Transition from Ming to Qing

Ming-Qing transition
Battle of Shanhai Pass,one of the major battles during the Ming–Qing transition
Date 7 May 1618 – 13 August 1683 Location Modern-dayChina,Korea,Mongolia,and parts ofRussia,Central AsiaandSoutheast Asia Result Qingvictory Territorial changes Collapse of theMing dynastyandSouthern Ming dynasty Suppression of the rebelKingdom of Shu,Xi dynasty,Shun dynasty,andKingdom of Tungning Consolidation ofQing dynastyrule inChina proper
Belligerents
Qing dynasty Aisin-Gioro clan Manchus Ming defectors Southern and Eastern Mongols Joseon(Korea; after 1636) Dutch East India Company	Ming dynasty(1618–1644) Southern Ming dynasty(1644–1662): Nanjing court(1644–1645) Fuzhou court(1645–1646) Guangzhou court(1646–1647) Nanning court(1646–1662) Koxinga Combat support: Joseon(Korea; until 1636) YeheJurchens Tiandihui Kingdom of Tungning(1661–1683) Northern Yuan dynasty(1618–1635) ChagataiYarkent Khanate(1646–1650) Kumul Khanate Turpan Khanate Armament support: Tokugawa Shogunate(Japan) Kingdom of Portugal English East India Company	Shun dynasty(Li Zicheng) Xi dynasty(Zhang Xianzhong) Kingdom of Shu (She-An Rebellion) Evenk-Daurfederation NanaiHurka
Commanders and leaders
Nurhaci(WIA) Hong Taiji Daišan Dodo(WIA) Dorgon Ajige Oboi Shunzhi Emperor Jirgalang(WIA) Hooge Fan Wencheng Manggūltai Abatai Amin Sonin Bolo Ebilun Suksaha Laimbu Li Shuaitai Yao Qisheng Kangxi Emperor Li Yongfang(defected in 1618) Geng Zhongming(defected in 1633) Kong Youde(defected in 1633)† Shang Kexi(defected) Zu Dashou(defected in 1642) Wu Sangui(defected in 1644) (WIA) Hong Chengchou(defected) Shi Lang(defected) Zheng Zhilong(defected) Meng Qiaofang(defected) Zhang Cunren(defected) Sun Kewang(defected) Wang Fuchen(defected)	Chongzhen Emperor Sun Chengzong† Yuan Chonghuan Lu Xiangsheng† Man Gui† Ma Shilong Zhu Shichuan, Prince of Yanchang† Milayin( mễ lạt ấn )† Ding Guodong( đinh quốc đống )† Sun Chuanting† Shi Kefa Koxinga Li Dingguo Qin Liangyu Ou Guangchen Zuo Liangyu Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui(Yongli Emperor) Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang(Longwu Emperor) Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu(Hongguang Emperor) Zhu Youzhen, Prince of Yi Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu Zhu Shugui, Prince of Ningjing Supported by: Ligdan Khan Gintaisi Sa'id Baba Turumtay† Sultan Khan Zhu Hengjia,Prince of Jingjiang Zhu Yuyue, Prince of Tang(Shaowu Emperor)	Li Zicheng Ma Shouying Liu Zongmin† Li Guo Li Laiheng† Hao Yaoqi Yuan Zongdi Wang Deren Gao Yigong† Liu Tichun Zhang Xianzhong† Li Dingguo Sun Kewang Liu Wenxiu Ai Nengqi† Bai Wenxuan She Chongming An Bangyan Bombogor Sosoku
Strength
Manchu, Mongol, HanBannermen HanGreen Standard Armydefectors (after 1644) By 1648, Han Bannermen made up 75% of the Eight Banners while Manchus at only 16%.	Han Chinese soldiers,Hui Muslimsoldiers, and Mongol cavalry	Shun dynasty army varies between 60,000 and 100,000 men Zhang Xianzhong's army – 100,000 men 300,000Yifighters Nanai Hurka: 6,000
Casualties and losses
25,000,000 deaths overall, including civilians

Thetransition from Ming to Qingor theManchu conquest of Chinafrom 1618 to 1683 saw the transition between two majordynastiesinChinese history.It was a decades-long conflict between the emergingQing dynasty,the incumbentMing dynasty,and several smaller factions (like theShun dynastyandXi dynasty). It ended with the consolidation of Qing rule, and the fall of the Ming and several other factions.

Overview

The transition from the Ming to Qing was a decades-long period of conflict between:

1. theQing dynasty,established by theManchuclanAisin Gioroin contemporaryNortheast China;
2. theMing dynasty,the incumbent dynasty led by theZhu clan;
3. and various other rebel powers in China, such as the short-livedXi dynastyled byZhang Xianzhongand the short-livedShun dynastyled byLi Zicheng.

Leading up to the Qing, in 1618, theLater JinkhanNurhacicommissioned a document entitled theSeven Grievances,which enumerated grievances against the Ming. Nurhaci, leader of theJianzhou Jurchens,was originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial Ming power,but he broke his relationship with the Ming with the establishment of the Later Jin dynasty in 1616 after heunified Jurchen tribes.Many of the grievances he presented dealt with conflicts against the Ming-backedYeheclan of theJurchens.Nurhaci's demand that the Ming pay tribute to him to redress the Seven Grievances was effectively a declaration of war, as the Ming were not willing to pay money to a former vassal. Shortly afterwards, Nurhaci rebelled againstMing ruleinLiaoning.

At the same time, the Ming dynasty was fighting for its survival against fiscal turmoil andpeasant rebellions.Han Chineseofficials urged Nurhaci's successorHong Taijito crown himselfemperor,which he did in 1636, declaring the new Qing dynasty. On 24 April 1644,Beijingfell to a rebel army led byLi Zicheng,a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt and then proclaimed theShun dynasty.The last Ming emperor, theChongzhen Emperor,hanged himself from theZuihuaitree in the imperial garden outside theForbidden City.When Li Zicheng moved against him, the Ming generalWu Sanguishifted his allegiance to the Qing. Li Zicheng was defeated at theBattle of Shanhai Passby the joint forces of Wu Sangui and Manchu princeDorgon.On 6 June, the mainly Han Chinese forces of Dorgon and Wu entered the capital.

The fall of the Ming dynasty was largely caused by a combination of factors. Scholars have argued that the fall of the Ming dynasty may have been partially caused by the droughts and famines caused by theLittle Ice Age.HistorianKenneth Swopeargues that one key factor was deteriorating relations between Ming royalty and theMing Empire's military leadership.Other factors include repeated military expeditions to the north, inflationary pressures caused by spending too much from the imperial treasury, natural disasters and epidemics of disease. Contributing further to the chaos was a peasant rebellion throughout the country in 1644 and a series of weak emperors. Ming power would hold out in what is now southern China for years, though eventually would be overtaken by the Qing forces. Other authors have linked the fall of the Ming withthe General Crisisaffecting theSpanish EmpireunderPhilip IV,theEnglish Civil Warand other polities.

However, the victory was far from complete as it required almost 40 more years before all of China was securely united under Qing rule. In 1661, theKangxi Emperorascended the throne, and in 1662 his regents launched theGreat Clearanceto defeat the resistance of Ming loyalists inSouth China.He then fought off several rebellions, such as theRevolt of the Three Feudatoriesled byWu Sanguiin southern China, starting in 1673, and then countered by launching a series of campaigns that expanded his empire. In 1662,Zheng Chenggong(Koxinga) drove out and defeated theDutchand founded theKingdom of TungninginTaiwan,a Ming loyalist state with the goal of reunifying China. However, Tungning was defeated in 1683 at theBattle of Penghuby Han Chinese admiralShi Lang,a former admiral under Koxinga.

The Qing victory was overwhelmingly the result of the defection of the Ming dynasty'sLiaodongmilitary establishment and other defectors, with the Manchu military playing a very minor role (see below for specific examples).

Jurchens and the late Ming dynasty

Central Asia in 1636. The Ming dynasty previously ruled over theAisin Gioro ClanandJurchens.The Manchus and Qing dynasty started from northeastern China and spread throughout the rest of China.

Main articles:Manchuria under Ming ruleandLate Ming peasant rebellions

TheManchusare sometimes described as a nomadic people,when in fact they were not nomads,but a sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops, practiced hunting and mounted archery. Their main military formation was infantry wielding bows and arrows, swords, and pikes, while cavalry was kept in the rear.

Manchus were living in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adoptingHan Chinese-style agriculture well before the Qing conquest of the Ming,and there was an established tradition of Han Chinese-Manchu mixing before 1644. The Han Chinese soldiers on theLiaodongfrontier often mixed with non-Han tribesmen and were largely acculturated to their ways.The Jurchen Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who went over to them,and Han Chinese soldiers from Liaodong often adopted and used Manchu names. IndeedNurhaci's secretary Dahai may have been one such individual.

Battle of Ningyuanbetween Ming and Manchus

Battle of Ningyuan, whereNurhaciwas injured in defeat

In the lateMing dynasty,Ming army units had become dominated by officers who would spend long periods of 10 or 12 years in command instead of the usual practice of constant rotation, and the Central Military Command had lost much of its control over regional armies.Zongdu Junwu,or Supreme Commanders, were appointed throughout the empire to oversee the fiscal and military affairs in the area of their jurisdiction. In the frontier areas these became increasingly autonomous, and especially inLiaodong,where military service and command became hereditary andvassalage-like personal bonds of loyalty grew between officers, their subordinates and troops. This military caste gravitated toward theJurchentribal chieftains rather than the bureaucrats of the capital.

TheShe-An Rebellionamong theYi peoplebroke out inSichuanin 1621 against the Ming, requiring suppression, which was completed in 1629. In the early 1640s, mass rebellions led by many rebel leaders broke out in northwestern China's province ofShaanxiand spread throughout China in the 1640s. Major battles included the sacking ofFengyangbyLi ZichengandZhang Xianzhongand a battle inKaifengwhich led to the deliberately engineered1642 Yellow River floodby the Ming governor in an attempt to stop Li Zicheng.

Initial Jurchen conquests

Conquest of Liaodong and other Jurchen tribes (1601–1626)

Main article:Jurchen unification

TheJianzhouJurchenchief,Nurhaci,is retrospectively identified as the founder of theQing dynasty.In 1589 theMing dynastyappointed Nurhaci as paramount chieftain of theYalu Region,believing that his tribe was too weak to gain hegemony over the largerYeheand Hada. When the other tribes attacked him to check his power in 1591, he succeeded in defeating them and seized many of their warhorses.

