonly includes "complexrevelatoryinsightsinto the nature of existence… typically accompanied by a sense of certainty that this knowledge is ultimately more relevant and 'real' than the perceptions and beliefs we share in everyday life. "[citation needed]Traditionally, the standard model for thesubjectivephenomenological effects of psychedelics has typically been based on LSD, with anything that is considered "psychedelic" evidently being compared to it andits specific effects.[92]

During a speech on his 100th birthday, the inventor of LSD,Albert Hofmannsaid of the drug: "It gave me an inner joy, anopen mindedness,a gratefulness, open eyes and an internal sensitivity for the miracles of creation... I think that in human evolution it has never been as necessary to have this substance LSD. It is just a tool to turn us into what we are supposed to be. "[93]With certain psychedelics and experiences, a user may also experience an "afterglow"of improved mood or perceived mental state for days or even weeks after ingestion in some cases.[94]In 1898, the English writer and intellectualHavelock Ellisreported a heightened perceptual sensitivity to "the more delicate phenomena of light and shade and color" for a prolonged period of time after his exposure to mescaline.[95]Good trips are reportedly deeply pleasurable, and typically involve intense joy or euphoria, a greater appreciation for life, reduced anxiety, a sense of spiritual enlightenment, and a sense of belonging or interconnectedness with the universe.[96][97]Negative experiences, colloquially known as "bad trips," evoke an array of dark emotions, such as irrational fear, anxiety, panic, paranoia, dread, distrustfulness, hopelessness, and even suicidal ideation.[98]While it is impossible to predict when a bad trip will occur, one's mood, surroundings, sleep,hydration,social setting, and other factors can be controlled (colloquially referred to as "set and setting") to minimize the risk of a bad trip.[99][100]The concept of "set and setting" also generally appears to be more applicable to psychedelics than to other types of hallucinogens such as deliriants, hypnotics and dissociative anesthetics.[101]

Classic psychedelics are considered to be those found in nature like psilocybin, DMT, mescaline, and LSD which is derived from naturally occurring ergotamine, and non-classic psychedelics are considered to be newer analogs and derivatives of pharmacophore lysergamides, tryptamine, and phenethylamine structures like2C-B.Many of these psychedelics cause remarkably similar effects, despite their different chemical structure. However, many users report that the three major families have subjectively different qualities in the "feel" of the experience, which are difficult to describe. Some compounds, such as 2C-B, have extremely tight "dose curves", meaning the difference in dose between a non-event and an overwhelming disconnection from reality can be very slight. There can also be very substantial differences between the drugs; for instance, 5-MeO-DMT rarely produces the visual effects typical of other psychedelics.[11]

Potential adverse effects[edit]

See also:Bad tripandTrip sitter

Despite the contrary perception of much of the public, psychedelic drugs are not addictive and are physiologically safe.[18][19][11]As of 2016, there have been no known deaths due tooverdoseof LSD, psilocybin, or mescaline.[11]

Risks do exist during an unsupervised psychedelic experience, however;Ira Byockwrote in 2018 in theJournal of Palliative Medicinethat psilocybin is safe when administered to a properly screened patient and supervised by a qualified professional with appropriate set and setting. However, he called for an "abundance of caution" because in the absence of these conditions a range of negative reactions is possible, including "fear, a prolonged sense of dread, or full panic." He notes that driving or even walking in public can be dangerous during a psychedelic experience because of impairedhand-eye coordinationandfine motor control.[102]In some cases, individuals taking psychedelics have performed dangerous or fatal acts because they believed they possessed superhuman powers.[11]

Psilocybin-induced states of mind share features with states experienced inpsychosis,and while a causal relationship between psilocybin and the onset of psychosis has not been established as of 2011, researchers have called for investigation of the relationship.[103]Many of the persistent negative perceptions of psychological risks are unsupported by the currently available scientific evidence, with the majority of reported adverse effects not being observed in a regulated and/or medical context.[104]Apopulation studyon associations between psychedelic use and mental illness published in 2013 found no evidence that psychedelic use was associated with increased prevalence of any mental illness.[105]

