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Punjabis

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This article is about an ethnic group. For their language, seePunjabi language.For the geographical Punjabi region, seePunjab.For other uses, seePunjabi (disambiguation).

Punjabis
  • ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
  • پنجابی
Total population
c. 150 million[1][2][3][4]
Regions with significant populations
Pakistan112,806,516 (2024)[a][6][7][8]
India38,046,464 (2024)[b][3][c][10]
Canada942,170 (2021)[11][d]
United Kingdom700,000 (2006)[12]
United States253,740[13]
Australia132,496 (2017)[14]
Malaysia56,400 (2019)[15]
Philippines50,000 (2016)[16]
New Zealand34,227 (2018)[17]
Norway24,000 (2013)[18]
Bangladesh23,700 (2019)[19]
Germany18,000 (2020)[20]
Nepal10,000 (2011)[21]
OthersSeePunjabi diaspora
Languages
L1:Punjabiand itsdialects
L2:Urdu(in Pakistan)andHindiand otherIndian languages(in India)
Religion
[23][24][25]
Related ethnic groups
OtherIndo-Aryan peoples
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Culture
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Punjab portal

ThePunjabis(Punjabi:پنجابی(Shahmukhi);ਪੰਜਾਬੀ(Gurmukhi);romanisedasPanjābī)[26][27]are anIndo-Aryanethnolinguistic group[28]associated with thePunjab region,comprising areas of easternPakistanand northwesternIndia.[29]They generally speakStandard Punjabior variousPunjabi dialectson both sides.[30]

Approximately 73 percent of the total Punjabi population adheres toIslam,with 16 percent adhering toSikhism,11 percent toHinduism,and less than 0.1 percent toChristianity.However, the religious demographics significantly vary when viewed from Pakistani and Indian sides, respectively, with over 95 percent of the Punjabi population from Pakistan beingMuslim,with a small minority ofChristiansandHindusand an even smaller minority ofSikhs.Over 55 percent of the Punjabi population from India is Sikh, with a significant minority of Hindus and a small minority of Muslims and Christians.[23][24][31]

Theethnonymis derived from the termPunjab(Five rivers) inPersianto describe the geographic region of the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, where five riversBeas,Chenab,Jhelum,Ravi,andSutlejmerge into theIndus River,[32][33][34]in addition of the now-vanishedGhaggar.[35]

The coalescence of the various tribes, castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab region into a broader common "Punjabi" identity initiated from the onset of the 18th century CE.[36][37][38]Historically, the Punjabi people were aheterogeneousgroup and were subdivided into a number of clans calledbiradari(literally meaning "brotherhood" ) ortribes,with each person bound to a clan. With the passage of time, tribal structures became replaced with a more cohesive and holistic society, ascommunity buildingandgroup cohesivenessform the new pillars of Punjabi society.[38][39]

Traditionally, the Punjabi identity is primarily linguistic, geographical and cultural. Its identity is independent of historical origin or religion and refers to those who reside in the Punjab region or associate with its population and those who consider thePunjabi languagetheir mother tongue.[40]Integrationandassimilationare important parts of Punjabi culture, since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections.[41]While Punjabis share a common territory, ethnicity and language, they are likely to be followers of one of several religions, most oftenIslam,Sikhism,HinduismorChristianity.[42]

Etymology

The term "Punjab" came into currency during the reign ofAkbarin the late sixteenth century.[43][33][34]Though the name Punjab is ofPersianorigin, its two parts (پنج,panj,'five' andآب,āb,'water') are cognates of theSanskritwords,पञ्‍च,pañca,'five' andअप्,áp,'water', of the same meaning.[44][45]The wordpañjābthus means 'The Land of Five Waters', referring to the riversJhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Sutlej,andBeas.[46]All aretributariesof theIndus River,the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in theMahabharata,which calls one of the regions in ancient BharatPanchanada(Sanskrit:पञ्चनद,romanized:pañca-nada,lit. 'five rivers').[47][48]The ancientGreeksreferred to the region asPentapotamía(Greek:Πενταποταμία),[49][50][51]which has the same meaning as the Persian word.

Geographic distribution

Main article:Punjab region

Punjab is a geopolitical, cultural, andhistorical regioninSouth Asia,specifically in the northern part of theIndian subcontinent,comprising areas of easternPakistanand northwesternIndia.The boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts. The geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th centuryMughal Empireit referred to a relatively smaller area between theIndusand theSutlejrivers.[52][43]

ThePunjab region,with its rivers.

Pakistan

While the total population ofPunjabis 110 million as noted in the 2017 Pakistan census,[53]ethnic Punjabiscomprise approximately 44.7% of the national population.[5][6]With an estimated national population of 252 million in 2024,[5]ethnic Punjabis thus number approximately 112.8 million in Pakistan;[a][54]this makes Punjabis thelargest ethnic group in Pakistanby population.[5][6]

Religious homogeneity remains elusive as a predominantSunnipopulation withShia,AhmadiyyaandChristianminorities.[55]

India

The Punjabi-speaking people make up 2.74% of India's population as of 2011.[56]The total number of Indian Punjabis is unknown due to the fact that ethnicity is not recorded in theCensus of India.Sikhsare largely concentrated in the modern-day state ofPunjabforming 57.7% of the population withHindusforming 38.5%.[57]Ethnic Punjabis are believed to account for at least 40% of Delhi's total population and are predominantlyHindi-speakingPunjabi Hindus.[58][59][60]The Indian censuses record the native languages, but not the descent of the citizens. Thus, there is no concrete official data on theethnic makeup of Delhiand other Indian states.[60]: 8–10 

Indian Punjab is also home to small groups of Muslims and Christians. Most of theEast Punjab's Muslims left for West Punjab in 1947.[61]However, a small community still exists today, mainly inQadian,andMalerkotla.[62]

Punjabi diaspora

Main article:Punjabi diaspora

The Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers to many parts of the world. In the early 20th century, many Punjabis began settling in theUnited States,including independence activists who formed theGhadar Party.The United Kingdom has a significant number of Punjabis from both Pakistan and India. The most populous areas being London, Birmingham, Manchester and Glasgow. In Canada (specificallyVancouver,[63]Toronto,[64]andCalgary[65]) and the United States, (specifically California'sCentral Valleyas well as the New York and New Jersey region). In the 1970s, a large wave of emigration of Punjabis (predominately from Pakistan) began to the Middle East, in places such as theUAE,Saudi ArabiaandKuwait.There are also large communities in East Africa including the countries ofKenya,UgandaandTanzania.Punjabis have also emigrated to Australia, New Zealand and Southeast Asia includingMalaysia,Philippines,Thailand,Singapore and Hong Kong. Of recent times many Punjabis have also moved to Italy.[citation needed]

GurdwaraGuru Ravidass,Nasinu, Fiji Established in 1939
Gurdwara Guru Ravidass Bhavan, Birmingham
Gurdwara Guru Ravidass Sabha,Southall

Demography

Castes and tribes

Main article:List of Punjabi tribes
See also:Punjab § Tribes

Among the major castes and tribes ofWest Punjab(Pakistan) are theJats,Rajputs,Arains,GujjarsandAwans.[66]Prior tothe partition in 1947,major communities of West Punjab also included theKhatris,ArorasandBrahmins.[67][68][69]

While inEast Punjab(India), Jats are almost 20 per cent of East Punjab's population. The Scheduled Castes constitute almost 32 per cent of its total population and 4.3 per cent of the SCs nationally, official data show. Of more than 35 designated Scheduled Castes in the state, the Mazhabis, the Ravidasias/Ramdasias, the Ad Dharmis, the Valmikis, and the Bazigars together make up around 87 per cent of East Punjab's total Scheduled Caste population. The Ravidasia Hindus/Ad-Dharmi and the Ramdasia Sikhs together constitute 34.93 per cent of East Punjab's total Scheduled Caste population and 11.15 per cent ofPunjabPopulation.Ramdasia,Ad-DharmiandRavidassiasare subgroups of the Chamar[70]and are traditionally linked to leather-related occupations.[71]

Religions in Punjab

Main article:Religion in the Punjab
Rig Vedais the oldest Hindu text that originated in the Punjab region.