During much of his early life Nurhaci considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power.Upon the advice of an Erdeni, most likely a Chinese transfrontiersman, he proclaimed theLater Jin dynastyin 1616, named afterthe Jurchen-led Jin dynastythat had ruled over northern China several centuries earlier,and declared himselfKhan.His efforts tounify Jurchen tribesgave theJurchenthe strength to assert themselves backed by an army consisting of majorityHan Chinesedefectors as well as Ming produced firearms. In 1618, Nurhaci openly renounced the Ming overlordship and proclaimed hisSeven Grievancesagainst the Ming and departed his capital ofHetu Alawith 20,000 men. The army attacked andcaptured Fushun,located on theHun Riverabout 10 kilometers east ofShenyang.

TheHuluntribes, a powerful confederacy ofJurchentribes, started recognizing the authority of Nurhaci by the beginning of the 17th century. In some cases, such as withBujantaiof the Ula, chieftains would attempt to reassert their independence and war would break out, but the Jianzhou Jurchens would defeat and assimilate all the tribes eventually (Hada 1601, Hoifa 1607, Ula 1613,Yehe1619).The powerful Yehe Jurchens underGintaisiunited with the forces of the Ming dynasty to combat the rise of Nurhaci but Gintaisi was defeated and died in 1619.The fur-trapping Warka peoples near thePacificcoast were subjugated as tributary tribes from 1599 to 1641.

By summer 1621, the Ming'sLiaodongfortress cities,Fushun,Shenyang,andLiaoyang,were all handed over to the Later Jin by traitors and defectors. Fushun's commander surrendered after a single attack when promised that his troops and their families would not be enslaved or forced to change any of their customs (including hairstyle), but rather given high office. Shenyang fell with the aid ofMongolMing soldiers in the city; Liaoyang fell after traitors let down ropes for theJurchensto climb the wall in the night.The Ming generalLi Yongfangwho surrendered the city ofFushunin what is nowLiaoning provinceinChina's northeastdid so after Nurhaci gave him anAisin Gioroprincess in marriage and a noble title.The princess was one of Nurhaci's granddaughters. In April 1625, Nurhaci designated Shenyang the new capital city, which would hold that status until the Qing conquest ofBeijingin 1644.In 1625, the Jurchens captured the port city ofLüshun,thus controlling the wholeLiaodong peninsula.

When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into theEight Banners,manyManchuclans were artificially created from groups of unrelated people who would found a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a term of geographic origin such as a toponym for theirhala(clan name).The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led to the Qing trying to document and systemize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast.

Nurhaci read the Chinese novelsRomance of the Three KingdomsandWater Margin,learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them.

In February 1626, the Jurchensbesieged Ningyuanbut suffered a defeat in which Nurhaci was mortally wounded.

First Joseon campaign

Main article:Later Jin invasion of Joseon

TheLater Jinhad lost at theBattle of Ningyuanthe previous year and their khanNurhacidied from his wounds afterwards. Peace negotiations with theMingafter the battle delayed an aggressive Ming response to theJurchenloss, and the Ming generalYuan Chonghuanwas busy fortifying the border garrisons and training new musketeers. The new khanHong Taijiwas eager for a quick victory to consolidate his position as khan. By invadingJoseonhe also hoped to extract much-needed resources for his army and subjects, who had suffered in the war against the Ming.

In 1627, Hong Taiji dispatched princesAmin,Jirgalang,Ajige,andYototo Joseon with 30,000 troops, under the guidance ofGang Hong-ripandLi Yongfang.The Jurchens met sharp resistance at the border towns but Joseon border garrisons were quickly defeated. The Jurchen army advanced intoUijuwhere Ming generalMao Wenlongwas stationed, and Mao quickly fled with his men into theBohai Sea.Next, the Jurchens attackedAnju.When it became clear that defeat was inevitable, the Anju garrisons committed suicide by blowing up their gunpowder storehouse.Pyongyangfell without a fight and the Jin army crossed theTaedong River.

By this time news of the invasion had reached the Ming court, which immediately dispatched a relief contingent to Joseon, slowing the Jurchen advance intoHwangju.King Injothen dispatched an envoy to negotiate a peace treaty, but by the time the messenger returned, Injo had already fled fromHanseongtoGanghwa Islandin panic.

Mongolia campaign (1625–1635)

TheKhorchinMongolsallied withNurhaciand theJurchensin 1626, submitting to his rule for protection against theKhalkhaMongols andChaharMongols. Seven Khorchin nobles died at the hands of Khalkhas and Chahars in 1625. This started the Khorchin alliance with theQing.

The Chahar Mongols were fought against byDorgonin 1628 and 1635.An expedition against the Chahar Mongols in 1632 was ordered to establish a trading post atZhangjiakou.The Qing defeated the armies of the Mongol khanLigdan,who was allied to theMing,bringing an end to his rule over theNorthern Yuan.The defeat of Ligdan Khan in 1634, in addition to winning the allegiance of the Southern Mongol hordes, brought a vast supply of horses to the Qing, while denying the same supply to the Ming. The Qing also captured the Great Seal of the Mongol Khans, giving them the opportunity to portray themselves as heirs of theYuan dynastyas well.

Hong Taiji and formation of the Qing dynasty

Jesuitmissionary illustration of theQingEmperor in ceremonial and ordinary uniform.

Hong Taijiwas the eighth son ofNurhaci,whom he succeeded as the second ruler of theLater Jin dynastyin 1626. He organisedimperial examinationsto recruit scholar-officials from theHan Chinese,and adopted Chinese legal forms. He formed autonomous Han Chinese military colonies governed by Han Chinese officials, whereManchuswere forbidden to trespass. Hong Taiji curtailed the power of the Manchu princes by relying on Han Chinese officials. He personally welcomed surrenderedMingcommanders, eating side-by-side with them so as to build a rapport that was impossible with the Ming emperors. The Manchus, led byPrince Amin,expressed their displeasure at the situation by massacring the population ofQian'anandYongping.Hong Taiji responded by arresting and imprisoning Amin, who later died in prison. He then implemented, on the urging of his Han Chinese advisors, Chinese-styleConfucianeducation, and Ming-style government ministries.When Zhang Chun, a Ming commander, was captured but refused to defect, Hong Taiji personally served him with food to show his sincerity (Zhang still refused but was kept in a temple until his death).With the surrender ofDalinghein 1631, the most capable army officers of the Ming became faithful followers of the new dynasty who would take over the preparation and planning of much of the war. From this episode onward, the transition ceased to be an inter-nation conflict between Chinese and Manchus but rather a civil war betweenMukdenandBeijing.

Meanwhile, in the Ming, theWuqiao mutinybroke out in 1631, led byKong YoudeandGeng Zhongming.Undersupplied and underpaid soldiers mutinied against the Ming dynasty. They subsequently sailed acrossBohai Gulfand defected to theJurchensen masse. During the mutiny, they purged thousands ofSouthern Chinese,suspecting them to be loyal to the Ming.

Hong Taiji was reluctant to become Emperor of China. However, Han Chinese officials Ning Wanwo (Ninh hoàn ngã),Fan Wencheng,Ma Guozhu (Mã quốc trụ), Zu Kefa (Tổ khả pháp), Shen Peirui (Thẩm bội thụy), and Zhang Wenheng (Trương văn hành) urged him to declare himself as Emperor of China. On 14 May 1636, he accepted this advice, changing the name of his regime from Jin to Qing, and enthroning himself as Emperor of China in an elaborate Confucian ceremony.

Hong Taiji's renaming of theJurchenstoManchuswas meant to hide the fact that theJianzhou Jurchenswere vassals of theHan Chinese.The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books ofQing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shiluand theManzhou Shilu Tu(Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidding them from public view, because they showed that theManchuAisin-Giorofamily had been ruled by theMingdynasty.In the Ming period, theKoreansofJoseonreferred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of theKorean peninsula,above the riversYaluandTumen,to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk), the name they used to refer to Ming China.The Qing deliberately excluded references and information from theHistory of Mingthat showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. TheVeritable Records of Mingwere not used to source theHistory of Mingbecause of this.Refusing to mention in theMingshithat the Qing founders were Ming China's subjects was meant to avoid the accusation of rebellion.

Han–Manchu marriages

Han Chinesegenerals who defected to theManchuswere oftengiven women from the imperial Aisin-Gioro family in marriage.Manchu Aisin-Gioro princesses were also married to Han Chinese officials' sons.The Manchu leaderNurhacimarried one of his granddaughters (Abatai's daughter) to theMinggeneralLi Yongfangafter he surrenderedFushuninLiaoningto the Manchus in 1618. The offspring of Li Yongfang received the "Third Class Baron" (Tam đẳng tử tước;sān děng zǐjué) title.Li Yongfang was the great-great-great-grandfather of Li Shiyao.The 4th daughter ofKangxiwas wedded to Sun Cheng'en, son of the Han Chinese Sun Sike.Other Aisin-Gioro women married the sons of the Han Chinese generalsGeng Jimao,Shang Kexi,andWu Sangui.Meanwhile, the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives, and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by PrinceYotoand KhanHong Taijiin 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.

This policy, which began before the invasion of 1644, was continued after it. A 1648 decree fromShunzhiallowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from theBannerswith the permission of theBoard of Revenueif they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, and it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.The decree was formulated by PrinceDorgon.In the beginning of the Qing dynasty the Qing government supported Han Chinese defectors weddings to Manchu girls.Han Chinese Bannermen wedded Manchus and there was no law against this.

The "Dolo efu" rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses.Geng Zhongming,a Han Chinese bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sonsGeng Jingzhongand Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under theShunzhi Emperorand marriedAisin-Giorowomen, with PrinceAbatai's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong andHaoge's (a son ofHong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong.A daughter of the Manchu Aisin-Gioro Prince Yolo was wedded toGeng Juzhong,who was another son of Geng Jingmao.Aisin-Gioro women were also offered toMongolswho defected to theManchus.The Manchu Prince RegentDorgongave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han Chinese official Feng Quan,who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. Feng Quan willingly adopted the Manchu queue hairstyle before it was enforced on the Han Chinese population and he also learned theManchu language.

