Jump to content

Psychoactive drug

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromPsychoactive drugs)
An assortment of psychoactive drugs, including both street drugs andmedications:
The 2010ISCDstudy "Drug Harms in the UK: amulti-criteria decision analysis"found thatalcoholscored highest overall and inEconomic cost,Injury,Family adversities,Environmental damage,andCommunity harm.
Global per capita alcohol consumption has shown a downward trajectory since the 20th century, suggesting a shift towards prioritizing health and well-being.

Apsychoactive drug,orpsychoactive substance,among other names such aspsychoactive agent,psychopharmaceutical,andpsychotropic drug,is achemical substancethat changes the function of thenervous systemand results in alterations ofperception,mood,cognition,and behavior.[1]

These substances have various applications, including medical use likepsychedelic therapy(includingresearch purposes),recreationally,or forspiritualreasons (for example, by altering one'sconsciousness,as withentheogensfor ritual, spiritual, orshamanicpurposes).[2]Some categories of psychoactive drugs may beprescribedby physicians[3]and other healthcare practitioners because of their therapeutic value.

Some psychoactive substances may be used indetoxificationand rehabilitation programs for people who may have become dependent upon or addicted to other mind-altering or mood-altering substances.[4]Drug rehabilitationattempts to reduce addiction through a combination of strategies such aspsychotherapy,support groups, and sometimes medication such as psychoactive substances.[5]

Psychoactive substances often bring various changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find rewarding and pleasant (e.g.,euphoriaor a sense of relaxation) or advantageous in an observable or measurable way (e.g., increased alertness).[6]Substances that arerewardingand thus positively reinforcing have the potential to induce a state ofaddiction– compulsive drug use despite negative consequences.[7]In addition, sustained use of some substances may producephysicalorpsychological dependence,or both, associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states, respectively.[7]

Psychoactive drug misuse, dependence, and addiction have resulted in legal measures and moral debate.[8]Governmental controls on manufacture, supply, and prescription attempt to reduce problematic medical drug use.Ethical concernshave also been raised about the overuse of these drugs clinically and about their marketing by manufacturers.[9]Popular campaigns to decriminalize[10]or legalize the recreational use of certain drugs (e.g.,cannabis) are also ongoing.

History[edit]

Main articles:History of alcoholic drinksandProhibition of drugs

Psychoactive drug use can be traced back toprehistory.There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances, mostly plants, dating back at least 10,000 years and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.[11]The chewing ofcocaleaves, for example, dates back over 8,000 years ago inPeruviansociety.[12][13]

Medicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug use. However, some have postulated the urge to alter one's consciousness as primary, as well as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger, or sexual desire.[14]Supporters of this belief contend that the history of drug use, and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicate that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.[15]

One of the first people to articulate this point of view, set aside from a medicinal context, was American authorFitz Hugh Ludlow(1836–1870) in his bookThe Hasheesh Eater(1857):

[D]rugs are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and can thus carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday circumstances of our life into a higher form of reality. It is, however, necessary to understand precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving... That of which we speak is something much higher, namely the knowledge of the possibility of the soul to enter into a lighter being, and to catch a glimpse of deeper insights and more magnificent visions of the beauty, truth, and the divine than we are normally able to spy through the cracks in our prison cell. But there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling such craving. The entire catalog, at least to the extent that research has thus far written it, may include only opium, hashish, and in rarer casesalcohol,which has enlightening effects only upon very particular characters.[16]

During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs bybanning use, production, or distributionof them, and making their use, supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this wasProhibition in the United States,where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials, and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such asLaw Enforcement Against Prohibition(LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:

[T]he existing drug policies have failed in their intended goals of addressing the problems of crime, drug abuse, addiction, juvenile drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into this country and the internal sale and use of illegal drugs. By fighting a war on drugs the government has increased the problems of society and made them far worse. A system of regulation rather than prohibition is a less harmful, more ethical and a more effective public policy.[17][failed verification]

In some countries, there has been a move towardharm reductionby health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case of the Portuguese drug policy of decriminalization, which achieved its primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse.[18]

Terminology[edit]

The term "drug" has become askunked term;Drugscan have a negative connotation, often associated with illegal substances like cocaine or heroin. This is despite the fact that the terms "drug" and "medicine" are sometimes used interchangeably.[19]

Novel psychoactive substances (NPS)[note 1],also known as "designer drugs"are a category of psychoactive drugs (substances) that are designed to mimic the effects of often illegal drugs, usually in efforts to circumvent existing drug laws.[20]

Types[edit]

Psychoactive drugs are divided according to their pharmacological effects. Common subtypes are listed below:

  • Anxiolytics.Medicinally used to reduce the symptoms of anxiety, and sometimes insomnia.
Example:benzodiazepinessuch asXanaxandValium;barbiturates
  • Empathogen–entactogens.A drug class that alters one's emotional state, often resulting in an increased sense of empathy, closeness, and emotional communication.
Example:MDMA(ecstasy),MDA,6-APB,AMT
  • Stimulants.This class increases activity, or arousal, of the central nervous system. Stimulants may be used to enhance alertness, attention, cognition, mood and physical performance. Some stimulants are used medicinally to treat individuals withADHDand Narcolepsy.
Examples:amphetamines,caffeine,cocaine,nicotine
  • DepressantsDepressants, opposite to stimulates, reduces (or depresses) activity and stimulation in the central nervous system. Drugs within this classification includessedatives,hypnotics,andopioids.This classification encompasses a spectrum of substances with sedative, soporific, and anesthetic properties.
Examples:Ethanol(alcohol),opioidssuch asmorphine,fentanyl,andcodeine,cannabis,barbiturates,andbenzodiazepines.

Hallucinogens[edit]

Hallucinogensencompasses all substances that produce distinct alterations in perception, sensation of space and time, and emotional states.[21]

Examples:psilocybin,LSD,DMT (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine)/ayahuasca,mescaline
Examples:Salvia divinorum,Nitrous oxide
Examples:Datura,scopolamine

Uses[edit]

Mental disorders[edit]

Main article:Psychiatric medications
Zoloft (sertraline) is anSSRIantidepressant.