Using psychedelics poses certain risks of re-experiencing of the drug's effects, including flashbacks andhallucinogen persisting perception disorder(HPPD).[103]These non-psychotic effects are poorly studied, but the permanent symptoms (also called "endless trip" ) are considered to be rare.[106]

Serotonin syndromecan be caused by combining psychedelics with other serotonergic drugs, including certain antidepressants, opioids, CNS stimulants (e.g. MDMA),5-HT1agonists (e.g.triptans), herbs and others.[107][108][109][110]

Potential therapeutic effects[edit]

Further information:Psychedelic therapy
Psilocybin session at Johns Hopkins

Psychedelic substances which may have therapeutic uses include psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline.[23]During the 1950s and 1960s, lack ofinformed consentin some scientific trials on psychedelics led to significant, long-lasting harm to some participants.[23]Since then, research regarding the effectiveness of psychedelic therapy has been conducted under strict ethical guidelines, with fully informed consent and a pre-screening to avoid people with psychosis taking part.[23]Although the history behind these substances has hindered research into their potential medicinal value, scientists are now able to conduct studies and renew research that was halted in the 1970s. Some research has shown that these substances have helped people with such mental disorders asobsessive-compulsive disorder(OCD),post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD), alcoholism, depression, andcluster headaches.[17]

It has long been known that psychedelics promote neurite growth andneuroplasticityand are potentpsychoplastogens.[111][112][113]There is evidence that psychedelics induce molecular and cellular adaptations related to neuroplasticity and that these could potentially underlie therapeutic benefits.[114][115]Psychedelics have also been shown to have potent anti-inflammatory activity and therapeutic effects in animal models of inflammatory diseases including asthma,[116]and cardiovascular disease and diabetes.[117]

Surrounding culture[edit]

Psychedelic rockbandJefferson Airplanein 1967
Main article:Psychedelia

Psychedelic culture includes manifestations such aspsychedelic music,[118]psychedelic art,[119]psychedelic literature,[120]psychedelic film,[121]and psychedelicfestivals.[122]Examples of psychedelic music would be rock bands like theGrateful Dead,Jefferson AirplaneandThe Beatles.Many psychedelic bands and elements of the psychedelic subculture originated in San Francisco during the mid to late 1960s.[123]

Legal status[edit]

See also:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms,Psilocybin decriminalization in the United States,andLegal status of ayahuasca by country

Many psychedelics are classified under Schedule I of the United NationsConvention on Psychotropic Substancesof 1971 as drugs with the greatest potential to cause harm and no acceptable medical uses.[124]In addition, many countries have analogue laws; for example, in the United States, theFederal Analogue Actof 1986 automatically forbids any drugs sharing similar chemical structures or chemical formulas to illicit or prohibited substances if sold for human consumption.[125]

U.S. states such as Oregon and Colorado have also instituted decriminalization and legalization measures of psychedelics[126]and states like New Hampshire are attempting to do the same.[127]J.D. Tuccille argues that increasing rates of use of psychedelics in defiance of the law are likely to result in more widespread legalization and decriminalization of the substances in the United States (as has happened withalcoholandcannabis).[128]

See also[edit]

Categories[edit]

Psychedelic drugs
Drug classes defined by psychological effects
Drugs by psychological effects
Psychoactive drugs

Notes[edit]

  1. ^The Food and Drug Administration describes the designation of breakthrough therapy as "a process designed to expedite the development and review of drugs that are intended to treat a serious condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug may demonstrate substantial improvement over available therapy on a clinically significant endpoint(s)."[65]

References[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toPsychedelics.
Look uppsychedelicin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Psychedelic Timelineby Tom Frame, Psychedelic Times

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