Building a mixed military

Mingfirearms

WhenLi Yongfangsurrendered, he was given much higher status than under theMing,and even allowed to keep his troops as retainers.Kong Youde,Shang KexiandGeng Zhongmingwere also allowed to keep their personal armies.The warlord Shen Zhixiang, who had unlawfully taken over command of his deceased uncle Shen Shikui's troops as his private army, was unable to attain recognition from the Ming court. He then proceeded to lead his forces to switch allegiance to theQing,and they became critical assets to the Qing.

There were too few ethnicManchusto ruleChina,but they absorbed defeatedMongols,and, more importantly, addedHan Chineseto theEight Banners.The Manchus had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the very large number of Han Chinese soldiers absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection. The Qing showed that the Manchus valued military skills in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military to get them to defect to the Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military.From 1618 to 1631 Manchus received Han Chinese defectors and their descendants became Han Bannermen and those killed in battle were commemorated as martyrs in biographies.

Hong Taijirecognized that Ming defectors were needed in order to defeat the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector generalHong Chengchouleniently.Hong Taiji understood that the Ming would not be easily defeated unless Han Chinese troops wielding musket and cannon were included in the army.Indeed, among theBanners,gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were specifically used by the Han Chinese Banners.The Manchus established an artillery corps made out of Han Chinese soldiers in 1641.The use of artillery by Han Bannermen may have led to them being known as "heavy" soldiers (ujen cooha).The "red coat cannon"were part of the Han army (LiaodongHan Chinese) serving the Qing.

Ming officers who defected to the Qing were allowed to retain their previous military rank.The Qing received the defection of Shen Zhixiang in 1638.Among the other Han Chinese officers who defected to the Qing wereMa Guangyuan,Wu Rujie,Zu Dashou,Quan Jie,Geng Zhongming,Zu Zehong,Zu Zepu,Zu Zerun,Deng Changchun,Wang Shixian,Hong Chengchou,Shang Kexi,Liu Wuyuan,Zu Kefa,Zhang Cunren,Meng Qiaofang,Kong Youde,Sun Dingliao.Aristocratic and military ranks, silver, horses and official positions were given to Han Chinese defectors likeZhang Cunren,Sun Dingliao,Liu Wu,Liu Liangchen,Zu Zehong,Zu Zepu,Zu KufaandZu Zerun.Han Chinese defectors were primarily responsible for military strategy after 1631.

So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of theEight Bannersthat ethnicManchusbecame a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, withHan ChineseBannermen dominating at 75% andMongolBannermen making up the rest.It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which unified China for the Qing.The Qing takeover was done by the multi-ethnic Han Chinese Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners which made up the Qing military.In 1644, Ming China was invaded by an army that had only a fraction of Manchus, being multi-ethnic, with Han Chinese Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners. The political barrier was between the commoners made out of non-bannermen Han Chinese and the "conquest elite", made out of Han Chinese bannermen, nobles, and Mongols and Manchu. Ethnicity was not the determining factor.Han Chinese (Nikan) bannermen used banners of black color andNurhaciwas guarded by Han Chinese soldiers.Other banners became a minority compared to the Han Chinese (Nikan) Black Banner detachments during Nurhaci's reign.

Lead-up to the Great Wall

Second Joseon campaign (1636–1637)

Main article:Qing invasion of Joseon

TheLater Jinhad forcedJoseonto open markets near the borders because its conflicts withMinghad brought economic hardship and starvation to Jin subjects. Joseon was also forced to transfer suzerainty of the Warka tribe to Jin. Furthermore, a tribute of 100 horses, 100 tiger and leopard skins, 400 bolts of cotton, and 15,000 pieces of cloth was to be extracted and gifted to the Jin Khan.King Injo's brother was sent to deliver this tribute. However, in later letters to the Joseon king,Hong Taijiwould complain that theKoreansdid not behave as if they had lost, and were not abiding by the terms of the agreement. Joseon merchants and markets continued to trade with Ming and actively aided Ming subjects by providing them with grain and rations. Hong Taiji rebuked them, saying that the food of Joseon should only be fed to Joseon subjects.

Prior to the invasion, Hong Taiji sent princesAbatai,Jirgalang,andAjigeto secure the coastal approaches to Korea, so that Ming could not send reinforcements. On 9 December 1636,Hong TaijiledManchu,Mongol,andHan ChineseBanners against Joseon. Chinese support was particularly evident in the army's artillery and naval contingents. The defected Ming mutineerKong Youde,ennobled as the Qing's Prince Gongshun, joined the attacks onGanghwaandKa( "Pidao" ). The defectorsGeng ZhongmingandShang Kexialso played prominent roles in the Korean invasion.

After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea,Joseon Koreawas forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent PrinceDorgon.In 1650 Dorgon married the KoreanPrincess Uisun.The princess' name in Korean was Uisun and she was Prince Yi Kaeyoon's (Kumrimgoon) daughter.Dorgon married two Korean princesses atLianshan.

Campaigns against the Amur tribes

TheQingdefeated theEvenk-Daurfederation led by Evenki chiefBombogorand beheaded Bombogor in 1640, with Qing armies massacring and deporting Evenkis and absorbing the survivors into theBanners.TheNanaisat first fought againstNurhaciand theManchus,led by their own Nanai Hurka chief Sosoku before surrendering toHong Taijiin 1631. Mandatory shaving of the front of all male heads was imposed onAmur peoplesconquered by the Qing like the Nanais. The Amur peoples already wore the queue on the back of their heads but did not shave the front until the Qing subjected them and ordered them to shave.The Qing married off Manchu princesses to Amur chiefs who submitted to their rule.TheDaursandTungusic peoplesof theAmur region(Evenks,Nanais) and other ethnicities of this region were absorbed into the QingEight Bannerssystem.

Liaoxi campaign (1638–1642)

Main article:Battle of Song-Jin

In 1638,Qingarmies raided deep into the interior ofChinaas far asJinaninShandong provinceand immediately retreated back across theGreat Wall.TheMingemperor insisted on concentrating all efforts at fighting the rebel armies instead, likening the Qing to be a mere "skin rash" while the rebels were a "visceral disease".In 1641,Jinzhouwas besieged by a force of over 30 cannons ofHan Chinesebanner artillery underManchuprinceJirgalang,with supportingKoreanartillery under the command ofYu Im.The Koreans, however, were incapacitated by outbreaks of disease.The fortress city ofSongshanfell next after a major battle, due to the defection and betrayal of Ming commanderXia Chengde.The emperor responded by ordering theNingyuangarrison commanderWu Sanguito go on the offense, but he was quickly repelled. Manchu princeAbataithen led another raid into the interior of China, reaching the northernJiangsu provinceand looting 12,000 goldtaelsand 2,200,000 silver taels. MingGrand SecretaryZhou Yanrurefused to engage in battle, while fabricating reports of victory and extorting bribes to cover up for defeats. Prince-RegentDorgonlater told his officials how "it was really very comical" reading captured Ming military reports, because most were fabricated stories of victory. Meanwhile, rebel "bandits" continued advancing.After the fall of Songshan, amid the urging of his brother and sons (formerly also Ming generals) to join them in defecting to the Qing, the commander ofJinzhou,Zu Dashou,also defected on 8 April 1642, handing them the city.With the fall of Songshan and Jinzhou, the Ming defense system inLiaoxicollapsed, leavingWu Sangui's forces near theShanhai Passas the last barrier on the Qing armies' way toBeijing.

Beijing and the north (1644)

See also:Ming Great Wall § The Wall and the fall of the Ming

In their later years, theMingfaced a number of famines and floods as well as economic chaos, and rebellions.Li Zichengrebelled in the 1630s inShaanxiin the north, while a mutiny led byZhang Xianzhongbroke out inSichuanin the 1640s. Historians estimated that up to one million people were killed in this self-proclaimed emperor's reign of terror.

Just asDorgon,whom historians have variously called "the mastermind of theQingconquest "and "the principal architect of the greatManchuenterprise ",and his advisors were pondering how to attack theMing,the peasant rebellions ravaging northern China were approaching dangerously close to theMingcapitalBeijing.In February 1644, rebel leaderLi Zichenghad founded theShun dynastyinXi'anand proclaimed himself king. In March, his armies had captured the important city ofTaiyuaninShanxi.Seeing the progress of the rebels, on 5 April, the MingChongzhen Emperorrequested the urgent help of any military commandant in the empire.On 24 April, Li Zicheng breached the walls of Beijing, and the emperor hanged himself the next day on a hill behind theForbidden City.He was the last Ming emperor to reign in Beijing.

The Qing made a proposal to Li Zicheng's Shun forces on 6 March 1644 that they should ally and divide northern China between the Shun and Qing, sending a delegation to propose a joint attack on the Ming to take over theCentral Plains.The Shun received the letter.

When Li Zicheng and his army reached Beijing, he had made an offer via the former Ming eunuchDu Xunto theChongzhen Emperorof the Ming dynasty that Li Zicheng would fight the Qing dynasty and eradicate all other rebels on behalf of the Ming, if the Ming dynasty would recognize Li Zicheng's control over his Shaanxi-Shanxi fief, pay him 1 milliontaelsand confirm Li Zicheng's noble rank of Prince. Li Zicheng did not intend to overthrow the Ming Emperor or kill him. The Ming Emperor, however, fearful that accepting such political expediency would ruin his reputation tried to getWei Zaode,the ChiefGrand Secretary,to agree with the decision and shoulder the responsibility of the decision. Wei Zaode refused to answer, so the Chongzhen Emperor rejected Li Zicheng's terms. Li Zicheng marched into the capital as Ming officials surrendered and defected. Li Zicheng still did not intend to kill the Chongzhen Emperor and the Ming Crown Prince, intending to recognise them as nobles of the newShun dynasty.Li Zicheng lamented the death of the Chongzhen Emperor after discovering he committed suicide, saying that he had come to share power and rule together with him. Li Zicheng distrusted the Ming officials who defected to his side when the Ming fell, viewing them as the reason for the Ming demise.After declaring his own Shun dynasty inBeijing,Li Zicheng sent an offer to the powerful Ming general at theGreat Wall,Wu Sangui,to defect to his side in exchange for a high noble rank and title. Wu Sangui dallied for days before he decided to accept the rank and defect to Li Zicheng. Wu Sangui was on his way to formally capitulate and defect to Li Zicheng, but by that time Li Zicheng thought Wu Sangui's silence meant he had rejected the offer and ordered Wu Sangui's father to be beheaded. This caused Wu Sangui to defect to the Qing.