Proto-Hinduismis the oldest of the religions practised by the Punjabi people.[32]Thehistorical Vedic religionconstituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during theVedic period(1500–500 BCE), centered primarily in the worship ofIndra.[72][73][74][note 1]The bulk of theRigvedawas composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BC,[75]while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between theYamunaandGangesrivers. An ancient Indian law book called theManusmriti,developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BC onward.[76]

Later, thespread of Buddhisimand Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth ofBuddhismandJainismin the Punjab.[77]Islamwas introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.[78][79]There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[80]The region became predominantlyMuslimdue to missionarySufisaints whosedargahsdot the landscape of the Punjab region.[81]

The rise ofSikhismin the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.[76][82]A number of Punjabis during thecolonial period of Indiabecame Christians, with all of these religions characterising the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[76]

Modern era

Due to religious tensions, emigration between Punjabi people started far before the partition and dependable records.[83][84]Shortly prior to thePartition of India,Punjab Province (British India)had a slight majorityMuslimpopulation at about 53.2% in 1941, which was an increase from the previous years.[85]

Due to thepartition of 1947,a rapid shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across the Punjab region owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due tomass migrationandpopulation exchangebut also caused by large-scalereligious cleansingriots that occurred across the region at the time.[86][87]According to historical demographerTim Dyson,in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately becameIndian Punjabfollowing independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately becamePakistani Punjab,all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[88]

As a result of the population exchanges during partition, both parts of Punjab are now relatively homogeneous, as far as religion is concerned. Today the majority of Pakistani Punjabis followIslamwith a small Christian minority, and less Sikh and Hindu populations, while the majority of Indian Punjabis are eitherSikhsorHinduswith aMuslimminority. Punjab is also the birthplace ofSikhismand the movementAhmadiyya.[89]

Punjabi Muslims

See also:Punjabi Muslims

Punjabi Muslims are found almost exclusively in Pakistan with 97% of Punjabis who live in Pakistan following Islam, in contrast to Punjabi Sikhs and Punjabi Hindus who predominantly live in India.[24]

Forming the majority of the Punjabi ethnicity in the greaterPunjab region,[90]Punjabi Muslims write thePunjabi languageunder thePerso-Arabic scriptknown asShahmukhi.With a population of more than 80 million,[90][91]they are the largestethnic group in Pakistanand the world'sthird-largest Islam-adhering ethnicity[92]afterArabs[93]andBengalis.[94]The majority of Punjabi Muslims are adherents ofSunni Islam,while a minority adhere toShia Islamand othersects,including theAhmadiyyacommunity which originated inPunjabduring theBritish Raj.

  • A Punjabi Muslim of the Ghakkar tribe
    A Punjabi Muslim of theGhakkartribe
  • Punjabi Muslim of the Tanoli tribe
  • Punjabi Muslim of Kharal tribe from Multan
    Punjabi Muslim ofKharaltribe from Multan
  • Pothwari Muslim
    Pothwari Muslim
  • Punjabi Muslim, Firuzpur
    Punjabi Muslim, Firuzpur

Punjabi Hindus

See also:Punjabi Hindus

In the Indian state ofPunjab,Punjabi Hindusmake up approximately 38.5% of the state's population; numbering 10.7 million and are a majority in theDoabaregion. Punjabi Hindus form a majority in five districts of Punjab, namely,Pathankot,Jalandhar,Hoshiarpur,FazilkaandShaheed Bhagat Singh Nagardistricts.[95]

Punjabi Hindus also form around 32 percent of Indian StateHaryana's population and are very much influential in the state politics.[96]

During the 1947 partition, millions of Punjabi Hindus (includingHindkowanHindus andSaraikiHindus[97][98])migratedfromWest PunjabandNorth-West Frontier Province,of which many ultimately settled in Delhi. Determined from 1991 and 2015 estimates, Punjabi Hindus form approximately 24 to 35 per cent of Delhi's population;[e][f]based on 2011 official census counts, this amounts to between 4,029,106 and 5,875,779 people.[100]

Following the large scale exodus that took place during the 1947 partition, there remains a small Punjabi Hindu community in Pakistan today. According to the2017 Census,there are about 200,000 Hindus in Punjab province, forming approximately 0.2% of the total population.[101]Much of the community resides in the primarily rural South Punjab districts ofRahim Yar KhanandBahawalpurwhere they form 3.12% and 1.12% of the population respectively,[102][103]while the rest are concentrated in urban centres such asLahore.[104][105]Punjabi Hindus in India useNāgarī scriptto write the Hindi and Punjabi languages.[106]

  • A Hindu Khatri Trader of Hazara, ca. 1868-1872
    A HinduKhatriTrader ofHazara,ca. 1868-1872
  • Hindu Tarkhan Carpenters of Lahore, ca.1862-72
    HinduTarkhanCarpenters of Lahore, ca.1862-72
  • Hindu Kamboj of Multan, ca.1862-72
    HinduKambojof Multan, ca.1862-72
  • A Hindu Arora Trader of Lahore, ca.1862-72
    A HinduAroraTrader of Lahore, ca.1862-72
  • A Hindu Kalal of Lahore, ca.1862-72
    A HinduKalalof Lahore, ca.1862-72

Punjabi Sikhs

See also:Punjabi Sikhs
Photograph of Sikh girls enrolled in a school run by the Church Missionary School, Amritsar, 1875

SikhismfromSikh,meaning a "disciple", or a "learner", is a monotheistic religion originated in thePunjab regionof the Indian subcontinent during the 15th century.[107][108]The fundamental beliefs of Sikhism, articulated in the sacred scriptureGuru Granth Sahib,include faith and meditation on the name of the one creator, unity and equality of all humankind, engaging inselfless service,striving for social justice for thebenefit and prosperity of all,and honest conduct and livelihood while living a householder's life.[109][110][111]Being one of the youngest amongst the major world religions, with 25-28 million adherents worldwide,Sikhismisthe fifth- largest religion in the world.

The Sikhs form a majority of close to 58% in the modern dayPunjab, India.