Psychiatric medications are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management ofmental and emotional disorders,or to aid in overcomingchallenging behavior.[22]There are six major classes of psychiatric medications:

In addition, several psychoactive substances are currently employed to treat various addictions. These includeacamprosateornaltrexonein the treatment of alcoholism, ormethadoneorbuprenorphinemaintenance therapyin the case ofopioid addiction.[24]

Exposure to psychoactive drugs can causechanges to the brainthat counteract or augment some of their effects; these changes may be beneficial or harmful. However, there is a significant amount of evidence that the relapse rate of mental disorders negatively corresponds with the length of properly followed treatment regimens (that is, relapse rate substantially declines over time), and to a much greater degree than placebo.[25]

Military[edit]

Drugs used by militaries[edit]

Main article:List of drugs used by militaries

Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its"war on terror".In July 2012Jason LeopoldandJeffrey Kaye,psychologists and human rights workers, had aFreedom of Information Actrequest fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing practice.[26][27]Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives release.[28][29] In May 2003 recently releasedPakistani captiveSha Mohammed Alikheldescribed the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said thatJihan Wali,a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.[citation needed]

Additionally, militaries worldwide have used or are using various psychoactive drugs toimprove performanceof soldiers by suppressing hunger, increasing the ability to sustain effort without food, increasing and lengtheningwakefulnessand concentration, suppressingfear,reducing empathy, and improving reflexes and memory-recall among other things.[30][31]

The first documented case of a soldier overdosing onmethamphetamineduring combat, was the Finnish corporalAimo Koivunen,a soldier who fought in theWinter Warand theContinuation War.[32][33]

Psychochemical warfare[edit]

Main article:Psychochemical warfare

Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications asnon-lethal weapons.

Pain management[edit]

Main article:Analgesics

Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed tomanage pain.The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated byendogenousopioid peptides.Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known asopioid receptor agonists.This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includesopiatenarcotics,likemorphineandcodeine.[34]NSAIDs,such asaspirinandibuprofen,are also analgesics. These agents also reduceeicosanoid-mediatedinflammationby inhibiting the enzymecyclooxygenase.

Anesthesia[edit]

Main article:Anesthesia

General anestheticsare a class of psychoactive drug used on people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induceunconsciousness,allowing the person to undergo medical procedures likesurgery,without the feelings ofphysical painoremotional trauma.[35]To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect theGABAandNMDAsystems. For example,Propofolis a GABA agonist,[36]andketamineis anNMDA receptor antagonist.[37]

Performance-enhancement[edit]

Main article:Performance-enhancing substance

Performance-enhancing substances,also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs),[38]are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans. A well-known example ofcheating in sportsinvolvesdoping in sport,where banned physical performance-enhancing drugs are used by athletes andbodybuilders.Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred as ergogenic aids.[39][40]Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly callednootropics,[41]are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance.[42]

Recreation[edit]

Main article:Recreational drug use
See also:Clubbing (subculture)

Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances includecaffeine,alcohol,cocaine,LSD,nicotineandcannabis.[43]Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:

In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as astatussymbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as atnightclubsand parties.[44]For example, inancient Egypt,gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.[45]

Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is anongoing debate about drug prohibition.Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy andfreedom.[46]In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might beunconstitutional,and causing more harm than is prevented.[47]

Some people who take psychoactive drugs experience drug or substance induced psychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the pooled proportion of transition from substance-induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 25% (95% CI 18%–35%), compared with 36% (95% CI 30%–43%) for brief, atypical and not otherwise specified psychoses.[48]Type of substance was the primary predictor of transition from drug-induced psychosis to schizophrenia, with highest rates associated with cannabis (6 studies, 34%, CI 25%–46%), hallucinogens (3 studies, 26%, CI 14%–43%) and amphetamines (5 studies, 22%, CI 14%–34%). Lower rates were reported for opioid (12%), alcohol (10%) and sedative (9%) induced psychoses. Transition rates were slightly lower in older cohorts but were not affected by sex, country of the study, hospital or community location, urban or rural setting, diagnostic methods, or duration of follow-up.[48]

Ritual and spiritual[edit]

Offerings[edit]

Alcohol[edit]
Main article:Religion and alcohol

According to theCatholic Church,the sacramental wine used in the Eucharist must contain alcohol. Canon 924 of the presentCode of Canon Law (1983)states:

§3 The wine must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt.[49]

Psychoactive use[edit]

Entheogen[edit]
See also:EntheogenandList of substances used in rituals
Timothy Learywas a leading proponent of spiritual hallucinogen use.

Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have usedpeyotecacti containingmescalinefor religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years.[50]Themuscimol-containingAmanita muscariamushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.[51]

The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during thecounterculture movementsof the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership ofTimothy Leary,new spiritual and intention-based movements began to useLSDand other hallucinogens as tools to access deeper inner exploration. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of theNative American Church,which is allowed to cultivate and distributepeyote.However, the genuine religious use of peyote, regardless of one's personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.[52]

Psychedelic therapy[edit]
Main article:Psychedelic therapy

Psychedelic therapy(orpsychedelic-assisted therapy) refers to the proposed use ofpsychedelic drugs,such aspsilocybin,MDMA,[note 2]LSD,andayahuasca,to treatmental disorders.[54][55]As of 2021, psychedelic drugs are controlled substances in most countries and psychedelic therapy is not legally available outside clinical trials, with some exceptions.[55][56]

Psychonautics[edit]
Main article:Psychonautics

The aims and methods of psychonautics, when state-altering substances are involved, is commonly distinguished fromrecreational drug useby research sources.[57]Psychonautics as a means of exploration need not involve drugs, and may take place in a religious context with an established history. Cohen considers psychonautics closer in association to wisdom traditions and other transpersonal and integral movements.[58]

Self-medication[edit]

Main article:Self-medication

Self-medication,sometime called do-it-yourself (DIY) medicine, is ahuman behaviorin which an individual uses a substance or any exogenous influence to self-administer treatment for physical or psychological conditions, for exampleheadachesorfatigue.