The battle atShanhai Passthat allowedManchusto enterChina proper

Soon after the emperor had called for help, Ming generalWu Sanguihad left his stronghold ofNingyuannorth of theGreat Walland started marching toward the capital. On 26 April, his armies had moved through the fortifications of theShanhai Pass(the eastern end of the Great Wall) and were marching towardBeijingwhen he heard that the city had fallen,whereupon he returned to the Shanhai Pass. Li Zicheng sent two armies to attack the pass but Wu's battle-hardened troops defeated them easily on 5 May and 10 May.Then on 18 May,Li Zichengpersonally led 60,000 of his troops out of Beijing to attack Wu.At the same time, Wu Sangui wrote toDorgonto request the Qing's help in ousting the bandits and restoring the Ming dynasty.

Meanwhile, Wu Sangui's departure from thestronghold of Ningyuanhad left all the territory outside the Great Wall under Qing control.Two of Dorgon's most prominent Chinese advisors,Hong ChengchouandFan Wencheng,urged the Manchu prince to seize the opportunity of the fall of Beijing to present themselves as avengers of the fallen Ming and to claim theMandate of Heavenfor the Qing.Therefore, when Dorgon received Wu's letter, he was already about to lead an expedition to attack northern China and had no intention to restore the Ming. When Dorgon asked Wu to work for the Qing instead, Wu had little choice but to accept.

After Wu formally surrendered to the Qing in the morning of 27 May, his elite troops charged the rebel army repeatedly, but were unable to break the enemy lines.Dorgon waited until both sides were weakened before ordering his cavalry to gallop around Wu's right wing to charge Li's left flank.Li Zicheng's troops were quickly routed and fled back toward Beijing.After their defeat at theBattle of Shanhai Pass,the Shun troops looted Beijing for several days until Li Zicheng left the capital on 4 June with all the wealth he could carry, one day after he had defiantly proclaimed himselfEmperorof the Great Shun.

Ethnic situation

The conquest of the [Ming] Empire, after the Manchus had securely seated themselves in Peking, had to be undertaken largely with [Han] Chinese troops, "stiffened" a little with a Manchu regiment here and there[...]

— E.H. Parker, The Financial Capacity of China; Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

Wu Sanguiwas a general of theMing dynasty,who later defected to theQing dynasty.However, his hopes to restore the former were dashed after he rebelled against theKangxi Emperor.

The easy transition between the Ming and Qing dynasties has been ascribed to theChongzhen Emperor's refusal to move southward when his capital had been under rebel threat. This allowed the Qing dynasty to capture an entire corps of qualified civil servants to administer the country, and also ensured that theSouthern Mingpretenders would suffer from infighting due to their weak claims on the throne. A large émigré elite of northerners in the south would also have increased the probability of an aggressive policy of reconquest to regain their northern homelands.

Imperial examinationsstarted being organised almost immediately upon the Qing capture of Beijing. The early Qing government was dominated by scholars fromNorth China,and a strong factional rivalry between Northern and Southern scholars ensued. Ming dynasty officials in the finance, appointments and military departments largely joined the new dynasty and formed the core of the Qing civil service, but not the staff of rites, music and literature (the Qing may not have prioritised these either). These defectors were responsible for easing the transition of government without major setbacks. A large proportion of military officials and civilian officials in theBoard of Warwere given promotions after defecting. The top positions were mainly in the hands of Han Chinese Bannermen fromLiaodong.

WhenDorgonorderedHan Chinesecivilians to vacateBeijing's inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han Chinese bannermen. Later, some exceptions were made, allowing Han Chinese civilians who held government or commercial jobs to also reside in the inner city.The civilian government was flooded by Han Chinese Bannermen.The Six Boards President and other major positions were filled with Han Chinese Bannermen chosen by the Qing.

It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing takeover. They made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China, stabilizing Qing rule.Han Chinese Bannermen dominated governor-general posts in the time of theShunzhiandKangxiemperors, as well as governor posts, largely excluding ordinary Han Chinese civilians.ThreeLiaodongHan Chinese Bannermen officers who played a major role in southern China from the Ming wereShang Kexi,Geng Zhongming,andKong Youde.They governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing.The Qing deliberately avoided placingManchusorMongolsas provincial governors and governors-general, with not a single Manchu governor until 1658, and not a single governor-general until 1668.

A portrait ofHong Chengchou(1593–1665), a formerMingofficial who advisedDorgonto take advantage of the violent death of the MingChongzhen Emperorto present theQingas the avengers of theMingand to conquer all ofChinainstead of raiding for loot and slaves.

In addition to Han Chinese Banners, the Qing relied on theGreen Standard Army,composed of Han Chinese (Ming) military forces who defected to the Qing, in order to help rule northern China.It was these troops who provided day-to-day military governance in China,and supplied the forces used in the front-line fighting.Han ChineseBannermen,MongolBannermen, andManchuBannermen were only deployed to respond to emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance.

It was such a Qing army composed mostly of Han Chinese Bannermen which attackedKoxinga's Ming loyalists inNanjing.The Manchus sent Han Chinese Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists inFujian.The Qing carried out a massive depopulation policy andclearances,forcing people to evacuate the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources: this led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In fact, inGuangdongandFujian,it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproves the claim that "fear of water" on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation to move inland and declare the sea ban.Most of the coastal population ofFujianfled to the hills or toTaiwanto avoid the war;Fuzhouwas an empty city when the Qing forces entered it.

Consolidation in the north (1645)

See also:Li Zicheng

Soon after enteringBeijingin June 1644,DorgondespatchedWu Sanguiand his troops to pursueLi Zicheng,the rebel leader who had driventhe last Ming emperorto suicide, but had been defeated by theQingin late May at theBattle of Shanhai Pass.Wu managed to engage Li's rearguard many times, but Li still managed to cross theGu PassintoShanxi,and Wu returned to Beijing.Li Zicheng reestablished his power base inXi'an(Shaanxiprovince), where he had declared the foundation of hisShun dynastyback in February 1644.In October of that year Dorgon sent several armies to root out Li Zicheng from his Shaanxi stronghold,after repressing revolts against Qing rule inHebeiandShandongin the summer and autumn of 1644. Qing armies led byAjige,Dodo,andShi Tingzhuwon consecutive engagements against Shun forces in Shanxi and Shaanxi, forcing Li Zicheng to leave his Xi'an headquarters in February 1645.Pursued by Ajige, Li retreated down theHan RiverintoWuchang,Hubeiand further toTongchengand theJiugong Mountainsuntil he was killed in September 1645, either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry.

BetweenBeijingandDatongand inShanxiprovincemillenarianistgroups of martial artist acolytes calling themselves the "Supreme Heaven's Clear and Pure Good Friends" and the "Society of Good Friends" respectively rose up in rebellion in 1645 against the new regime. These were suppressed by slaughtering anyone suspected of membership in such popular sects.

Other sectarian millenarian movements in Shanxi province broke out in rebellion in 1646–1648. Court fears of insurrection led them to crackdown on the sects led byZheng Dengqi,which in turn caused a major rebellion. The rebels were pacified through generous grants of amnesty.

Administrative policies

On the orders ofNurhaciin 1629,a number of Chinese works considered to be of critical importance were translated intoManchubyDahai.The first works translated were all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic.They were theLiutao,Su Shu(Tố thư), andSanlüefollowed by the military textWuziandThe Art of War.

Other texts translated into Manchu by Dahai included the Ming penal code.The Manchus placed great significance on Chinese texts relating to military affairs and governance, and further Chinese texts of history, law and military theory were translated into Manchu during the rule ofHong TaijiinMukden.A Manchu translation was made of the military themed Chinese novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms.As well as the translations by Dahai, other Chinese literature, military theory and legal texts were translated into Manchu byErdeni.

In order to pacify the population, the Qing authorities placed care to appoint good local officials. These were mainly ex-Ming non-Bannermen local magistrates who collaborated; virtually all county-level posts were filled by non-banner Han Chinese, who outnumbered Bannermen officials 12-to-1. There were in fact so many collaborators that the Qing court had to cut down on their numbers. The court also placed great attention to clamping down on administrative corruption through intensified inspections, and implemented a system of bureaucratic review (kao cheng). This helped to improve local government operations.

The Qing regime passed the Neighbourhood Security Investigation Law (linbao jiancha fa) which organised households into "mutual responsibility" groups of 10 and 100, and appointing leaders who were responsible for arresting fugitives. It was also used, initially at least, to stop the populace from moving in restive zones, and to stop arms and horse trading. From 1648 to 1649 civilian arms and horses were seized outright, but afterwards these were allowed for approved households in mutual responsibility units.

Conquest of the northwest (1644–1649)

TheMonguors,who weretusiappointed by the Ming emperor, supported theMingagainst aTibetanrevolt and againstLi Zicheng's rebels in 1642. They were unable to resist Li Zicheng and many tusi chiefs were massacred. When theQingforces underAjigeandMeng Qiaofangfought against Li's forces after 1644 they quickly joined the Qing side. Meanwhile, Ming loyalist forces numbering 70,000 well-equipped troops were coalescing in the mountains south ofXi'an,under former Ming commanders Sun Shoufa, He Zhen and Wu Dading, capturing the city ofFengxiang.As they advanced toward Xi'an they were flanked by recent Ming defectors under Meng Qiaofang, and overrun with Bannermen.He Zhen's rebels were mainly bandits, and they continued operating out of small stockades in the forested, mountainous regions with 10 to 15 rebel families in every stockade, usually centered around a temple. They generally enjoyed popular support, and would retreat to the higher mountain safehouses upon receiving locals' notice of any military movements in the area. Groups of stockades congregated around a "King", who would grant commissions of Colonel or Major to other stockade leaders. They were finally pacified by forces led byRen Zhen.