Gurmukhiis the writing script used by Sikhs and for scriptures ofSikhism.It is used in official documents in parts ofIndiaand elsewhere.[106]The tenth Guru of Sikhs,Guru Gobind Singh(1666 – 1708) established the Khalsa Brotherhood, and set for them a code of conduct.[112][113]

Punjabi Christians

See also:Punjabi Christians

Most of the modern Punjabi Christians are descended from converts during British rule; initially, conversions to Christianity came from the "upper levels of Punjab society, from the privileged and prestigious", including "high caste" Hindu families, as well as Muslim families.[114][115][116]However, other modern Punjabi Christians have converted from theChuhragroup. TheChuraswere largely converted to Christianity inNorth Indiaduring theBritish Raj.The vast majority were converted from theHindu Churacommunities of Punjab, and to a lesser extentMazhabi Sikhs;under the influence of enthusiasticarmyofficers and Christian missionaries. Large numbers ofMazhabi Sikhswere also converted in theMoradabad districtand theBijnor district[117]ofUttar Pradesh.Rohilkhandsaw a mass conversion of its entire population of 4500 Mazhabi Sikhs into theMethodist Church.[118]Sikh organisations became alarmed at the rate of conversions among high caste Sikh families, and as a result, they responded by immediately dispatching Sikh missionaries to counteract the conversions.[119]

History

Main article:History of Punjab
See also:Punjabi Muslims § History,Sikhs § History,andPunjabi Hindus § History

Culture

Main articles:Punjabi cultureandPunjabi Culture Day
Photograph of a group of Punjabi women, 1905

Punjabi culture grew out of the settlements along the five rivers, which served as an important route to theNear Eastas early as the ancientIndus Valley civilisation,dating back to 3000 BCE.[32]Agriculturehas been the major economic feature of the Punjab and has therefore formed the foundation of Punjabi culture, with one's social status being determined by landownership.[32]The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following theGreen Revolutionduring the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, has been described as the "breadbasket of both India and Pakistan".[32]Besides being known for agriculture and trade, the Punjab is also a region that over the centuries has experienced many foreign invasions and consequently has a long-standing history of warfare, as the Punjab is situated on the principal route of invasions through the northwestern frontier of the Indian subcontinent, which promoted to adopt a lifestyle that entailed engaging in warfare to protect the land.[32]Warrior culture typically elevates the value of the community's honour (izzat), which is highly esteemed by Punjabis.[32]

Language

Main article:Punjabi language

Punjabi, sometimes spelled Panjabi,[g]is anIndo-Aryan languagenatively spoken by the Punjabi people.

Punjabi is the most popular first language in Pakistan, with 80.5 million native speakers as per the2017 census,and the 11th most popular in India, with 31.1 million native speakers, as per the2011 census.

The language is spoken among asignificant overseas diaspora,particularly inCanada,the United States, and theUnited Kingdom.

In Pakistan, Punjabi is written using theShahmukhi alphabet,based on thePerso-Arabic script;in India, it is written using theGurmukhi alphabet,based on theIndic scripts.Punjabi is unusual among the Indo-Aryan languages and the broaderIndo-European language familyin its usage oflexical tone.[120]

Punjabi developed fromPrakritlanguages and laterApabhraṃśa(Sanskrit:अपभ्रंश,'deviated' or 'non-grammatical speech')[121]From 600 BCE, Sanskrit was advocated as official language and Prakrit gave birth to many regional languages in different parts of India. All these languages are called Prakrit (Sanskrit:प्राकृत,prākṛta) collectively.Paishachi,ShauraseniandGandhariwere Prakrit languages, which were spoken in north and north-western India and Punjabi developed from one of these Prakrits. Later in northern India, these Prakrits gave rise to their own Apabhraṃśa,a descendant of Prakrit.[122][123]Punjabi emerged as anApabhraṃśa,a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century CE and became stable by the 10th century. The earliest writings in Punjabi belong toNath Yogiera from 9th to 14th century CE.[124]The language of these compositions is morphologically closer toShauraseni Apbhramsa,though vocabulary and rhythm is surcharged with extreme colloquialism and folklore.[124]The Arabic and modern Persian influence in the historical Punjab region began with the late first millenniumMuslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent.[125]ManyPersianandArabicwords were incorporated in Punjabi.[126][127]So Punjabi relies heavily on Persian and Arabic words which are used with a liberal approach to language. After the fall of the Sikh empire, Urdu was made the official language of Punjab (in Pakistani Punjab, it is still the primary official language), and influenced the language as well.[128]

Punjabis also speak several languages and dialects related to Punjabi, such as thePothwarispoken in thePothoharregion of Northern Pakistani Punjab[129]

Traditional dress

Main article:Punjabi clothing

Kaintha

The Kaintha, a traditional necklace which is usually made out of gold or steel, is an integral element of Punjabi clothing. It is adorned with a pendant that stands out from the rest of the necklace, which is accompanied by matching color schemes as well as yarn in the back to hold the piece together. It is worn with the Shalwar Kameez alongside a shawl, chunni, or vest. Men and women alike traditionally wear the Kaintha to theMayianand Jaggo ceremonies. It is also commonly worn while performing the traditionalBhangraandGiddhadances

Main article:Punjabi clothing

Phulkari

A traditional element of Punjabi clothing has been thePhulkari.The phulkari is folk embroidery that was typically inclusive of work in floral patterns but has taken on a larger aspect of including geometrical shapes, symbols and motifs relevant to the culture. This pattern has been worn by women for hundreds of years in very vibrant colours. The pattern is typically stitched with woven silk and colourful thread. The phulkari pattern is adorned onto dupattas/chunis, better known as a decorative scarf. Over time the phulkari pattern has taken onto embellishments onto suits, dresses, accessories and more. You will see women wearing phulkari during important religious and cultural folk celebrations (i.e.: Vaisakhi, Lohri) and then in wedding celebrations such as the Jago.


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Malhotra, A., & Mir, F. (2012). Punjab Reconsidered: History, culture, and Practice. Oxford University Press.

Snehi, Y. (2013). Book review: Punjab reconsidered: History, culture and practice. Studies in History, 29(1), 155–

158. https://doi.org/10.1177/0257643013496694

Szivak, J. (2022). The changing landscape of Punjab in Bollywood film songs. South Asia: Journal of South Asian

Studies, 45(6), 1112–1127. https://doi.org/10.1080/00856401.2022.2114061

Dastar
Main article:Dastar

ADastaris an item of headgear associated withSikhismand is an important part of the Punjabi and Sikh culture. Among the Sikhs, thedastāris an article of faith that represents equality, honour, self-respect, courage, spirituality, and piety. TheKhalsaSikh men and women, who keep theFive Ks,wear the turban to cover their long, uncut hair (kesh). The Sikhs regard thedastāras an important part of the unique Sikh identity. After the ninth Sikh Guru,Tegh Bahadur,was sentenced to death by theMughalemperorAurangzeb,Guru Gobind Singh,the tenth Sikh Guru created theKhalsaand gave five articles of faith, one of which is unshorn hair, which thedastārcovers.[130]Prior toSikhi,only kings, royalty, and those of high stature wore turbans, but Sikh Gurus adopted the practice to assert equality and sovereignty among people.[131]

Punjabi suit
Main article:Shalwar kameez
Punjabi traditional dress in India

A Punjabi suit that features two items - aqameez(top),salwar(bottom) is the traditional attire of the Punjabi people.[132][133][134]Shalwarsaretrouserswhich are atypically wide at the waist but which narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring or elastic belt, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.[135]The trousers can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on thebias.Thekameezis a long shirt or tunic.[136]The side seams are left open below the waist-line (the opening known as thechaak[note 2]), which gives the wearer greater freedom of movement. The kameez is usually cut straight and flat; older kameez use traditional cuts; modern kameez are more likely to have European-inspiredset-in sleeves.The combination garment is sometimes calledsalwar kurta,salwar suit,orPunjabi suit.[138][139]The shalwar-kameez is a widely-worn,[140][141]andnational dress,[142]of Pakistan. When women wear the shalwar-kameez in some regions, they usually wear a long scarf or shawl called adupattaaround the head or neck.[143]The dupatta is also employed as a form of modesty—although it is made of delicate material, it obscures the upper body's contours by passing over the shoulders. For Muslim women, the dupatta is a less stringent alternative to thechadororburqa(seehijabandpurdah); for Sikh and Hindu women, the dupatta is useful when the head must be covered, as in a temple or the presence of elders.[144]Everywhere in South Asia, modern versions of the attire have evolved; the shalwars are worn lower down on the waist, the kameez have shorter length, with higher splits, lower necklines and backlines, and with cropped sleeves or without sleeves.[145]