The substances most widely used in self-medication areover-the-counterdrugs and dietary supplements, which are used to treat common health issues at home. These do not require adoctor'sprescriptionto obtain and, in some countries, are available in supermarkets and convenience stores.[59]

Sex[edit]

Main article:Sex and drugs

Sexanddrugsdate back to ancient humans and have been interlocked throughout human history. Both legal and illegal, the consumption ofdrugsand their effects onthe human bodyencompasses all aspects of sex, includingdesire,performance,pleasure,conception,gestation,anddisease.

There are many different types of drugs that are commonly associated with their effects on sex, includingalcohol,cannabis,cocaine,MDMA,GHB,amphetamines,opioids,antidepressants,and many others.

Social movements[edit]

Cannabis[edit]

Operation Overgrow[edit]
Main article:Operation Overgrow

Operation Overgrowis the name, given bycannabisactivists, of an "operation" to spreadmarijuana seedswildly "so it grows like weed".[60]The thought behind the operation is to draw attention to the debate about legalization/decriminalization of marijuana.

Suicide[edit]

See also:Suicide methods § Drug_overdose,andsuicide pill

Adrug overdoseinvolves taking a dose of adrugthat exceeds safe levels. In the UK (England and Wales) until 2013, a drug overdose was the most common suicide method in females.[61]In 2019 in males the percentage is 16%. Self-poisoning accounts for the highest number of non-fatal suicide attempts. In the United States about 60% of suicide attempts and 14% of suicide deaths involve drug overdoses.[62]The risk of death in suicide attempts involving overdose is about 2%.[62][verification needed]

Most people are under the influence ofsedative-hypnotic drugs(such asalcoholor benzodiazepines) when they die by suicide,[63]with alcoholism present in between 15% and 61% of cases.[64]Countries that have higher rates of alcohol use and a greater density of bars generally also have higher rates of suicide.[65]About 2.2–3.4% of those who have been treated for alcoholism at some point in their life die by suicide.[65]Alcoholics who attempt suicide are usually male, older, and have tried to take their own lives in the past.[64]In adolescents who misuse alcohol, neurological and psychological dysfunctions may contribute to the increased risk of suicide.[66]

Overdose attempts usingpainkillersare among the most common, due to their easy availability over-the-counter.[67]

Route of administration[edit]

Main article:Route of administration

Psychoactive drugs are administered via oralingestionas a tablet, capsule, powder, liquid, and beverage; viainjectionbysubcutaneous,intramuscular,andintravenousroute; via rectum bysuppositoryandenema;and via inhalation bysmoking,vaporizing,and snorting. The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.[68]

The psychiatric drugsfluoxetine,quetiapine,andlorazepamareingestedorally intabletorcapsuleform.Alcoholandcaffeineare ingested in beverage form;nicotineandcannabisare smoked orvaporized;peyoteandpsilocybin mushroomsare ingested in botanical form or dried; and crystalline drugs such ascocaineandmethamphetamineare usually inhaled or snorted.

Determinants of effects[edit]

The theory of dosage, set, and setting is a useful model in dealing with the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in a controlled therapeutic setting as well as in recreational use.Dr. Timothy Leary,based on his own experiences and systematic observations on psychedelics, developed this theory along with his colleaguesRalph Metzner,andRichard Alpert(Ram Dass) in the 1960s.[69]

Dosage

The first factor, dosage, has been a truism since ancient times, or at least sinceParacelsuswho said, "Dose makes the poison." Some compounds are beneficial or pleasurable when consumed in small amounts, but harmful, deadly, or evoke discomfort in higher doses.

Set

The set is the internal attitudes and constitution of the person, including their expectations, wishes, fears, and sensitivity to the drug. This factor is especially important for the hallucinogens, which have the ability to make conscious experiences out of the unconscious. In traditional cultures, set is shaped primarily by the worldview, health and genetic characteristics that all the members of the culture share.

Setting

The third aspect is setting, which pertains to the surroundings, the place, and the time in which the experiences transpire.

This theory clearly states that the effects are equally the result of chemical, pharmacological, psychological, and physical influences. The model that Timothy Leary proposed applied to the psychedelics, although it also applies to other psychoactives.[70]

Effects[edit]

Main article:Neuropsychopharmacology
Illustration of the major elements ofneurotransmission.Depending on its method of action, a psychoactive substance may block the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (dendrite), or block reuptake or affect neurotransmitter synthesis in the pre-synaptic neuron (axon).

Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person'sneurochemistry,which in turn causes changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or moreneurotransmitterorneuroreceptorin the brain.

Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are calledagonists.They act by increasing thesynthesisof one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing itsreuptakefrom thesynapses,or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the postsynaptic receptor. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are calledantagonists,and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.[71]

Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning ofneurons,as the nervous system tries to re-establish thehomeostasisdisrupted by the presence of the drug (see also,neuroplasticity). Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is calledsensitization.Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process calleddesensitizationortolerance.Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence and addiction.[72]Physical dependenceon antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, becauseclinical depression(also calledmajor depressive disorder) is often referred to simply asdepression,antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.

Affected neurotransmitter systems[edit]

The following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. Many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.[73]