Late in 1646, forces assembled by aMuslimleader known in Chinese sources asMilayin( mễ lạt ấn ) revolted against Qing rule inGanzhou(Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim namedDing Guodong( đinh quốc đống ).Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the fallen Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capitalLanzhou.These rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion, and were not aiming to create anIslamic state.To pacify the rebels, the Qing government quickly despatchedMeng Qiaofang,governor ofShaanxi,a former Ming official who had surrendered to the Qing in 1631.The rebel leaders persuaded Zhu Shichuan, Ming Prince ofYanchang,to legitimise them as a Ming loyalist force, and they quickly capturedGanzhouandLiangzhou,but were repelled atGongchang, Gansu.Milayin and Ding Guodong negotiated a truce in which they would become Qing commanders in April 1649, but less than four weeks later they rose up in revolt again. Milayan was swiftly killed when he attempted to break out of the Qing encirclement, while Ding Guodong holed up for a siege inSuzhouand allied with theKumul Khanateby inviting Prince Sa'id Baba to rule in Suzhou. The Qing counterattack was interrupted by the Jiang Xiang mutiny (below).

Fall of the south

Conquest of Jiangnan (1645)

Main article:Southern Ming

Portrait ofShi Kefa,who refused to surrender to theQingin the defense ofYangzhou

A few weeks after theChongzhen Emperorcommitted suicide inBeijingin April 1644, descendants of theMingimperial house started arriving inNanjing,which had been the auxiliary capital of the Ming dynasty.Agreeing that the Ming needed an imperial figure to rally support in the south, theNanjingMinister of WarShi Kefaand theFengyangGovernor-generalMa Shiyingagreed to form a loyalist Ming government around thePrince of Fu,Zhu Yousong,a first cousin of theChongzhen Emperorwho had been next in line for succession after the dead emperor's sons, whose fates were still unknown.The Prince wascrownedasemperoron 19 June 1644 under the protection of Ma Shiying and his large war fleet.He would reign under theera name"Hongguang" ( hoằng quang ). The Hongguang regime was ridden with factional bickering that facilitated theQingconquest ofJiangnan,which was launched fromXi'anin April 1645.He set out from Xi'an on that very day.Greatly aided by the surrender of Southern Ming commandersLi ChengdongandLiu Liangzuo,the Qing army took the key city ofXuzhounorth of theHuai Riverin early May 1645, leavingShi KefainYangzhouas the main defender of theSouthern Ming's northern frontiers. The betrayal of these commanders handed over the entire northwestern zone of the Southern Ming, helping the Qing forces to link up.Ming loyalist Ma Shiying had brought toNanjingtroops from the western provinces made out of non-Han Chineseindigenous fierce tribal warriors called"Sichuan" soldiersto defend the city against the Qing. These Ming loyalist non-Han Chinese "barbarian" fierce tribal warriors were slaughtered by the Han Chinese citizens of Nanjing after the Han Chinese people of Nanjing had peacefully defected and turned the city to Qing rule when the Southern MingHongguang Emperorleft the city. The people also yelled "These are the son and daughter-in-law of the traitorous minister Ma Shiying!" when they paraded the daughter-in-law and son of Ma Shiying after stormingRuan DachengandMa Shiying's houses and they also did it toWang Duo's daughter-in-law and son.TheDutch East India CompanysecretaryJohann Nieuhofobserved thatNanjingcity and its people were unharmed by the Qing and only the Ming palace suffered destruction. The damage inflicted to the Ming palace was largely done by the Han Chinese locals of Nanjing, and not the Qing army.

Qing Prince of Yu,Dodo,later berated the Southern Ming Prince of Fu,Zhu Yousong,over his battle strategy in 1645, telling him that the Southern Ming would have defeated the Qing if only the Southern Ming assaulted the Qing military before they forded theYellow Riverinstead of tarrying. The Prince of Fu could find no words to respond when he tried to defend himself.

InJiangnan,the Qing implemented peaceful takeovers for districts and cities who surrendered without any violent resistance, leaving the local Ming officials who defected in charge and the QingHan Chinese-Manchuarmy would not attack them nor kill or do any violence against peaceful defectors.

Several contingents of Qing forces converged onYangzhouon 13 May 1645.The majority of the Qing army which marched on the city were Ming defectors and they far outnumbered theManchusandBannermen.Shi Kefa's small force refused to surrender, but could not resistDodo's artillery: on 20 May Qing cannon wielded by the Han Chinese Bannermen (Ujen Coohai) breached the city wall and Dodo ordered the"brutal slaughter"of Yangzhou's entire populationto terrorize other Jiangnan cities into surrendering to the Qing.On 1 June Qing armies crossed theYangzi Riverand easily took the garrison city ofZhenjiang,which protected access toNanjing.The Qing arrived at the gates of Nanjing a week later, but theHongguang Emperorhad already fled.The city surrendered without a fight on 16 June 1645 after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the population.Within less than a month, the Qing had captured the fleeing Ming emperor (he died inBeijingthe following year) and seizedJiangnan's main cities, includingSuzhouandHangzhou.By then the frontier between theQingand theSouthern Minghad been pushed south to theQiantang River.Nieuhofobserved that the city ofNanjingwas unharmed byQingsoldiers.

Qing soldiers ransomed women captured fromYangzhouback to their original husbands and fathers inNanjingafter Nanjing peacefully surrendered, corralling the women into the city and whipping them hard with their hair containing a tag showing the price of the ransom, which was cheap at only 3 to 4taelsfor the best and 10 taels at most for those wearing good clothing.

During the factional struggles, the warlordZuo Liangyuhad mutinied againstMa Shiyingwho was in control atNanjing,accusing him of repression. With the arrival of theQingforces inJiujiang,almost the entire army of Zuo Liangyu defected to the Qing. This provided the Qing with a critical new pool of military leaders and troops. These were also officers fromLiaodong,or had previously served there, who in the 1630s had been withdrawn to fight rebels in the interior provinces. The most important of these wasJin Shenghuanwho was later single-handedly responsible for the conquest ofJiangxi.Other generals were Zuo Liangyu's sonZuo Menggengwho later crushed rebels inDatong,Lu GuangzuandLi Guoyingwho served in theSichuancampaign,Xu YongandHao Xiaozhongwho served in theHunancampaigns. Many of these became the most capable commanders against theSouthern Mingloyalists.

TheHongguang Emperorfled intoAnhuion theYangzi's southern bank atTongling,inHuang Degong's military camp. Huang Degong told him that if he died fighting to the death inNanjingthen all the ministers would have followed his lead in fighting against theQing,but now that he fled without a fight and listened to traitors his small army could not act as a guard for the emperor. Huang Degong then said "I am willing to devote my life to you" after the emperor said he could not rely on him as a minister resentfully. Then a group of Qing Han Chinese and Banner soldiers showed up to Huang Degong's camp inWuhuon 15 June 1645, underZhang Tianlu,theGuazhougarrison commander, bannermen fromDodoand generalLiu Liangzuo.Huang Degong rejected their demand to turn over the Hongguang Emperor but Zhang Tianlu then shot an arrow into Huang's throat and killed him.Tian XiongandMa Deong,the brigade commanders under Huang Degong then defected to the Qing and gave general Liu Liangzuo the Hongguang Emperor.

Queue order and Jiangnan resistance (1645–1646)

A Chinese man inSan Francisco's Chinatownaround 1900. The Chinese habit of wearing a queue came fromDorgon's July 1645 edict ordering all men to shave their forehead and tie their hair into a queue like theManchus.

Resistance in the region was originally muted. As the heartland of the scholarly class, hundreds ofJiangnanscholars committed suicide by drowning, hanging, self-immolation, or hunger strike on the news of the death of theHongguang Emperor,sometimes entire families. Those who did not collaborate or commit suicide would have to join with bandits to resist the new regime.With the news of the fall of the capital back in 1644 and skyrocketing food prices, poor peasants had revolted against the local elite and indentured servitude, calling that "master and servant should address each other as brothers". They ransacked the villas and forced the wealthy to flee to the cities. Although theSouthern Mingregime managed to restore order, the discontent persisted and coalesced as the Black Dragon Society, which immediately resumed their revolt once the Qing crushed the Southern Ming forces. Some of the gentry, associated with theDonglin movement,resisted compromise, but most gentry and urban elites proceeded to collaborate with the Qing in order to acquire their help to suppress the revolt or other threats such as bandits. However, with the introduction of the queue order, anti-Qing resistance exploded once more.

On 21 July 1645, after theJiangnanregion had been superficially pacified,Dorgonissued "the most untimely promulgation of his career":he ordered all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into aqueuejust like theManchus.The punishment for non-compliance was death.In the queue order edict, Dorgon specifically emphasized the fact that Manchus and the Qing emperor himself all wore the queue and shaved their foreheads so that by following the queue order and shaving,Han Chinesewould look like Manchus and the Qing Emperor, and invoked theConfuciannotion that the people were like the sons of the emperor who was like the father, so the father and sons could not look different and to decrease differences in physical appearance between Manchus and Han Chinese.

The queue order was proposed by a number of Han Chinese officials in order to curry favour withDorgon.This policy of symbolic submission to the new dynasty helped the Manchus in telling friend from foe.However, for Han Chinese officials and literati, the new hairstyle was "a humiliating act of degradation" (because it breached a commonConfuciandirective to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair "was tantamount to the loss of their manhood."Because it united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair-cutting command "broke the momentum of the Qing [expansion]."

A minor scholarWang Zhan,in command of rural militia, besiegedTaicang.InXiushui,the local military commanderChen Wuand the local gentry mobilised militia and revolted, but they failed in an attack onJiaxing.InKunshan,the resistance forces under magistrateYang Yongyan,generalWang Zuocaiand scholarZhu Jihuanghad been mostly unsuccessful until the queue order was passed, when they experienced a surge in popular support and succeeded in killing the local collaborationist magistrate. However the army ofPrince Dodoturned on the region and with the exception of a few holdouts such asJiangyin,the loyalists fell quickly and the population was massacred.

Resistance from marsh bandits, fishermen, gentry-led militia and ex-Mingsoldiers coalesced aroundLake Tai.The region's bandits were infamous for kidnapping rich people and threatening to blind or bury them alive unless ransom was paid, while distributing food and money to the poor. Now their river craft were converted into anad hocnaval raiding force and joined forces with their former gentry enemies. The gentry united these elements into the "White Headed Army" since they wore white turbans. East of the lake, loyalist gentry inSongjiang DistrictunderChen Zilongand the remainingMing navyatChongming IslandunderWu Zhikuicoordinated to rise up and cut off theQingforces inZhejiang.The loyalists aimed to serve as a linkage between the upstream resistance inHunanand the coastal resistance inZhejiangandFujian.The loyalists splintered over strategy disagreements. The loyalist navy, trying to sail forLake Mao,was destroyed atChushenpuby generalLi Chengdong's light craft forces. TheLake Tairesistance stormedSuzhoubut were trapped in the city when Qing forces underWang Guocairegrouped and closed the gates.Songjiangfell after being deceived into opening the gates by Qing forces covering up their shaved heads. A group of loyalists fled to join the resistance inFuzhou.