Music

Main articles:Music of PunjabandFolk music of Punjab

Bhangradescribes dance-oriented popular music with Punjabi rhythms, developed since the 1980s.Sufi musicandQawali,commonly practised inPunjab, Pakistan;are other important genres in the Punjab region.[146][147]

Dance

Main article:Punjabi dance

Punjabi dances are performed either by men or by women. The dances range from solo to group dances and also sometimes dances are done along with traditional musical instruments. Bhangra is one of the most famous dances originating in the Punjab by farmers during the harvesting season. It was mainly performed while farmers did agricultural chores. As they did each farming activity they would perform bhangra moves on the spot.[148]This allowed them to finish their job in a pleasurable way. For many years, farmers performed bhangra to showcase a sense of accomplishment and to welcome the new harvesting season.[149]Traditional bhangra is performed in a circle[150]and is performed using traditional dance steps. Traditional bhangra is now also performed on occasions other than during the harvest season.[151][152]

Folk tales

Main article:Punjabi folklore

The folk tales of Punjab includeHeer Ranjha,Mirza Sahiban,Sohni Mahiwal.[153][154]

Festivals

Main articles:Punjabi festivalsandFestivals in Lahore

The Punjabi Muslims typically observe theIslamic festivals.[155][156]The Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus typically do not observe these, and instead observeLohri,BasantandVaisakhias seasonal festivals.[157]The Punjabi Muslim festivals are set according to the lunarIslamic calendar(Hijri), and the date falls earlier by 10 to 13 days from year to year.[158]The Hindu and Sikh Punjabi seasonal festivals are set on specific dates of the luni-solarBikrami calendarorPunjabi calendarand the date of the festival also typically varies in theGregorian calendarbut stays within the same two Gregorian months.[159]

Some Punjabi Muslims participate in the traditional, seasonal festivals of the Punjab region: Baisakhi, Basant and to a minor scale Lohri, but this is controversial. Islamic clerics and some politicians have attempted to ban this participation because of the religious basis of the Punjabi festivals,[160]and they being declaredharam(forbidden in Islam).[161]

Punjabi State

Main articles:Punjabi nationalismandPunjabiyat

According to Pippa Virdee, the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan has shadowed the sense of loss of what used to be a homeland nation for the Punjabi people in the Indian subcontinent and its diaspora.[162]Since the mid-1980s, there has been a drive for Punjabi cultural revival, consolidation of Punjabi ethnicity and a virtual Punjabi nation.[163]According to Giorgio Shani, this is predominantly a Sikh ethno-nationalism movement led by some Sikh organisations, and a view that is not shared by Punjabi people organisations belonging to other religions.[164]

Notable people

Main articles:List of Punjabi people,List of Punjabi Muslims,andList of Punjabi Hindus

See also

Notes

  1. ^abPunjabis comprise 44.7% (112,806,516) of Pakistan's total population of 252,363,571 per 2024 estimate by the World Factbook.[5]
  2. ^Punjabis comprise 2.7% (38,046,464) of India's total population of 1,409,128,296 per 2024 estimate by the World Factbook.[9]
  3. ^This figure comprises speakers of thePunjabi languagein India. Ethnic Punjabis who no longer speak the language are not included in this number.
  4. ^Statistic includes all speakers of thePunjabi language,as manymulti-generationindividuals do not speak the language as amother tongue,but instead as asecondorthird language.
  5. ^"The most important section among settlers is the Punjabis who are estimated to constitute around 35 per cent of the population."[99]
  6. ^"Though Punjabis constitute a mere twenty-four per cent of so of the capital city's population, on average they hold fifty-three per cent of the available managerial positions."[60]
  7. ^Punjabiis theBritish Englishspelling, andPañjābīis theromanisedspelling from the native script(s).