Neurotransmitter/receptor Classification Examples
Acetylcholine
 Cholinergics(acetylcholine receptor agonists) arecoline,nicotine,piracetam
Muscarinic antagonists(acetylcholine receptor antagonists) scopolamine,benzatropine,dimenhydrinate,diphenhydramine,trihexiphenidyl,doxylamine,atropine,quetiapine,olanzapine,mosttricyclics
Nicotinic antagonists(acetylcholine receptor antagonists) memantine,bupropion
Adenosine
 Adenosine receptor antagonists[74] caffeine,theobromine,theophylline
Dopamine
 Dopamine reuptake inhibitors cocaine,bupropion,methylphenidate,St John's wort,and certainTAAR1 agonistslikeamphetamine,phenethylamine,andmethamphetamine
Dopamine releasing agents Cavendishbananas,[75]TAAR1 agonistslikeamphetamine,phenethylamine,andmethamphetamine
Dopamine agonists pramipexole,Ropinirole,L-DOPA(prodrug),memantine
Dopamine antagonists haloperidol,droperidol,manyantipsychotics(e.g.,risperidone,olanzapine,quetiapine)
Dopamine partial agonists LSD,aripiprazole
gamma-Aminobutyric acid(GABA)
 GABA reuptake inhibitors tiagabine,St John's wort,vigabatrin,deramciclane
GABAA receptor agonists ethanol,niacin,[76]barbiturates,diazepam,clonazepam,lorazepam,temazepam,alprazolamand otherbenzodiazepines,zolpidem,eszopiclone,zaleplonand othernonbenzodiazepines,muscimol,phenibut
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
GABA receptor antagonists thujone,bicuculline
GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulators
Norepinephrine
 Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors St John's wort,[77]most non-SSRIantidepressantssuch asamoxapine,atomoxetine,bupropion,venlafaxine,quetiapine,thetricyclics,methylphenidate,SNRIssuch asduloxetine,venlafaxine,cocaine,tramadol,and certainTAAR1 agonistslikeamphetamine,phenethylamine,methamphetamine.
Norepinephrine releasing agents ephedrine,PPA,pseudoephedrine,amphetamine,phenethylamine,methamphetamine
Adrenergic agonists clonidine,guanfacine,phenylephrine
Adrenergic antagonists carvedilol,metoprolol,mianserin,prazosin,propranolol,trazodone,yohimbine,olanzapine
Serotonin
 Serotonin receptor agonists triptans(e.g.sumatriptan,eletriptan),psychedelics(e.g.lysergic acid diethylamide,psilocybin,mescaline), ergolines (e.g.lisuride,bromocriptine)
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors mostantidepressantsincludingSt John's wort,tricyclicssuch asimipramine,SSRIs(e.g.fluoxetine,sertraline,escitalopram),SNRIs(e.g.duloxetine,venlafaxine)
Serotonin releasing agents fenfluramine,MDMA(ecstasy),tryptamine
Serotonin receptor antagonists ritanserin,mirtazapine,mianserin,trazodone,cyproheptadine,memantine,atypical antipsychotics(e.g.,risperidone,olanzapine,quetiapine)
AMPA receptor
 AMPA receptor positive allosteric modulators aniracetam,CX717,piracetam
AMPA receptor antagonists kynurenic acid,NBQX,topiramate
Anandamide(Endocannabinoid system)
 Cannabinoid receptor agonists JWH-018
Cannabinoid receptor partial agonists Anandamide,THC,cannabidiol,cannabinol
Cannabinoid receptor inverse agonists Rimonabant
Anandamide reuptake inhibitors LY 2183240,VDM 11,AM 404
FAAHenzyme inhibitors MAFP,URB597,N-Arachidonylglycine
NMDA receptor
 NMDA receptor antagonists ethanol,ketamine,deschloroketamine,2-Fluorodeschloroketamine,PCP,DXM,Nitrous Oxide,memantine
GHB receptor
 GHB receptor agonists GHB,T-HCA
Sigma receptor Sigma-1 receptor agonists cocaine,DMT,DXM,fluvoxamine,ibogaine,opipramol,PCP,methamphetamine
Sigma-2 receptor agonists methamphetamine
Opioid receptor μ-opioid receptor agonists Narcotic opioids (e.g.codeine,morphine,hydrocodone,hydromorphone,oxycodone,oxymorphone,heroin,fentanyl)
μ-opioid receptor partial agonists buprenorphine
μ-opioid receptorinverse agonists naloxone
μ-opioid receptor antagonists naltrexone
κ-opioid receptor agonists salvinorin A,butorphanol,nalbuphine,pentazocine,ibogaine[78]
κ-opioid receptor antagonists buprenorphine
Histamine receptor
 H1receptor antagonists diphenhydramine,doxylamine,mirtazapine,mianserin,quetiapine,olanzapine,meclozine,mosttricyclics
H3receptor antagonists pitolisant
Indirect histamine receptor agonists modafinil[79]
Monoamine oxidase
 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors(MAOIs) phenelzine,iproniazid,tranylcypromine,selegiline,rasagiline,moclobemide,isocarboxazid,Linezolid,benmoxin,St John's wort,coffee,[80]garlic[81]
Melatonin receptor
 Melatonin receptoragonists agomelatine,melatonin,ramelteon,tasimelteon
Imidazoline receptor
 Imidazoline receptoragonists apraclonidine,clonidine,moxonidine,rilmenidine
Orexin receptor InderictOrexin receptoragonists modafinil[82]
Orexin receptorantagonists SB-334,867,SB-408,124,TCS-OX2-29,suvorexant

Addiction and dependence[edit]

Main articles:AddictionandΔFosB
Addiction and dependence glossary[83][84][85]
  • addiction– abiopsychosocialdisorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (includingalcohol) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences
  • addictive drug– psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brainreward systems
  • dependence– an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)
  • drug sensitizationorreverse tolerance– the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
  • drug withdrawal– symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use
  • physical dependence– dependence that involves persistent physical–somaticwithdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue anddelirium tremens)
  • psychological dependence– dependence socially seen as being extremely mild compared to physical dependence (e.g., with enough willpower it could be overcome)
  • reinforcingstimuli– stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them
  • rewardingstimuli– stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach
  • sensitization– an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it
  • substance use disorder– a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress
  • tolerance– the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
Comparison of the perceived harm for various psychoactive drugs from a poll among medical psychiatrists specialized in addiction treatment (David Nuttet al. 2007)[86]

Psychoactive drugs are often associated withaddictionordrug dependence.Dependence can be divided into two types:psychological dependence,by which a user experiences negative psychological or emotional withdrawal symptoms (e.g., depression) andphysical dependence,by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically uncomfortable or even medically harmful physicalwithdrawalsymptoms.[87]Drugs that are bothrewardingandreinforcingare addictive; these properties of a drug are mediated through activation of themesolimbic dopamine pathway,particularly thenucleus accumbens.Not all addictive drugs are associated with physical dependence, e.g.,amphetamine,and not all drugs that produce physical dependence areaddictive drugs,e.g.,oxymetazoline.