The defiant population ofJiadingandSongjiangwas massacred by former Ming northern Chinese general Li Chengdong, respectively on 24 August and 22 September.Jiangyinalso held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army led by northern Chinese Ming defectorLiu Liangzuo,who had been ordered to "fill the city with corpses before you sheathe your swords," massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people.Hundreds of thousands of people were killed before all of China was brought into compliance. AlthoughManchuBannermen were often associated with theJiangyinMassacre which targeted the Ming loyalists, the majority of those who had participated in Jiangyin Massacre wereHan ChineseBannermen.Ming defector Li Chengdong's Han Chinese soldiers, who were mostly former revolted refugees, peasants and bandits from the north called the Han Chinese anti-queue resisters and Ming loyalists inJiading"southern barbarians" (manzi) threatening them, telling them "southern barbarian, hand over your valuables", raping, torturing and massacring.When the Qing imposed theQueue Orderin China, many Han Chinese defectors were appointed in the massacre of dissidents. Li Chengdongoversaw three massacres inJiadingthat occurred within the same month; together which resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and left cities depopulated.

InFuzhou,although former-Ming subjects were initially compensated with silver for complying to the Queue Order, the defected southern Chinese generalHong Chengchouhad enforced the policy thoroughly on the residents ofJiangnanby 1645.The Han Chinese Banners were repeatedly assigned to enforce the Queue Order, often resulting in massacres such as theYangzhou Massacre,during which local residents were seen harassed by troops.

Chongming Islandin theYangtziestuary continued to harbour pirates and resistance forces, threatening to link up with the resistance inAnqingandHubei-Hunan.The Qing authorities were only able to maintain control through working with corrupt former Ming officials such asQian QianyiandRuan Dacheng.Loyalist marines continued fighting in theLake Taiarea, underWu YiandZhou Rui,mainly local fishermen and smugglers, which posed a problem for Qing forces who lacked competent sailors. These linked up gentry resistance all over the region, dealing severe losses on Qing forces of governorTu Guobao.Wu Yi attempted to link up withSouthern Mingresistance inZhejiangby entering negotiations with theQingofficial ofJiashan,but this was a trap; he was captured and executed. Resistance still carried on as the gentry continued near-open protest. In 1645, inLiyangthe poor peasants revolted, aroundTangshana scholar led a rebellion of local bandits, and fromMount YuntaitoHaizhou(Lianyungang) an insurgency was led by the Ming Prince ofXinchang.Ming Prince ofRui'anand Prince ofRuichangmobilised rebels in theHuai'an-Yangzhouarea and aroundNanjingfor an assault on Nanjing in September 1646, but the Qing collaborators discovered the plan and defeated it.

Sichuan campaign (1646–1658)

See also:Zhang Xianzhong

In early 1646Dorgonsent two expeditions toSichuanto try to destroyZhang Xianzhong's GreatXi dynastyregime: the first expedition did not reach Sichuan because it was caught up against remnants;the second one, under the direction ofHooge(the son ofHong Taijiwho had lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan in October 1646.Hearing that a Qing army led by a major general was approaching, Zhang Xianzhong fled towardShaanxi,splitting his troops into four divisions that were ordered to act independently if something were to happen to him.Before leaving, he ordered a massacre of the population of his capitalChengdu.

The Qing forces advanced fromXi'anintoSichuan.Fearing Zhang's murderous tendencies, and with his Sichuanese troops unwilling to carry out Zhang's massacres on their fellow provincials, Zhang's commanderLiu Jinzhongdefected to the Qing and guided them to Zhang. Liu was later granted the title of Baron.

En routeZhang Xianzhongwas surprised by a Qing army underHoogeandLi Guoyingat Mount Fenghuang, after being betrayed by one of his officers. Refusing to believe the scout's report, he rode out to see for himself and was killed by an arrow. This was witnessed byJesuitmissionaryGabriel de Magalhães,who reported it.Zhang Xianzhong was killed in a battle against Qing forces nearXichongin central Sichuan on 1 February 1647.In one account, he was betrayed by one of his officers,Liu Jinzhong,who pointed him out to be shot by an archer.Hooge then easily tookChengdu,but found it in a state of desolation he had not expected. Unable to find food in the countryside, his soldiers looted the area, killing resisters, and even resorted tocannibalismas food shortages grew acute.

Sun Kewanginformally took over leadership, and he moved southward. InChongqing,the Ming generalZeng Yingstill held out. Xi dynasty boats underLiu Wenxiuattacked Zeng's command boat on theYangtzi River,killed him and took the city, but continued moving southward toGuizhou.A young son ofZhang Xianzhongwas supposed to be enthroned as the next ruler but he died on the journey.The remnants of the Ming force moved eastward toFuling DistrictandYunyang CountyunderLi ZhanchunandYu Dahai.The remaining Ming forces underYang Zhan,now promoted to Marquis andMingcommander of Sichuan, moved south towards Guizhou and unsuccessfully attempted to contact theSouthern Mingcourt for supplies, wandering in desperate search for supplies toJiading.Here he began stockpiling resources to prepare for war against theQing.Qing forces mainly left the province due to starvation and the remainder garrisoned atBaoningin the north underLi Guoying,who moved to crush banditry, called for supplies to be shipped in and recultivated the land to relieve the famine-like conditions. After he was attacked and defeated by Li Zhanchun and Yu Dahai in 1647 in a land-riverine battle atZhangzhou,he started building a riverine force of his own. TheYongli EmperorinGuangdongsent his alleged distant relativeZhu Rongfanto organise the Ming forces in Sichuan who instead became yet another warlord, establishing himself as a "Prince of Chu" atKuizhou.These groups started fighting among each other, which helped the Qing secure the northern and western parts of the province by 1652, and the rest of the province by 1658.

Anti-Qing forces including Great Shun and Zhang Xianzhong loyalists remained active in the mountainous regions between Chongqing and Hubei. Forces led by Li Laiheng, a nephew of Li Zicheng, established a base in the Maolu Mountain ofXingshan Countyfrom 1653. They were known as theKuidong Thirteen Familiesand managed to hold out until suppressed by a large-scale Qing campaign in 1664.

Jiangxi and Fujian campaigns (1646–1650)

Qingconquest ofSouthern Mingterritories

Situation ofSouthern Ming

The Qing advance intoZhejiangprovince was aided by the collaboration ofTong Guoqi,who was appointed Governor of Zhejiang andFujian.Tong was originally fromLiaodong,but lived in Zhejiang where he came into contact with Chinese Catholic scholars who, claiming that Europe was an ideal society and that all nations shared one morality, argued that Chinese culture was tooinward-lookingand called for appreciation and imitation of foreign nations, and cooperation with them, whether Europeans or Manchus. This group therefore supported Manchu rule.

Meanwhile, theSouthern Minghad not been eliminated. WhenHangzhoufell to theQingon 6 July 1645,the Prince of TangZhu Yujian,a ninth-generation descendant ofMingfounderZhu Yuanzhang,managed to escape by land to the southeastern province of Fujian.Crowned as theLongwu Emperorin the coastal city ofFuzhouon 18 August, he depended on the protection of talented seafarerZheng Zhilong(also known as "Nicholas Iquan" ).The childless emperor adopted Zheng's eldest son and granted him the imperial surname."Koxinga",as his son is known to Westerners; it is a distortion of the title" Lord of the Imperial Surname "(Guoxingye quốc tính gia ).Upon Zheng Zhilong's request, theTokugawa Shogunatein Japan quietly supported the Zheng clan's pro-Ming forces by quietly granting them access to mercenaries, weapons and other strategic materials.Zheng Zhilong drafted a plan entitled "Grand Strategy for ordering the country", in which he argued for the Southern Ming to reconquer territory through regional military commanders rather than a centralized fashion. This brought him at loggerheads with the Longwu Emperor. Famine also struck after drought and crops failed all along the southeastern coastal region, while Qing attacks on the Yangzi river delta had cut access to raw silk. In response, the Longwu emperor wanted to reconquer Huguang and Jiangxi provinces which were major producers of rice to help boost the southern Ming, but Zheng Zhilong refused to expand out of Fujian for fear of losing control of the regime.

In the meantime, anotherMingclaimant, the Prince of LuZhu Yihai,had named himself regent inZhejiang,but the two loyalist regimes failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were.

In February 1646,Qingarmies seized land west of theQiantang Riverfrom the Lu regime and defeated a ragtag force representing theLongwu Emperorin northeasternJiangxi.In May, they besiegedGanzhou,the last Ming bastion in Jiangxi.In July, a new southern campaign led byPrince Bolosent Prince of Lu'sZhejiangregime into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime inFujian.Hoping to gain rewards from Prince Bolo,Zheng Zhilongbetrayed the loyalists by contactingHong Chengchouand left northern Fujian undefended against a Qing army led byLi ChengdongandTong Yangjia.The Qing took control of Fujian in 1645.

On the pretext of relieving the siege ofGanzhou,the Longwu court left their Fujian base in late September 1646, but the Qing army caught up with them.Longwu and his empress were summarily executed inTingzhou(western Fujian) on 6 October 1646.After the fall ofFuzhouon 17 October,Zheng Zhilongsurrendered to the Qing and his sonKoxingafled to the island ofTaiwanwith his fleet.When news arrived of the Longwu emperor's demise, the fortress of Ganzhou in southern Jiangxi under the command ofYang Tinglinalso caved in to Qing generalJin Shenghuanby November 1646.

The Prince-Regent of Lu, with the aid of the sea-lordZhang Mingzhen,continued resistance at sea on the island ofShacheng,between Zhejiang and Fujian. By July 1649 their base of operations shifted northward to Jiantiaosuo. After killing a rival naval commanderHuang Binqing,the base was moved toZhoushanin November. From there he attempted to raise a rebellion inJiangnan,but Zhoushan fell to the Qing in 1651 after being betrayed by Huang Binqing's former officers. Zhang Mingzhen, with all his family, fled to joinZheng ChenggonginXiamen.