References

  1. ^"Punjabi - Worldwide distribution".
  2. ^PunjabisatEthnologue(21st ed., 2018)Closed access icon
  3. ^ab"Abstract Of Speakers' Strength Of Languages And Mother Tongues - 2011"(PDF).Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 February 2022.Retrieved12 June2022.
  4. ^"Pakistan Census 2017"(PDF).www.pbs.pk.Retrieved20 September2020.
  5. ^abcd"South Asia:: Pakistan — The World Fact book - Central Intelligence Agency".www.cia.gov.Retrieved23 June2024.
  6. ^abc"Ethnic Groups in Pakistan".Worldatlas.com.30 July 2019.Punjabi people are the ethnic majority in the Punjab region of Pakistan and Northern India accounting for 44.7% of the population in Pakistan.
  7. ^"Pakistan Census 2017"(PDF).www.pbs.pk.Retrieved20 September2020.
  8. ^"Punjabi - Worldwide distribution".
  9. ^"South Asia:: India — The World Fact book - Central Intelligence Agency".www.cia.gov.Retrieved23 June2024.
  10. ^"Punjabi - Worldwide distribution".Retrieved20 April2024.
  11. ^Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (17 August 2022)."Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Profile table Canada [Country]".www12.statcan.gc.ca.Retrieved18 August2022.
  12. ^McDonnell, John (5 December 2006)."Punjabi Community".House of Commons.Retrieved3 August2016.We now estimate the Punjabi community at about 700,000, with Punjabi established as the second language certainly in London and possibly within the United Kingdom.
  13. ^"US Census BureauAmerican Community Survey (2009-2013)See Row #62 ".2.census.gov.
  14. ^"Top ten languages spoken at home in Australia".Archived fromthe originalon 9 July 2017.
  15. ^"Malaysia".Ethnologue.com.Retrieved28 July2019.
  16. ^"Punjabi community involved in money lending in Philippines braces for 'crackdown' by new President".18 May 2016.
  17. ^"New Zealand".Stats New Zealand.Retrieved24 September2019.
  18. ^Strazny, Philipp (1 February 2013).Encyclopedia of Linguistics.Routledge.ISBN978-1-135-45522-4– via Google Books.
  19. ^"Bangladesh".Ethnologue.com.Retrieved28 July2019.
  20. ^"Deutsche Informationszentrum für Sikhreligion, Sikhgeschichte, Kultur und Wissenschaft (DISR)".remid.de.Retrieved3 January2020.
  21. ^"National Population and Housing Census 2011"(PDF).Unstats.unorg.Retrieved29 July2019.
  22. ^Jacobsen, Knut A.; Myrvold, Kristina (2011).Sikhs in Europe: Migration, Identities and Representations.Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.ISBN978-1-4094-2434-5.Retrieved19 May2024.
  23. ^ab"C-1 Population By Religious Community - 2011".Archived fromthe original(XLS)on 23 September 2015.Retrieved29 July2019.
  24. ^abcWade Davis; K. David Harrison; Catherine Herbert Howell (2007).Book of Peoples of the World: A Guide to Cultures.National Geographic. pp. 132–133.ISBN978-1-4262-0238-4.
  25. ^"Punjabis".Encyclopaedia.
  26. ^Minahan, James (2012).Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia.ABC-CLIO. pp. 257–259.ISBN978-1-59884-659-1.
  27. ^Temple, Richard Carnac (20 August 2017).A Dissertation on the Proper Names of Panjabis: With Special Reference to the Proper Names of Villagers in the Eastern Panjab.Creative Media Partners, LLC.ISBN978-1-375-66993-1.
  28. ^Goh, Daniel P. S.; Gabrielpillai, Matilda; Holden, Philip; Khoo, Gaik Cheng (12 June 2009).Race and Multiculturalism in Malaysia and Singapore.Routledge. p. 187.ISBN978-1-134-01649-5.
  29. ^Minahan, James (2012).Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-59884-659-1.
  30. ^Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World.Elsevier. 2010. pp. 522–523.ISBN978-0-08-087775-4.
  31. ^"Punjabis".Encyclopaedia.
  32. ^abcdefgNayar, Kamala Elizabeth (2012).The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism.McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP.ISBN978-0-7735-4070-5.
  33. ^abGandhi, Rajmohan (2013).Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten.New Delhi, India, Urbana,Illinois:Aleph Book Company.ISBN978-93-83064-41-0.
  34. ^abCanfield, Robert L. (1991).Persia in Historical Perspective.Cambridge,United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 1 ( "Origins" ).ISBN978-0-521-52291-5.
  35. ^West, Barbara A. (19 May 2010).Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania.Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-1-4381-1913-7.
  36. ^Malhotra, Anshu; Mir, Farina (2012).Punjab reconsidered: history, culture, and practice.New Delhi:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-807801-2.Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2016.Retrieved6 April2014.
  37. ^Ayers, Alyssa (2008)."Language, the Nation, and Symbolic Capital: The Case of Punjab"(PDF).Journal of Asian Studies.67(3): 917–46.doi:10.1017/s0021911808001204.S2CID56127067.
  38. ^abSingh, Pritam; Thandi, Shinder S. (1996).Globalisation and the region: explorations in Punjabi identity.Coventry, United Kingdom: Association for Punjab Studies (UK).ISBN978-1-874699-05-7.
  39. ^Mukherjee, Protap; Lopamudra Ray Saraswati (20 January 2011)."Levels and Patterns of Social Cohesion and Its Relationship with Development in India: A Woman's Perspective Approach"(PDF).Ph.D. Scholars, Centre for the Study of Regional Development School of Social Sciences Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi – 110 067, India.
  40. ^Singh, Pritam; Thandi, Shinder S. (1999).Punjabi identity in a global context.New Delhi:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-564864-5.
  41. ^Singh, Prtiam (2012)."Globalisation and Punjabi Identity: Resistance, Relocation and Reinvention (Yet Again!)"(PDF).Journal of Punjab Studies.19(2): 153–72. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 January 2016.Retrieved6 April2014.
  42. ^Gupta, S.K. (1985).The Scheduled Castes in Modern Indian Politics: Their Emergence as a Political Context.New Delhi, India: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 121–122.
  43. ^abYoga, Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy, and Culture Sub Project: Consciousness, Science, Society, Value, and (2009).Different Types of History.Pearson Education India.ISBN978-81-317-1818-6.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^H K Manmohan Siṅgh."The Punjab".The Encyclopedia of Sikhism, Editor-in-Chief Harbans Singh.Punjabi University,Patiala.Archivedfrom the original on 5 March 2016.Retrieved18 August2015.
  45. ^Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013).Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten.New Delhi, India, Urbana,Illinois:Aleph Book Company. p. 1 ( "Introduction" ).ISBN978-93-83064-41-0.
  46. ^"Punjab." Pp. 107 inEncyclopædia Britannica(9th ed.),vol. 20.
  47. ^Kenneth Pletcher, ed. (2010).The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places.Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 199.ISBN978-1-61530-202-4.The word's origin can perhaps be traced to panca nada, Sanskrit for "five rivers" and the name of a region mentioned in the ancient epic the Mahabharata.
  48. ^Rajesh Bala (2005). "Foreign Invasions and their Effect on Punjab". In Sukhdial Singh (ed.).Punjab History Conference, Thirty-seventh Session, March 18-20, 2005: Proceedings.Punjabi University. p. 80.ISBN978-81-7380-990-3.The word Punjab is a compound of two words-Panj (Five) and aab (Water), thus signifying the land of five waters or rivers. This origin can perhaps be traced to panch nada, Sanskrit for 'Five rivers' the word used before the advent of Muslims with a knowledge of Persian to describe the meeting point of the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, before they joined the Indus.
  49. ^Lassen, Christian.1827.Commentatio Geographica atque Historica de Pentapotamia Indica[A Geographical and Historical Commentary on Indian Pentapotamia]. Weber. p. 4: "That part of India which today we call by the Persian name ''Penjab'' is namedPanchanadain the sacred language of the Indians; either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Πενταποταμια. The Persian origin of the former name is not at all in doubt, although the words of which it is composed are both Indian and Persian.... But, in truth, that final word is never, to my knowledge, used by the Indians in proper names compounded in this way; on the other hand, there exist multiple Persian names which end with that word, e.g.,DoabandNilab.Therefore, it is probable that the name Penjab, which is today found in all geographical books, is of more recent origin and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India, among whom the Persian language was mostly in use. That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the fact that it is already seen in theRamayanaandMahabharata,the most ancient Indian poems, and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians; forPanchála,which English translations of theRamayanarender with Penjab...is the name of another region, entirely distinct from Pentapotamia.... "[whose translation?]