Many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize indrug rehabilitation,with varying degrees of success, and many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.[88]

Common forms ofrehabilitationincludepsychotherapy,support groupsandpharmacotherapy,which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiologicalwithdrawalsymptoms while a user is going through detox.Methadone,itself anopioidand a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment forheroinaddiction, as is another opioid,buprenorphine.Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in usingpsychedelicssuch asibogaineto treat and even curedrug addictions,although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.[89][90]

Legality[edit]

Main article:Prohibition of drugs
Historical image of legalheroinbottle

The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most ofrecenthistory; theSecond Opium WarandProhibitionare two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is theSingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs,an internationaltreatysigned in 1961 as an Act of theUnited Nations.Signed by 73 nations including the United States, theUSSR,Pakistan, India, and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight addiction torecreational drugsby combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs.[91]All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the Netherlands, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws.[92]

In the United States, theFood and Drug Administration(FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs areover the counterand which are only available with aprescription.[93]However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. TheControlled Substances Actof 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.[94]Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federalNational Minimum Drinking Age Actpenalizes states for not following a national drinking age.[95]Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments.[96]Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.[97][98][99]

In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerningover the counterpsychoactive medications inantiemeticsandantitussives.Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics[who?]believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such asantidepressantsandstimulants,are overprescribed and threaten patients' judgement and autonomy.[100][101]

Effect on animals[edit]

Further information:Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals,Recreational drug use in animals,andZoopharmacognosy

A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated. An example of this is cats after consumingcatnip.Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use.[102]Animals and psychoactive plants appear to haveco-evolved,possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.[103]

Widely used psychoactive drugs[edit]

This is a list of commonly used drugs that contain psychoactive ingredients. Please note that the following lists contains legal and illegal drugs (based on the country's laws).

Common legal drugs[edit]

The most widely consumed psychotropic drugs worldwide are:[104]

Common prescribed drugs[edit]

Common street drugs[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^"New Psychoactive Substance", and "Novel Psychoactive Substance" (NPS) are often used interchangeably.
  2. ^MDMA and Ketamine are not a classical psychedelics but are sometimes discussed alongside classical psychedelics due to similarities in theirpsychoactiveand potentially therapeutic effects.[53]

References[edit]