Hunan, Guangdong and Guangxi campaign (1645–1650)

After the fall ofNanjing,the oldMinggovernor ofHuguang(HubeiandHunan)He Tengjiao,under theLongwucourt, established the Thirteen Defense Commands(zhen)withShunremnants in Hunan, which became famous for holding out against theQing.Qing forces under the early defectorKong Youdesubdued Hunan in 1646. After the fall of the Longwu regime, He Tengjiao swore allegiance to theYongli Emperor,continuing resistance inHunanandGuizhouprovinces, and was finally killed atXiangtanin 1649.

TheLongwu Emperor's younger brotherZhu Yuyue,who had fledFuzhouby sea, soon founded anotherMingregime inGuangzhou,the capital ofGuangdongprovince, taking the reign title Shaowu ( thiệu võ ) on 11 December 1646.Short of official costumes, the court had to purchase robes from local theater troops.On 24 December,Prince of GuiZhu Youlangestablished theYongli( vĩnh lịch ) regime in the same vicinity. The Prince of Gui had fled fromZhang Xianzhong's attack onHubei/HunantoZhaoqinginGuangdong,but his retreat toGuangxiled other loyalists to believe that he had abandoned them and they proceeded to enthrone the Shaowu emperor. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Shaowu court mainly consisted of localCantonesewhile the Yongli court consisted of men of other provinces.

The twoMingregimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a smallQingforce led by formerSouthern MingcommanderLi ChengdongcapturedGuangzhou,killing theShaowu Emperorand sending theYongli Emperorfleeing toNanninginGuangxi.

In May 1648, however,Li Chengdong,disappointed at being made a mere regional commander after takingGuangdongprovince, mutinied against the Qing and rejoined the Ming. The reversion of another dissatisfied Ming defector inJiangxi,Jin Shenghuan,who was also discontented at being appointed a regional commander after conquering Jiangxi province, helped the Yongli regime to retake most of southern China.

The Yongli emperor was encouraged by these developments and saw hope in a Ming reconquest, likening it to the revival of theHanandTangdynasties after the usurpations ofWang MangandAn Lushan.Loyalists hoped to move the emperor toWuchangwhere he would lead a reconquest ofNanjingandKaifeng.However, the Qing commanderXu Yong(one of those who defected atJiangnan) repelled the loyalist counterattack atChangshaas the populace did not side with the loyalists, and Qing forces advanced again. Xu Yong was later present at the capture ofHe TengjiaoinXiangtan,and his army absorbed He's remaining troops.

This resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. NewHan-Manchu-Mongolarmies underKong Youde,JirgalangandLekedehunmanaged to reconquer the central province ofHuguang(present-dayHubeiandHunan) in 1649, and the population ofXiangtanwas massacred.Jiangxifell to another army led byTantai,Holhoi,Shang KexiandGeng Zhongming.Guangdongfell to Shang Kexi in November 1650.TheYongli Emperorfled toNanningand from there toGuizhou.Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi capturedGuangzhouwith 74 of his own cannons and the aid ofDutchgunners, and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people.In Guangzhou, massacres of Ming loyalists and civilians in 1650 were carried out by Qing forces under the command of northernHan ChineseBanner generalsShang KexiandGeng Jimao.

Ming loyalist revolts in the north (1647–1654)

A cannon cast in 1650 by theSouthern Ming,from theHong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence

A major revolt aroundZouping,Shandongbroke out in March 1647. Shandong had been plagued by brigandage before the collapse of theMing,and most Ming officials and their gentry-organised militia welcomed the newQingregime, cooperating with them against the bandits who now grew into sizeable rebel armies complete with guns and cannons, and whose leaders had declared themselves "kings". These were held off by the local gentry, who organised the local population into a defence force.

In March 1648, a bandit chief,Yang Sihai,and a woman by the surname of Zhang claimed to be the Crown Prince of theTianqi Emperorand his consort, respectively. With the aid of another bandit chief calledZhang Tianbao,they rebelled under the Ming flag inQingyun,south ofTianjin.The Qing was forced to send in "heavy troops" (artillery), as well as extra reinforcements. The Qing succeeded in subduing the rebellion in 1649, but with heavy losses. Further south, in the forests betweenShandong,Hebei,andHenanprovinces, 20 Ming loyalist brigades of 1,000 men each were amassing. This force was known as the "Elm Garden Army", equipped with Western cannons. CommanderLi Huajinghad declared a distant relative of the Ming imperial family as the "Tianzheng Emperor", and besieged and captured the cities ofCaozhou,Dingtao County,Chengwu County,andDongming County,LanyangandFengqiu.Heavy casualties were inflicted on the Qing. Defected Ming generalGao Diled elite multi-ethnic Banner forces to crush the insurrection by 18 November.

In January 1649,Jiang Xiang,the military governor inDatong,Shanxi,felt threatened thatDorgonmight be attempting to restrict his authority and rebelled, switching allegiance back to the Ming. Dorgon travelled to personally intervene against the rebels. The generalsLiu Denglou,commander ofYulin, Shaanxi,andWang Yongqiang,top commander inYan'an,Shaanxi, contacted Jiang Xiang, rebelled and switched back to the Ming. They were joined byMongolleaderZhamasuwho rose up in theHelan Mountains.The revolt was defeated by the end of the year by a Banner force commanded by PrinceBoloandWu Sangui.The Ming loyalist-held city ofPuzhouwas subject to a massacre. Simultaneously,Zhu Senfu,a man who claimed to be related to the Ming Imperial family, declared himself Prince of Qin inJiezhou,Shaanxi,nearSichuan,backed by a local outlaw namedZhao Rongguiwith an army of 10,000 men. The rebels were crushed byWu Sangui's forces.In the chaos, many bandit groups expanded their raids. A local outlaw by the name ofZhang Wuguirose up inShanxiand began handing out Ming ranks and documents, assembling an army. He attackedWutaiin 1649, but was driven off. He continued marauding the province until he was killed in February 1655 when his headquarters was discovered by aManchuscout.

With the mutineers defeated, the Qing turned on theMuslimrebels ofDing GuodongatSuzhou, Gansuand crushed them with ease in December 1649. Ding Guodong was killed. The population was appeased by strengthening judicial protections and, at the suggestion of supervisory secretaryHe Bi,Muslimcommunities were disarmed and shifted 150li(75 km) away fromHan Chinesecommunities. TheJiayu Passwas blocked to severe all relations between theKumul Khanateand theGansuMuslims.By 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties.

The southeastern region ofShaanxi,a rural, untamed area, was beset by Ming colonelTang Zhongheng,accompanied by Ming princesZhu ChangyingandZhu Youduand a MingMongolcommander,Shibulai.Other rebels, given the ready access to the Ming loyalists in neighbouringSichuan,were able to continue resistance.Sun Shoujin,who called himself the Earl ofXing'an,with the aid of generalTan Qi,led an alliance of mountain fortresses aroundMount Banchang,just south ofZiyang.They resisted an intense Banner assault with their long rifles, but Tan Qi abandoned Sun in July 1652, leading to Sun's defeat and death. A bandit gang, the "Pole bandits", who were plundering the local population, were also defeated shortly afterward by the betrayal of one of their two chiefs.

Continued fighting in the south

See also:Southern Ming

Conquest of the southwest (1652–1661)

The flight of theYongli Emperor—the last sovereign of theSouthern Mingdynasty—from 1647 to 1661. The provincial and national boundaries are those of thePeople's Republic of China.

After the elimination ofZhang Xianzhong'sXi dynasty,his generals retreated southward toGuizhouprovince, where they encountered theSouthern Mingforces retreating fromGuangxiprovince. The Ming emperor, in urgent need of reinforcements, requested the aid of the Xi dynasty's followers. Zhang Xianzhong's former deputy,Sun Kewang,exterminated all his opponents in the Southern Ming court and kept the Ming emperor underde factoimprisonment, all the while continuing to refer to Zhang Xianzhong as a deceased emperor.

Yunnanwas still a frontier land where tribal chieftainstusiwere still in power in many areas. The tusi were led by theMu familywho held the position of Duke of Qianguo. In the early Ming, it was DukeMu Shengwho led the Ming armies inVietnamduring theMing-Ho War.Now the Mu family were still in power in Yunnan and remained loyal to the Ming. However, due to discontent against their rule, local revolts broke out against them. Mu joined with the few remaining Ming officials and Sun Kewang to restore order.

Though the Qing underDorgon's leadership had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652,Li Dingguo,who had served as general inSichuanunder Zhang Xianzhong (d. 1647) and was now protecting theYongli Emperorof the Southern Ming, retookGuilin(Guangxiprovince) from the Qing.Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side.Despite occasionally successful military campaigns inHuguangandGuangdongin the next two years, Li Dingguo failed to retake important cities.In 1653, the Qing court putHong Chengchouin charge of retaking the southwest.Headquartered inChangsha(in what is nowHunanprovince), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to takeGuizhouandYunnan.Infighting broke out between the forces of Li Dingguo and Sun Kewang. The Ming emperor, fearful that Sun intended to make himself emperor, asked Li Dingguo to liberate him. After Sun's forces were routed, he and his surviving troops defected to Hong Chengchou's Qing armies, giving the Qing their opening to strike.

TheManchuswere not able to conquer southern China by their own accord; they only did so by delegating to Han Chinese. During the fighting to extinguish Ming loyalism in the south, theShunzhi Emperorcame to rely increasingly on Han Chinese bannermen, some second or even third generation, to fill governor and governor-general posts as a kind of "provincialjanissaries".Virtually all posts were filled by professional military officers of the Han Chinese Banners rather than Manchus or Han Chinese civilians. Han Chinese bannermen were the main force that subdued southern China. This made the Qing extremely dependent on the private armies of the autonomous Han Chinese banner nobles. The reliance on Han Chinese was made obvious in 1660 when the emperor ruled in favour ofLu Guangxu,a Han Chinese provincial censor who delivered a report criticizing Manchu military corruption, destroying the Manchu claim that Han Chinese officials should not be involved in military matters. This change was a reflection of the actual military importance of Han Chinese in the dynasty, as well as the determination of the Qing rulers not to allow the Manchu and Han ChineseBannermenclass to dominate the government. Through this compromise, the bureaucracy versus military conflict that had helped to cause the downfall of the Ming dynasty was resolved.