  50. ^Latif, Syad Muhammad (1891).History of the Panjáb from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time.Calcultta Central Press Company.p. 1.The Panjáb, the Pentapotamia of the Greek historians, the north-western region of the empire of Hindostán, derives its name from two Persian words,panj(five), anáb(water, having reference to the five rivers which confer on the country its distinguishing features. "
  51. ^Khalid, Kanwal (2015)."Lahore of Pre Historic Era"(PDF).Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan.52(2): 73.The earliest mention of five rivers in the collective sense was found in Yajurveda and a word Panchananda was used, which is a Sanskrit word to describe a land where five rivers meet. [...] In the later period the wordPentapotamiawas used by the Greeks to identify this land. (Pentameans 5 and potamia, water ___ the land of five rivers) Muslim Historians implied the word "Punjab" for this region. Again it was not a new word because in Persian-speaking areas, there are references of this name given to any particular place where five rivers or lakes meet.
  52. ^J. S. Grewal (1998).The Sikhs of the Punjab.The New Cambridge History of India (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1.ISBN978-0-521-63764-0.
  53. ^"Population Profile Punjab | Population Welfare Department".Pwd.punjab.gov.pk.
  54. ^"Pakistan Population (2019)".Worldometers.info.Retrieved29 July2019.
  55. ^"Population by Religion"(PDF).pbs.gov.pk.Pakistan Bureau of Statistics.
  56. ^"SCHEDULED LANGUAGES IN DESCENDING ORDER OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH - 2011"(PDF).censusindia.gov.in.Retrieved2 April2020.
  57. ^Mohan, Vibhor (27 August 2015)."Census 2011: %age of Sikhs drops in Punjab; migration to blame?".The Times of India.Retrieved10 September2023.
  58. ^"Delhi Assembly Elections 2015: Important Facts And Major Stakeholders Mobile Site".India TV News.6 February 2015. Archived fromthe originalon 30 December 2015.Retrieved7 September2015.
  59. ^Jupinderjit Singh (February 2015)."Why Punjabis are central to Delhi election".tribuneindia.com/news/sunday-special/perspective/why-punjabis-are-central-to-delhi-election/36387.html.Retrieved7 September2015.
  60. ^abcSanjay Yadav (2008).The Invasion of Delhi.Worldwide Books.ISBN978-81-88054-00-8.
  61. ^"Towards the 'Punjabi Province' (1947–1966)".The Sikhs of the Punjab.The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. 1991. pp. 181–204.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521268844.011.ISBN978-0-521-26884-4.
  62. ^Dikshit, V. (3 February 2017)."Punjab Polls: The mood in Malerkotla and Qadian".National Herald.Retrieved10 September2023.
  63. ^"Census Profile, 2016 Census Vancouver [Census metropolitan area], British Columbia and British Columbia [Province]".Statistics Canada. 8 February 2017.Retrieved31 August2021.
  64. ^"Census Profile, 2016 Census Toronto [Census metropolitan area], Ontario and Ontario [Province]".Statistics Canada. 8 February 2017.Retrieved31 August2021.
  65. ^"Census Profile, 2016 Census Calgary [Census metropolitan area], Alberta and Alberta [Province]".Statistics Canada. 8 February 2017.Retrieved31 August2021.
  66. ^"Punjab Province, Pakistan".Encyclopædia Britannica.483579.Retrieved22 March2022.h
  67. ^Tyagi, Dr Madhu (1 January 2017).THEORY OF INDIAN DIASPORA: DYNAMICS OF GLOBAL MIGRATION.Horizon Books (A Division of Ignited Minds Edutech P Ltd). p. 18.ISBN978-93-86369-37-6.
  68. ^Puri, Baij Nath (1988).The Khatris, a Socio-cultural Study.M.N. Publishers and Distributors. pp. 19–20.
  69. ^Oonk, Gijsbert (2007).Global Indian Diasporas: Exploring Trajectories of Migration and Theory.Amsterdam University Press. pp. 43–45.ISBN978-90-5356-035-8.
  70. ^Chander, Rajesh K. (1 July 2019).Combating Social Exclusion: Inter-sectionalities of Caste, Gender, Class and Regions.Studera Press.ISBN978-93-85883-58-3.
  71. ^"Understanding the Dalit demography of Punjab, caste by caste".India Today.Retrieved7 March2022.
  72. ^Wheeler, James Talboys (1874).The History of India from the Earliest Ages: Hindu Buddhist Brahmanical revival.N. Trübner. p. 330.The Punjab, to say the least, was less Brahmanical. It was an ancient centre of the worship of Indra, who was always regarded as an enemy by the Bráhmans; and it was also a stronghold of Buddhism.
  73. ^Hunter, W. W. (5 November 2013).The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products.Routledge. p. 80.ISBN978-1-136-38301-4.In the settlements of the Punjab, Indra thus advanced to the first place among the Vedic divinities.
  74. ^Virdee, Pippa (February 2018).From the Ashes of 1947.Cambridge University Press. p. 24.ISBN978-1-108-42811-8.The Rig Veda and the Upanishads, which belonged to the Vedic religion, were a precursor of Hinduism, both of which were composed in Punjab.
  75. ^Flood, Gavin (13 July 1996).An Introduction to Hinduism.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-43878-0.
  76. ^abcNayar, Kamala Elizabeth (2012).The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism.McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. pp. 7–8.ISBN978-0-7735-4070-5.
  77. ^"In ancient Punjab, religion was fluid, not watertight, says Romila Thapar".The Indian Express.3 May 2019.Thapar said Buddhism was very popular in Punjab during the Mauryan and post-Mauryan period. Bookended between Gandhara in Taxila on the one side where Buddhism was practised on a large scale and Mathura on another side where Buddhism, Jainism and Puranic religions were practised, this religion flourished in the state. But after the Gupta period, Buddhism began to decline.
  78. ^Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014).The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion.Oxford University Press. pp. 489–491.ISBN978-0-19-971354-7.First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were themajorityin the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana).
  79. ^Chhabra, G. S. (1968).Advanced History of the Punjab: Guru and post-Guru period upto Ranjit Singh.New Academic Publishing Company. p. 37.
  80. ^Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014).The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion.Oxford University Press. p. 490.ISBN978-0-19-971354-7.While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established, there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab. Buddhist communities, however, had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century.
  81. ^Nicholls, Ruth J.; Riddell, Peter G. (31 July 2020).Insights into Sufism: Voices from the Heart.Cambridge Scholars Publishing.ISBN978-1-5275-5748-2.With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam. Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers.
  82. ^Singh, Pritam (19 February 2008).Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy.Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-04946-2.
  83. ^Jones. (2006). Socio-religious reform movements in British India (The New Cambridge History of India). Cambridge University Press
  84. ^Jones, R. (2007). The great uprising in India, 1857–58: Untold stories, Indian and British (worlds of the east India company). Boydell Press.
  85. ^"Journal of Punjab Studies – Center for Sikh and Punjab Studies – UC Santa Barbara"(PDF).Global.ucsb.edu.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 September 2015.Retrieved20 April2013.
  86. ^South Asia: British India PartitionedArchived2 November 2007 at theWayback Machine
  87. ^Avari, B. (2007). India: The ancient past.ISBN978-0-415-35616-9
  88. ^Dyson 2018,pp. 188–189.
  89. ^"Ahmadiyya – Ahmadiyya Community – Al Islam Online – Official Website".Alislam.org.