  1. ^"CHAPTER 1 Alcohol and Other Drugs".The Public Health Bush Book: Facts & approaches to three key public health issues.ISBN0-7245-3361-3.Archived fromthe originalon 2015-03-28.
  2. ^Miller C, Lewis J."Uses of Psychoactive Drugs".Open Library: Press Books.Retrieved2 December2023.
  3. ^Levine RJ (1991)."Medicalization of Psychoactive Substance Use and the Doctor-Patient Relationship".The Milbank Quarterly.69(4): 623–640.doi:10.2307/3350230.ISSN0887-378X.JSTOR3350230.PMID1806804.
  4. ^Rockville (2006)."4 Physical Detoxification Services for Withdrawal from Specific Substances".Detoxification and Substance Abuse Treatment: 4 Physical Detoxification Services for Withdrawal From Specific Substances.{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help)
  5. ^"Substance Use Disorder (SUD): Management and Treatment".Cleveland Clinic.Retrieved2 December2023.
  6. ^"Drugs (psychoactive)".World Health Organization.Retrieved2 December2023.
  7. ^ab"Substance use and addiction".Canadian Mental Health Association.Retrieved2 December2023.
  8. ^Frank LE, Nagel SK (February 2017)."Addiction and Moralization: the Role of the Underlying Model of Addiction".Neuroethics.10(1): 129–139.doi:10.1007/s12152-017-9307-x.PMC5486499.PMID28725284.Retrieved2 December2023.
  9. ^Mastroianni PC, Noto AR, Galduróz JC (2008)."Psychoactive drug advertising: analysis of scientific information".Revista de Saude Publica.42(3). 42(3): 529–35.doi:10.1590/s0034-89102008005000023.hdl:11449/70529.PMID18438590.Retrieved2 December2023.
  10. ^Zhang M."Missouri's marijuana legalization campaign is splitting the weed world".POLITICO.Retrieved2023-01-25.
  11. ^Merlin, M.D (2003). "Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World".Economic Botany.57(3): 295–323.doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0295:AEFTTO]2.0.CO;2.S2CID30297486.
  12. ^Early Holocene coca chewing in northern Peru Volume: 84 Number: 326 Page: 939–953
  13. ^"Coca leaves first chewed 8,000 years ago, says research".BBC News.December 2, 2010.Archivedfrom the original on May 23, 2014.
  14. ^Siegel, Ronald K (2005).Intoxication: The Universal Drive for Mind-Altering Substances.Park Street Press, Rochester, Vermont.ISBN1-59477-069-7.
  15. ^Weil A (2004).The Natural Mind: A Revolutionary Approach to the Drug Problem(Revised ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. 15.ISBN0-618-46513-8.
  16. ^The Hashish Eater (1857) pg. 181
  17. ^"LEAP's Mission Statement".Law Enforcement Against Prohibition. Archived fromthe originalon 2008-09-13.Retrieved2013-05-30.
  18. ^"5 Years After: Portugal's Drug Decriminalization Policy Shows Positive Results".Scientific American.Archivedfrom the original on 2013-08-15.Retrieved2013-05-30.
  19. ^Zanders ED (2011). "Introduction to Drugs and Drug Targets".The Science and Business of Drug Discovery.pp. 11–27.doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9902-3_2.ISBN978-1-4419-9901-6.PMC7120710.
  20. ^"New psychoactive substances (NPS) | www.emcdda.europa.eu".www.emcdda.europa.eu.Retrieved2024-06-09.
  21. ^Bersani FS, Corazza O, Simonato P, Mylokosta A, Levari E, Lovaste R, Schifano F, Corazza, Simonato, Mylokosta, Levari, Lovaste, Schifano (2013). "Drops of madness? Recreational misuse of tropicamide collyrium; early warning alerts from Russia and Italy".General Hospital Psychiatry.35(5): 571–3.doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.04.013.PMID23706777.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^Matson JL, Neal D (2009). "Psychotropic medication use for challenging behaviors in persons with intellectual disabilities: An overview".Research in Developmental Disabilities.30(3): 572–86.doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2008.08.007.PMID18845418.
  23. ^Schatzberg AF (2000). "New indications for antidepressants".The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.61(11): 9–17.PMID10926050.
  24. ^Swift RM (2016)."Pharmacotherapy of Substance Use, Craving, and Acute Abstinence Syndromes".In Sher KJ (ed.).The Oxford Handbook of Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders.Oxford University Press. pp. 601–603, 606.ISBN978-0-19-938170-8.Archivedfrom the original on 2018-05-09.
  25. ^Hirschfeld RM (2001)."Clinical importance of long-term antidepressant treatment".The British Journal of Psychiatry.179(42): S4–8.doi:10.1192/bjp.179.42.s4.PMID11532820.
  26. ^ Jason Leopold,Jeffrey Kaye(2011-07-11)."EXCLUSIVE: DoD Report Reveals Some Detainees Interrogated While Drugged, Others" Chemically Restrained "".Truthout.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-03-28.Truthout obtained a copy of the report - "Investigation of Allegations of the Use of Mind-Altering Drugs to Facilitate Interrogations of Detainees" - prepared by the DoD's deputy inspector general for intelligence in September 2009, under a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request we filed nearly two years ago.
  27. ^ Robert Beckhusen (2012-07-11)."U.S. Injected Gitmo Detainees With 'Mind Altering' Drugs".Wired magazine.Archivedfrom the original on 2012-07-13.Retrieved2012-07-14.That's according to a recently declassified report (.pdf) from the Pentagon's inspector general, obtained by Truthout's Jeffrey Kaye and Jason Leopold after a Freedom of Information Act Request. In it, the inspector general concludes that 'certain detainees, diagnosed as having serious mental health conditions being treated with psychoactive medications on a continuing basis, were interrogated.' The report does not conclude, though, that anti-psychotic drugs were used specifically for interrogation purposes.
  28. ^ Haroon Rashid (2003-05-23)."Pakistani relives Guantanamo ordeal".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 2012-10-31.Retrieved2009-01-09.Mr Shah alleged that the Americans had given him injections and tablets prior to interrogations. "They used to tell me I was mad," the 23-year-old told the BBC in his native village in Dir district near the Afghan border. I was given injections at least four or five times as well as different tablets. I don't know what they were meant for. "
  29. ^ "People the law forgot".The Guardian.2003-12-03.Archivedfrom the original on 2013-08-27.Retrieved2012-07-14.The biggest damage is to my brain. My physical and mental state isn't right. I'm a changed person. I don't laugh or enjoy myself much.
  30. ^Stoker L (14 April 2013)."Analysis Creating Supermen: battlefield performance enhancing drugs".Army Technology.Verdict Media Limited.Retrieved22 June2018.
  31. ^Kamienski L (2016-04-08)."The Drugs That Built a Super Soldier".The Atlantic.Retrieved22 June2018.
  32. ^"Aimo Allan Koivunen".www.sotapolku.fi(in Finnish). 2016.RetrievedJanuary 17,2022.
  33. ^Rantanen M (28 May 2002)."Finland: History: Amphetamine Overdose In Heat Of Combat".www.mapinc.org.Helsingin Sanomat.RetrievedJanuary 17,2022.
  34. ^Quiding H, Lundqvist G, Boréus LO, Bondesson U, Ohrvik J, Lundqvist, Boréus, Bondesson, Ohrvik (1993). "Analgesic effect and plasma concentrations of codeine and morphine after two dose levels of codeine following oral surgery".European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology.44(4): 319–23.doi:10.1007/BF00316466.PMID8513842.S2CID37268044.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^Medline Plus.Anesthesia.Archived2016-07-04 at theWayback MachineAccessed on July 16, 2007.