  90. ^abGandhi, Rajmohan (2013).Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten.New Delhi, India, Urbana,Illinois:Aleph Book Company. p. 1.ISBN978-93-83064-41-0.
  91. ^"Pakistan Census 2017"(PDF).PBS.
  92. ^Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013).Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten.New Delhi, India, Urbana,Illinois:Aleph Book Company. p. 2.ISBN978-93-83064-41-0.
  93. ^Margaret Kleffner NydellUnderstanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times,Intercultural Press, 2005,ISBN1931930252,page xxiii, 14
  94. ^roughly 152 million Bengali Muslims inBangladeshand 36.4 million Bengali Muslims in theRepublic of India(CIA Factbook2014 estimates, numbers subject to rapid population growth); about 10 millionBangladeshis in the Middle East,1 millionBengalis in Pakistan,5 millionBritish Bangladeshi.
  95. ^"Religion by districts - Punjab".census.gov.in.Retrieved20 September2021.
  96. ^on 2011 official census counts out of a total population of 25.4 million, this amounts to 8.1 million people. "Punjabi Hindus in Haryana".{{cite web}}:Check|url=value (help)
  97. ^"Colonies, posh and model in name only!".NCR Tribune.Retrieved5 March2023.Started in 1978, Derawal Nagar was a colony of those who had migrated from Dera Ismile Khan in Northwest Frontier provinces.
  98. ^Nagpal, Vinod Kumar (25 June 2020).Lessons Unlearned.Notion Press.ISBN978-1-64869-984-9.
  99. ^Singh, Raj (6 February 2015)."Delhi Assembly elections 2015: Important facts and major stakeholders".India TV.Retrieved8 September2021.
  100. ^"Delhi (India): Union Territory, Major Agglomerations & Towns – Population Statistics in Maps and Charts".City Population.Archivedfrom the original on 2 March 2017.Retrieved28 February2017.
  101. ^"CCI defers approval of census results until elections".Dawn.Retrieved26 April2020.
  102. ^"District wise census".Retrieved20 September2021.
  103. ^Dharmindar Balach (17 August 2017)."Pakistani Hindus celebrate Janmashtami with fervour".Daily Times.Retrieved20 September2021.
  104. ^"Hindu community celebrates Diwali across Punjab".The Express Tribune.8 November 2018.Retrieved18 December2020.
  105. ^"Dussehra celebrated at Krishna Mandir".The Express Tribune.23 October 2015.Retrieved18 December2020.
  106. ^abPeter T. Daniels; William Bright (1996).The World's Writing Systems.Oxford University Press. p. 395.ISBN978-0-19-507993-7.
  107. ^W.Owen Cole; Piara Singh Sambhi (1993).Sikhism and Christianity: A Comparative Study (Themes in Comparative Religion).Wallingford, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 117.ISBN978-0-333-54107-4.
  108. ^Christopher Partridge (1 November 2013).Introduction to World Religions.Fortress Press. pp. 429–.ISBN978-0-8006-9970-3.
  109. ^Sewa Singh Kalsi.Sikhism.Chelsea House, Philadelphia. pp. 41–50.
  110. ^William Owen Cole; Piara Singh Sambhi (1995).The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.Sussex Academic Press. p. 200.
  111. ^Teece, Geoff (2004).Sikhism:Religion in focus.Black Rabbit Books. p. 4.ISBN978-1-58340-469-0.
  112. ^Cole, W. Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1978).The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.Routledge. p.37.ISBN978-0-7100-8842-0.
  113. ^John M Koller (2016).The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India.Routledge. pp. 312–313.ISBN978-1-315-50740-8.
  114. ^Jones, Kenneth W. (1976).Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab.University of California Press.p.12.ISBN978-0-520-02920-0.Christian conversion followed patterns of previous religious inroads, striking at the two sections of the social structure. Initial conversions came from the upper levels of Punjab society, from the privileged and prestigious. Few in number and won individually, high caste converts accounted for far more public attention and reaction to Christian conversion than the numerically superior successes among the depressed. Repeatedly, conversion or the threat of conversion among students at mission schools, or members of the literate castes, produced a public uproar.
  115. ^Day, Abby (28 December 2015).Contemporary Issues in the Worldwide Anglican Communion: Powers and Pieties.Ashgate Publishing.p. 220.ISBN978-1-4724-4415-8.The Anglican mission work in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent was primarily carried out by CMS and USPG in the Punjab Province (Gabriel 2007, 10), which covered most parts of the present state of Pakistan, particularly Lahore, Peshawar and Karachi (Gibbs 1984, 178-203). A native subcontinental church began to take shape with people from humbler backgrounds, while converts from high social caste preferred to attend the worship with the English (Gibbs 1984, 284).
  116. ^Moghal, Dominic (1997).Human person in Punjabi society: a tension between religion and culture.Christian Study Centre.Those Christians who were converted from the "high caste" families both Hindus and Muslims look down upon those Christians who were converted from the low caste, specially from the untouchables.
  117. ^Alter, J.P and J. Alter (1986) In the Doab andRohilkhand:north Indian Christianity, 1815–1915. I.S.P.C.K publishing p183
  118. ^Alter, J.P and J. Alter (1986) In the Doab and Rohilkhand: north Indian Christianity, 1815–1915. I.S.P.C.K publishing p196
  119. ^Chadha, Vivek (23 March 2005).Low Intensity Conflicts in India: An Analysis.SAGE Publications.p. 174.ISBN978-0-7619-3325-0.'In 1881 there were 3,976 Christians in the Punjab. By 1891 their number had increased to 19,547, by 1901 to 37,980, by 1911 to 163,994 and by 1921 to 315,931 persons' (see Figure 8.1). However, the Sikhs were more alarmed when some of the high caste families starting converting.
  120. ^Bhatia, Tej (1999). "Lexican Anaphors and Pronouns in Punjabi". In Lust, Barbara; Gair, James (eds.).Lexical Anaphors and Pronouns in Selected South Asian Languages.Walter de Gruyter. p. 637.ISBN978-3-11-014388-1.Other tonal Indo-Aryan languages includeHindko,Dogri,Western Pahari,Sylhetiand someDardic languages.
  121. ^Singha, H. S. (2000).The Encyclopedia of Sikhism (over 1000 Entries).Hemkunt Press. p. 166.ISBN978-81-7010-301-1.Archived fromthe originalon 21 January 2017.
  122. ^Singh, Sikander (April 2019)."The Origin Theories of Punjabi Language: A Context of Historiography of Punjabi Language".International Journal of Sikh Studies.
  123. ^G S Sidhu (2004).Panjab And Panjabi.
  124. ^abHoiberg, Dale (2000).Students' Britannica India.Popular Prakashan.ISBN978-0-85229-760-5.
  125. ^Brard, G.S.S. (2007).East of Indus: My Memories of Old Punjab.Hemkunt Publishers. p. 81.ISBN9788170103608.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2018.Retrieved13 January2017.
  126. ^Mir, F. (2010).The Social Space of Language: Vernacular Culture in British Colonial Punjab.University of California Press. p. 35.ISBN9780520262690.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2018.Retrieved13 January2017.
  127. ^Schiffman, H. (2011).Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice.Brill. p. 314.ISBN9789004201453.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2018.Retrieved13 January2017.
  128. ^Schiffman, Harold (9 December 2011).Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice.BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-20145-3.
  129. ^Fred A, Robertson (1895).Gazetteer of Rawalpindi District(2nd ed.). Punjab Government.
  130. ^“Importance of turban in Sikhism”,earlytimes.in. 29 May 2018.
  131. ^"Sikh Theology Why Sikhs Wear A Turban".The Sikh Coalition.Retrieved13 November2016.
  132. ^Dominique, Grele; Raimbault, Lydie (1 March 2007).Discover Singapore on Foot(2 ed.). Singapore: Select Publishing. p. 35.ISBN978-981-4022-33-0.
  133. ^Fraile, Sandra Santos (11 July 2013),"Sikhs in Barcelona",in Blanes, Ruy; Mapril, José (eds.),Sites and Politics of Religious Diversity in Southern Europe: The Best of All Gods,BRILL, p. 263,ISBN978-90-04-25524-1,The shalwar kamiz was worn traditionally by Muslim women and gradually adopted by many Hindu women following the Muslim conquest of northern India. Eventually, it became the regional style for parts of northern India, as in Punjab where it has been worn for centuries.