  36. ^Li X, Pearce RA, Pearce (2000)."Effects of halothane on GABA(A) receptor kinetics: evidence for slowed agonist unbinding".The Journal of Neuroscience.20(3): 899–907.doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-03-00899.2000.PMC6774186.PMID10648694.
  37. ^Harrison NL, Simmonds MA, Simmonds (1985)."Quantitative studies on some antagonists of N-methyl D-aspartate in slices of rat cerebral cortex".British Journal of Pharmacology.84(2): 381–91.doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1985.tb12922.x.PMC1987274.PMID2858237.
  38. ^"Effects of Performance-Enhancing Drugs | USADA".May 2019.
  39. ^Pesta DH, Angadi SS, Burtscher M, Roberts CK (December 2013)."The effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol, and tetrahydrocannabinol on exercise performance".Nutrition & Metabolism.10(1): 71.doi:10.1186/1743-7075-10-71.PMC3878772.PMID24330705.
  40. ^Liddle DG, Connor DJ (June 2013). "Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS".Primary Care.40(2): 487–505.doi:10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009.PMID23668655.Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training...
    Physiologic and performance effects [of amphetamines]
    • Amphetamines increase dopamine/norepinephrine release and inhibit their reuptake, leading to central nervous system (CNS) stimulation
    • Amphetamines seem to enhance athletic performance in anaerobic conditions 39 40
    • Improved reaction time
    • Increased muscle strength and delayed muscle fatigue
    • Increased acceleration
    • Increased alertness and attention to task
  41. ^Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busardò FP (January 2015)."Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology".Current Neuropharmacology.13(1): 5–11.doi:10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750.PMC4462043.PMID26074739.Cognitive enhancement can be defined as the use of drugs and/or other means with the aim to improve the cognitive functions of healthy subjects in particular memory, attention, creativity and intelligence in the absence of any medical indication.... The first aim of this paper was to review current trends in the misuse of smart drugs (also known as Nootropics) presently available on the market focusing in detail on methylphenidate, trying to evaluate the potential risk in healthy individuals, especially teenagers and young adults.
  42. ^Better Fighting Through Chemistry? The Role of FDA Regulation in Crafting the Warrior of the Future(Report). 8 March 2004. Archived fromthe originalon 3 February 2016.
  43. ^Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and DependenceArchived2006-10-03 at theWayback Machineby theWorld Health Organization.Retrieved 5 July 2007.
  44. ^Anderson TL (1998). "Drug identity change processes, race, and gender. III. Macrolevel opportunity concepts".Substance Use & Misuse.33(14): 2721–35.doi:10.3109/10826089809059347.PMID9869440.
  45. ^Bertol E, Fineschi V, Karch SB, Mari F, Riezzo I, Fineschi, Karch, Mari, Riezzo (2004)."Nymphaea cults in ancient Egypt and the New World: a lesson in empirical pharmacology".Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.97(2): 84–5.doi:10.1177/014107680409700214.PMC1079300.PMID14749409.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^Hayry M (2004)."Prescribing cannabis: freedom, autonomy, and values".Journal of Medical Ethics.30(4): 333–6.doi:10.1136/jme.2002.001347.PMC1733898.PMID15289511.
  47. ^Barnett, Randy E."The Presumption of Liberty and the Public Interest: Medical Marijuana and Fundamental Rights"Archived2007-07-11 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 4 July 2007.
  48. ^abMurrie B, Lappin J, Large M, Sara G (16 October 2019)."Transition of Substance-Induced, Brief, and Atypical Psychoses to Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis".Schizophrenia Bulletin.46(3): 505–516.doi:10.1093/schbul/sbz102.PMC7147575.PMID31618428.
  49. ^Code of Canon Law, 1983Archived19 June 2006 at theWayback Machine
  50. ^El-Seedi HR, De Smet PA, Beck O, Possnert G, Bruhn JG, De Smet, Beck, Possnert, Bruhn (2005). "Prehistoric peyote use: alkaloid analysis and radiocarbon dating of archaeological specimens of Lophophora from Texas".Journal of Ethnopharmacology.101(1–3): 238–42.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.04.022.PMID15990261.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  51. ^Vetulani J (2001). "Drug addiction. Part I. Psychoactive substances in the past and presence".Polish Journal of Pharmacology.53(3): 201–14.PMID11785921.
  52. ^Bullis RK (1990). "Swallowing the scroll: legal implications of the recent Supreme Court peyote cases".Journal of Psychoactive Drugs.22(3): 325–32.doi:10.1080/02791072.1990.10472556.PMID2286866.
  53. ^Nutt D (2019)."Psychedelic drugs-a new era in psychiatry?".Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience.21(2): 139–147.doi:10.31887/DCNS.2019.21.2/dnutt.PMC6787540.PMID31636488.
  54. ^Reiff CM, Richman EE, Nemeroff CB, Carpenter LL, Widge AS, Rodriguez CI, et al. (May 2020). "Psychedelics and Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy".The American Journal of Psychiatry.177(5): 391–410.doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010035.PMID32098487.S2CID211524704.
  55. ^abMarks M, Cohen IG (October 2021)."Psychedelic therapy: a roadmap for wider acceptance and utilization".Nature Medicine.27(10): 1669–1671.doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01530-3.PMID34608331.S2CID238355863.
  56. ^Pilecki B, Luoma JB, Bathje GJ, Rhea J, Narloch VF (April 2021)."Ethical and legal issues in psychedelic harm reduction and integration therapy".Harm Reduction Journal.18(1): 40.doi:10.1186/s12954-021-00489-1.PMC8028769.PMID33827588.
  57. ^Blom JD (2009).A Dictionary of Hallucinations.Springer. p. 434.ISBN978-1-4419-1222-0.Retrieved2010-03-05.
  58. ^UK Institute of Psychonautics and SomanauticspageArchived10 November 2010 at theWayback Machineat his"Academy for Transpersonal Studies".Archived fromthe originalon 23 September 2010.Retrieved10 March2010.
  59. ^"What is self-Medication?".World Self-Medication Industry. Archived fromthe originalon Jun 5, 2016.Retrieved25 May2016.
  60. ^Karl Grauers (May 18, 2009)."Cannabis i Malmös blomlådor – igen"[Cannabis in Malmö flower boxes – again].Metro.Stockholm, Sweden. Archived fromthe originalon May 11, 2017.
  61. ^"Suicides in England and Wales – Office for National Statistics".www.ons.gov.uk.
  62. ^abConner A, Azrael D, Miller M (3 December 2019). "Suicide Case-Fatality Rates in the United States, 2007 to 2014".Annals of Internal Medicine.171(12): 885–895.doi:10.7326/M19-1324.PMID31791066.S2CID208611916.
  63. ^Youssef NA, Rich CL (2008). "Does acute treatment with sedatives/hypnotics for anxiety in depressed patients affect suicide risk? A literature review".Annals of Clinical Psychiatry.20(3): 157–169.doi:10.1080/10401230802177698.PMID18633742.
  64. ^abVijayakumar L, Kumar MS, Vijayakumar V (May 2011). "Substance use and suicide".Current Opinion in Psychiatry.24(3): 197–202.doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283459242.PMID21430536.S2CID206143129.
  65. ^abSher L (January 2006)."Alcohol consumption and suicide".QJM.99(1): 57–61.doi:10.1093/qjmed/hci146.PMID16287907.
  66. ^Sher L (2007). "Functional magnetic resonance imaging in studies of the neurobiology of suicidal behavior in adolescents with alcohol use disorders".International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health.19(1): 11–18.doi:10.1515/ijamh.2007.19.1.11.PMID17458319.S2CID42672912.
  67. ^Brock A, Sini Dominy, Clare Griffiths (6 November 2003)."Trends in suicide by method in England and Wales, 1979 to 2001".Health Statistics Quarterly.20:7–18.ISSN1465-1645.Retrieved2007-06-25.
  68. ^United States Food and Drug Administration.CDER Data Standards ManualArchived2006-01-03 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved on May 15, 2007.
  69. ^Timothy Leary; Ralph Metzner; Richard Alpert. The Psychedelic Experience. New York: University Books. 1964
  70. ^Ratsch, Christian(May 5, 2005).The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants.Park Street Press. p. 944.ISBN0-89281-978-2.
  71. ^Seligma ME (1984). "4".Abnormal Psychology.W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN0-393-94459-X.
  72. ^"University of Texas, Addiction Science Research and Education Center".Archived fromthe originalon August 14, 2011.RetrievedMay 14,2007.
  73. ^Lüscher C, Ungless MA, Ungless (2006)."The mechanistic classification of addictive drugs".PLOS Medicine.3(11): e437.doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030437.PMC1635740.PMID17105338.
  74. ^Ford, Marsha.Clinical Toxicology.Philadelphia: Saunders, 2001. Chapter 36 – Caffeine and Related Nonprescription Sympathomimetics.ISBN0-7216-5485-1[page needed]
  75. ^Kanazawa K, Sakakibara H (2000). "High Content of Dopamine, a Strong Antioxidant, in Cavendish Banana".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.48(3): 844–8.doi:10.1021/jf9909860.PMID10725161.
  76. ^"Supplements Accelerate Benzodiazepine Withdrawal: A Case Report and Biochemical Rationale".Archivedfrom the original on 2016-08-16.Retrieved2016-07-31.[full citation needed]
  77. ^Di Carlo G, Borrelli F, Ernst E, Izzo AA (2001). "St John's wort: Prozac from the plant kingdom".Trends in Pharmacological Sciences.22(6): 292–7.doi:10.1016/S0165-6147(00)01716-8.PMID11395157.
  78. ^Glick SD, Maisonneuve IM (1998). "Mechanisms of Antiaddictive Actions of Ibogainea".Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.844(1): 214–26.Bibcode:1998NYASA.844..214G.doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb08237.x.PMID9668680.S2CID11416176.
  79. ^Ishizuka T, Sakamoto Y, Sakurai T, Yamatodani A (2003-03-20)."Modafinil increases histamine release in the anterior hypothalamus of rats".Neuroscience Letters.339(2): 143–146.doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(03)00006-5.ISSN0304-3940.PMID12614915.S2CID42291148.
  80. ^Herraiz T, Chaparro C (2006). "Human monoamine oxidase enzyme inhibition by coffee and β-carbolines norharman and harman isolated from coffee".Life Sciences.78(8): 795–802.doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.05.074.PMID16139309.
  81. ^Dhingra D, Kumar V (2008)."Evidences for the involvement of monoaminergic and GABAergic systems in antidepressant-like activity of garlic extract in mice".Indian Journal of Pharmacology.40(4): 175–9.doi:10.4103/0253-7613.43165.PMC2792615.PMID20040952.
  82. ^Gerrard P, Malcolm R (June 2007)."Mechanisms of modafinil: A review of current research".Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment.3(3): 349–364.ISSN1176-6328.PMC2654794.PMID19300566.
  83. ^Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375.ISBN9780071481274.
  84. ^Nestler EJ (December 2013)."Cellular basis of memory for addiction".Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience.15(4): 431–443.PMC3898681.PMID24459410.Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction.... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type [nucleus accumbens] neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.41.... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.
  85. ^Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016)."Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction".New England Journal of Medicine.374(4): 363–371.doi:10.1056/NEJMra1511480.PMC6135257.PMID26816013.Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
    Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder.
  86. ^Nutt D,King LA, Saulsbury W,Blakemore C(2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse".The Lancet.369(9566): 1047–1053.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4.PMID17382831.S2CID5903121.
  87. ^Johnson B (2003). "Psychological Addiction, Physical Addiction, Addictive Character, and Addictive Personality Disorder: A Nosology of Addictive Disorders".Canadian Journal of Psychoanalysis.11(1): 135–60.OCLC208052223.
  88. ^Hops H, Tildesley E, Lichtenstein E, Ary D, Sherman L (2009). "Parent-Adolescent Problem-Solving Interactions and Drug Use".The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse.16(3–4): 239–58.doi:10.3109/00952999009001586.PMID2288323.
  89. ^"Psychedelics Could Treat Addiction Says Vancouver Official".2006-08-09.Archivedfrom the original on December 2, 2006.RetrievedMarch 26,2007.
  90. ^"Ibogaine research to treat alcohol and drug addiction".Archivedfrom the original on April 22, 2007.RetrievedMarch 26,2007.
  91. ^United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.Archived2008-05-10 at theWayback MachineRetrieved on June 20, 2007.
  92. ^MacCoun R, Reuter P (1997). "Interpreting Dutch Cannabis Policy: Reasoning by Analogy in the Legalization Debate".Science.278(5335): 47–52.doi:10.1126/science.278.5335.47.PMID9311925.
  93. ^History of the Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved atFDA's websiteArchived2009-01-19 at theWayback Machineon June 23, 2007.
  94. ^United States Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Retrieved from theDEA's websiteArchived2009-05-08 at theWayback Machineon June 20, 2007.
  95. ^Title 23 of the United States Code, Highways.Archived2007-06-14 at theWayback MachineRetrieved on June 20, 2007.
  96. ^Taxadmin.org.State Excise Tax Rates on Cigarettes.Archived2009-11-09 at theWayback MachineRetrieved on June 20, 2007.
  97. ^"What's your poison?".Caffeine.Archivedfrom the original on July 26, 2009.RetrievedJuly 12,2006.
  98. ^Griffiths RR (1995).Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress(4th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 2002.ISBN0-7817-0166-X.
  99. ^Edwards G (2005).Matters of Substance: Drugs—and Why Everyone's a User.Thomas Dunne Books. p. 352.ISBN0-312-33883-X.
  100. ^Dworkin, Ronald.Artificial Happiness.New York: Carroll & Graf, 2006. pp.2–6.ISBN0-7867-1933-8
  101. ^Manninen BA (2006)."Medicating the mind: A Kantian analysis of overprescribing psychoactive drugs".Journal of Medical Ethics.32(2): 100–5.doi:10.1136/jme.2005.013540.PMC2563334.PMID16446415.
  102. ^Samorini G (2002).Animals And Psychedelics: The Natural World & The Instinct To Alter Consciousness.Park Street Press.ISBN0-89281-986-3.
  103. ^Albert, David Bruce Jr. (1993)."Event Horizons of the Psyche".Archived fromthe originalon September 27, 2006.RetrievedFebruary 2,2006.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  104. ^Crocq MA (June 2003)."Alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, and mental disorders".Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience.5(2): 175–185.doi:10.31887/DCNS.2003.5.2/macrocq.PMC3181622.PMID22033899.

External links[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychoactive_drug&oldid=1230445086"