  134. ^Khandelwal, Madhulika Shankar (2002),Becoming American, Being Indian: An Immigrant Community in New York City,Cornell University Press, p. 43,ISBN0-8014-8807-9,Even highly educated women pursuing careers continue to wear traditional dress in urban India, although men of similar status long ago adopted Western attire. The forms of dress most popular with urban Indian women are the sari, the long wrapped and draped dress-like garment, worn throughout India, and the salwar-kameez or kurta-pyjama, a two-piece suit garment, sometimes also called Punjabi because of its region of origin. Whereas the sari can be considered the national dress of Indian women, the salwar-kameez, though originally from the north, has been adopted all over India as more comfortable attire than the sari.
  135. ^Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011),Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set,Oxford University Press, p. 1272,ISBN978-0-19-960110-3,Salwar/Shalwar: A pair of light, loose, pleated trousers, usually tapering to a tight fit around the ankles, worn by women from South Asia typically with a kameez (the two together being a salwar kameez). Origin From Persian and Urdu šalwār.
  136. ^Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011),Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set,Oxford University Press, p. 774,ISBN978-0-19-960110-3,Kameez: A long tunic worn by many people from South Asia, typically with a salwar or churidars. Origin: From Arabic qamīṣ, perhaps from late Latin camisia (see chemise).
  137. ^Platts, John Thompson (February 2015) [1884],A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English(online ed.), London: W. H. Allen & Co., p. 418, archived fromthe originalon 24 February 2021,retrieved1 August2022
  138. ^Shukla, Pravina (2015).The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India.Indiana University Press. p. 75.ISBN978-0-253-02121-2.You can buy an entire three-piecesalwar suit,or a two-piece suit that consists of either a readymadekurtaor akurtacloth piece, each with a matchingdupatta.For these, you must have the salwar pants stitched from cloth you buy separately. A third option would be to buy a two-piece ensemble, consisting of the top and pants, leaving you the task of buying an appropriatedupatta,or using one you already own, or buying a strip of cloth and having it dyed to your desire. The end result will always be a three-piece ensemble, but a customer may start with one piece (only thekurta) or two pieces (kurtaand pants, orkurtaanddupatta), and exercise her creativity and fashion sense to end up with the completesalwar kurtaoutfit.
  139. ^Mooney, Nicola (2011),Rural Nostalgias and Transnational Dreams: Identity and Modernity Among Jat Sikhs,University of Toronto Press, p. 260,ISBN978-0-8020-9257-1,The salwar-kameez is a form of dress that has been adopted widely in Punjab and is now known in English as the Punjabi suit; J. P. S. Uberoi suggests that the salwar-kameez is an Afghani import to Punjab (1998 personal communication). Punjabi forms of dress are therefore constructs or inventions of tradition rather than having historical veracity.
  140. ^Marsden, Magnus (2005).Living Islam: Muslim Religious Experience in Pakistan's North-West Frontier.Cambridge University Press. p. 37.ISBN978-1-139-44837-6.The village's men and boys largely dress in sombre colours in the loose trousers and long shirt (shalwar kameez) worn across Pakistan. Older men often wear woollen Chitrali caps (pakol), waistcoats and long coats (chugha), made by Chitrali tailors (darzi) who skills are renowned across Pakistan.
  141. ^Haines, Chad (2013),Nation, Territory, and Globalization in Pakistan: Traversing the Margins,Routledge, p. 162,ISBN978-1-136-44997-0,the shalwar kameez happens to be worn by just about everyone in Pakistan, including in all of Gilgit-Baltistan.
  142. ^Ozyegin, Gul (2016).Gender and Sexuality in Muslim Cultures.Routledge. p. 222.ISBN978-1-317-13051-2.What is common in all the cases is the wearing of shalwar, kameez, and dupatta, the national dress of Pakistan.
  143. ^Rait, Satwant Kaur (14 April 2005).Sikh Women In England: Religious, Social and Cultural Beliefs.Trent and Sterling: Trentham Book. p. 68.ISBN978-1-85856-353-4.
  144. ^Shukla, Pravina (2015),The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India,Indiana University Press, p. 72,ISBN978-0-253-02121-2,Muslim and Punjabi women—whether Muslim, Sikh, or Hindu—often wear the dupatta over the head to create a modest look while framing the face with color. When entering a temple, Hindu women might comparably use their dupattas to cover their heads. Though the dupatta is often made of flimsy cloth and does not actually cover the body, its presence implies modesty, like many of the outer garments worn by Muslim women that do not cover much but do provide a symbolic extra layer,...
  145. ^Koerner, Stephanie (2016),Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-designing Reflexivity,Taylor & Francis, p. 405,ISBN978-1-351-87667-4,The Pakistani National dress worn by women is Shalwar Kameez. This consists of a long tunic (Kameez) teamed with a wide legged trouser (Shalwar) that skims in at the bottom accompanied by a duppata, which is a less stringent alternative to the burqa. Modern versions of this National dress have evolved into less modest versions. Shalwar have become more low cut so that the hips are visible and are worn with a shorter length of Kameez which has high splits and may have a lowcut neckline and backline as well as being sleeveless or having cropped sleeves.
  146. ^Pande, Alka (1999).Folk music & musical instruments of Punjab: from mustard fields to disco lights.Ahmedabad [India]: Mapin Pub.ISBN978-18-902-0615-4.
  147. ^Thinda, Karanaila Siṅgha (1996).Pañjāba dā loka wirasā(New rev. ed.). Paṭiālā: Pabalikeshana Biūro, Pañjābī Yūniwarasiṭī.ISBN978-81-7380-223-2.
  148. ^Pandher, Gurdeep."Bhangra History".Retrieved28 November2019.
  149. ^Singh, Khushwant (23 May 2017).Land of Five Rivers.Orient Paperbacks.ISBN9788122201079– via Google Books.
  150. ^Bedell, J. M. (23 May 2017).Teens in Pakistan.Capstone.ISBN9780756540432– via Google Books.
  151. ^Black, Carolyn (2003).Pakistan: The culture.Crabtree Publishing Company.ISBN9780778793489.
  152. ^"Pakistan Almanac".Royal Book Company. 23 May 2017 – via Google Books.
  153. ^Tales of the Punjab.Digital.library.upenn.edu.
  154. ^Peelu: The First Narrator of the Legend of Mirza-SahibaN.Hrisouthasian.org.
  155. ^Official Holidays 2016,Government of Punjab – Pakistan (2016)
  156. ^Official Holidays 2016Archived1 September 2018 at theWayback Machine,Karachi Metropolitan, Sindh, Pakistan
  157. ^Census of India, 1961: Punjab. Manage of Publications
  158. ^Jacqueline Suthren Hirst; John Zavos (2013).Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia.Routledge. p. 274.ISBN978-1-136-62668-5.; Eid ul-Fitar,Ramzan Id/Eid-ul-Fitar in India, Festival Dates
  159. ^Tej Bhatia (2013).Punjabi.Routledge. pp. 209–212.ISBN978-1-136-89460-2.
  160. ^The ban on fun,IRFAN HUSAIN, Dawn, 18 February 2017
  161. ^The barricaded Muslim mind,Saba Naqvi (28 August 2016), Quote: "Earlier, Muslim villagers would participate in Hindu festivals; now they think that would be haraam, so stay away. Visiting dargahs is also haraam"
  162. ^Eltringham, Nigel; Maclean, Pam (2014).Remembering Genocide.New York: Routledge. p. 'No man's land'.ISBN978-1-317-75421-3.Retrieved12 November2016.
  163. ^Marshall, Stewart; Taylor, Wal; Yu, Xinghuo (2005).Encyclopedia of Developing Regional Communities With Information And Communication Technology.Idea Group. p. 409.ISBN978-1-59140-791-1.Retrieved12 November2016.
  164. ^Giorgio Shani (2007).Sikh Nationalism and Identity in a Global Age.Routledge. pp. 1–8, 86–88.ISBN978-1-134-10189-4.

Notes

  1. ^Michaels (2004,p. 38):"The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions. "
    Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992)."Vedic Hinduism"(PDF).Harvard University. p. 3.:"... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
    See alsoHalbfass 1991,pp. 1–2
  2. ^A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English:chākderives from the Persian "چاك ćāk, Fissure, cleft, rent, slit, a narrow opening (intentionally left in clothes)."[137]

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

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