Flight to Burma (1659–1662)

Remains of the outer walls ofAva

In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu PrinceDoni(1636–1661),Dodo's son, took the capital ofYunnan,sending theYongli Emperorfleeing into nearbyBurma,which was then ruled by KingPindale Minof theToungoo dynasty.The imperial retinue was disarmed by theBurmese;many of the Ming retinue were killed or enslaved, and the remainder were housed in huts opposite the capital cityAva,under a Burmese guard. In Yunnan, the banner troops had engaged in pillage and rape when moving throughHmonglands, and the chieftainNayan,under the promise of being given overall command of all thetusichiefs, rose in rebellion on the side of the Yongli Emperor. His city ofYuanjiangwas taken byWu Sanguiin 1659 amid a massacre of 100,000 people, and the next year was spent putting down the rest of the rebels. As the city fell Nayan bowed in the direction of the emperor and declared "Your minister has exerted himself to the utmost. I have nothing else to report to Your Highness." He then burned himself and his family.

Loyalist generalsLi DingguoandBai Wenxuanattempted to rescue the emperor from theBurmeseand attackedAvabetween 1660 and 1661. They opened fire with cannon on the Burmese army of 150,000 men with war elephants. The Burmese broke after a rear attack from Bai. The loyalists built boats and bridges to cross theIrrawaddy Riverbut these were burned by Burmese commandos. A long siege of Ava ensued but the Burmese increased their defenses after tricking theMingforces into leaving. The king of BurmaPindale Minwas overthrown in a coup by his brotherPye Min,who went on the offensive against the Ming loyalists. Under the guise of a 'spirit water' ritual during the king's enthronement, most of the men in the Ming imperial retinue were ambushed and killed. The Burmese contacted theQingto negotiate handing the emperor over. Subsequently, 100,000 Qing soldiers crossed intoBurma.In 1662, theYongli Emperorwas captured byWu SanguinearAvaand executed by strangulation inYunnan,the same Wu whose surrender to theManchusin April 1644 had allowedDorgonto start the Qing expansion. Bai Wenxuan surrendered and was inducted into the Han Chinese banners. Li Dingguo, wrongly informed that the emperor had escaped, attempted to march forVietnamand contactedSiamfor an alliance, before finally dying of disease in August 1662. His final words were to tell his son to never surrender to the Qing (his son still did surrender, with the remainder of the army).

Seaborne resistance (1655–1663)

Extent ofKoxinga's territory, shown in red

In 1656 aLake Maobandit named Qian Ying managed to acquire blank commissions from theYongliregime, and he therefore managed to become legitimized as a Ming loyalist fighter. He organised a marine resistance unit and established links withKoxinga's forces. The Qing governor-general Han Chinese bannermanLang Tingzuoquickly moved to suppress him, and launched a surprise attack which defeated him. Qian was hunted down and captured by March 1648. Only one year later did Koxinga launch an offensive, too late to join up with existing forces.

Zheng Chenggong( "Koxinga" ), who had been adopted by theLongwu Emperorin 1646 and ennobled byYongliin 1655, also continued to defend the cause of theSouthern Ming.FromXiamen,he capturedChaozhouin 1650. With his help, sea lordZhang Mingzhenhad capturedZhoushan IslandandTaizhouin 1655.In 1658 he attacked the coastline ofZhejiangprovince and finally cut the cable protecting theYangtzeestuary in 1659.

In 1659, just asShunzhiwas preparing to hold a special examination to celebrate the glories of his reign and the success of the southwestern campaigns, Zheng sailed up theYangtze Riverwith a well-armed fleet, took several cities from Qing hands, and went so far as to threatenNanjing.Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having the initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle inNanjingahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against theDutchat theBattle of Liaoluo Bay,throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of theGrand Canalleading to possible starvation inBeijingcaused such fear that theManchusconsidered returning toManchuria(Tartary) and abandoningChinaaccording to a 1671 account by aFrenchmissionary.

The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that the Qing were considering abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Koxinga which he himself was preparing to do. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing the Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing.When the emperor heard of this sudden attack he is said to have slashed his throne with a sword in anger.But the siege of Nanjing was relieved and Zheng Chenggong repelled, forcing Zheng to take refuge in the southeastern coastal province ofFujian.Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on 24 August. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements—though cavalry attacks by the city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and "slipped back" (Wakeman's phrase) to the ships which had brought them.Koxinga's forces were pursued toXiamenwhere they were defeated in June 1660, and retreated toTaiwan.

After the admiralShi Langdisobeyed orders,Koxingaexecuted his family causing him to defect to the Qing. Admiral Shi later led the Qing navy to victory over Koxinga's descendants. Koxinga implemented extremely strict harsh discipline on his soldiers which caused many of them to defect to the Qing.Failure to listen to orders and failing in battle could bring death sentences with no leniency from Koxinga.The Qing implemented a lenient policy towards defectors who defected to theSouthern Ming,Koxinga,and theThree Feudatories,inviting and allowing them back into Qing ranks without punishment even after they initially betrayed the Qing and defected, and this policy was able to secure mass defections.

Pressured by Qing fleets,Koxingafled toTaiwanin April 1661 and defeated theDutchin theSiege of Fort Zeelandia,expelling them from Taiwan and setting up theKingdom of Tungning.Great care was taken to symbolise support for the Ming legitimacy, an example being the use of the termguaninstead ofbuto name departments, since the latter is reserved for central government, whereas Taiwan was to be a regional office of the rightful Ming rule ofChina.Zheng Jingdutifully complied with the prescribed procedures for Ming officials by regularly presenting reports and paying tribute to the absent Ming Emperor.His originally stated intentions for conquering Taiwan from the Dutch also included the desire to protect Chinese settlers in Taiwan from maltreatment by the Dutch.The Ming dynasty princes who accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan were the PrinceZhu Shuguiand PrinceZhu Honghuan,son ofZhu Yihai.

The Qing agreed to an alliance with theDutch East India Companyagainst the remaining Ming loyalists inFujianandTaiwan.The Dutch intended to take a colonial outpost in Taiwan. In October 1663, the joint fleet succeeded in capturingXiamenandKinmen(Quemoy) from theSouthern Ming.However, the Qing grew suspicious of Dutch ambitions to maintain a colony in Taiwan and to push for trading privileges, so the alliance collapsed. AdmiralShi Lang,who strongly objected to cession of Taiwan to the Dutch, offered to launch his own expedition instead.The Dutch looted relics and killed monks after attacking aBuddhistcomplex atPutuoshanon theZhoushan Islandsin 1665 during their war againstKoxinga's sonZheng Jing.Zheng Jing's navy executed 34 Dutch sailors and drowned 8 Dutch sailors after looting, ambushing and sinking the DutchfluytshipCuylenburgin 1672 on northeastern Taiwan. Only 21 Dutch sailors escaped toJapan.The ship was going fromNagasakitoBataviaon a trade mission.

The Three Feudatories (1674–1681)

Main article:Revolt of the Three Feudatories

The revolt of theThree Feudatories

Portrait ofShang KexibyJohan Nieuhof(1655). Shang recapturedGuangzhoufromSouthern Mingloyalist forces in 1650 and organized a massacre of the city's population. His son was one of theThree Feudatorieswho rebelled against theQingin 1673.

The Qing had relied onHan ChineseBanner generals to defeatLi Chengdongand defend against the resistance inTaiwan,and they were forced to grant these generals vast autonomy and subsidies. In 1673,Wu Sangui,Shang Zhixin,andGeng Jimao,the "Three Feudatories", rebelled against theKangxi Emperor.They were joined by generalsSun YanlinginGuangxi,Wang FucheninShaanxiandWang PingfaninSichuan.Slaves revolted in Beijing as it was widely believed that the Qing would fall. The Kangxi Emperor called it the most harrowing experience in his life.

However, their disunity destroyed them.Shang ZhixinandGeng Jimaosurrendered in 1681 after a massive Qing counteroffensive, in which the Han ChineseGreen Standard Armyplayed the major role with the Bannermen taking a backseat.

The rebellion was defeated mainly due to the refusal of most Han Chinese commanders to turn against the Qing dynasty. Particularly repulsive to many was the blatant opportunism ofWu Sangui,who had betrayed two dynasties in one lifetime: evenMingloyalists ridiculed his cause.

Fan Chengmo,son ofFan Wencheng,remained loyal to the Qing despite imprisonment and eventually death, and as one of leading military families ofLiaodong,his example inspired other Liaodong generals to remain loyal.

The Qing forces were crushed byWu Sanguifrom 1673 to 1674.The Qing had the support of the majority of Han Chinese soldiers and Han Chinese elite against theThree Feudatories,since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while theEight BannersandManchuofficers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000Han Chinese(non-Banner) instead of theEight Banners,to fight and crush the Three Feudatories.Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by theGreen Standard Army,made out of defected Ming soldiers.In the Three Feudatories rebellion, Han Chinese bannermen who stayed on the Qing side and died in battle were categorized as martyrs.

Surrender of Taiwan (1683)

Shi Langwith a party of officials

Zheng Chenggong(Koxinga) had died in 1662. His descendants resisted Qing rule until 1683, when theKangxi EmperordispatchedShi Langwith a fleet of 300 ships to take the Ming loyalistKingdom of TungninginTaiwanin 1683 from the Zheng family. Zheng Chenggong's grandsonZheng Keshuangsurrendered Taiwan to theKangxi Emperorafter theBattle of Penghu.Having lost this battle, Zheng Keshuang surrendered and was rewarded by the Kangxi Emperor with the title "Duke of Haicheng" (Hải trừng công). He and his soldiers were inducted into theEight Banners.His rattan shield troops (Đằng bài doanhtengpaiying) servedagainst Russian Cossacks at Albazin.

The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives.ThePrince of Ningjingand his five concubines committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used asShi Lang's headquarters in 1683 but hememorializedthe emperor to convert it into aMazu templeas a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as theGrand Matsu Templethe next year and, honoring the goddessMazufor her supposed assistance during the Qing expansion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" (Tianhou) from her previous status as a heavenly consort (tianfei).

Ming loyalists in Vietnam

The Ming loyalist pirateDương Ngạn Địch(Yang Yandi) (c)and his fleet sailed toVietnamto leave the Qing dynasty in March 1682. Yang was a general ofMing China,and swore allegiance toKoxinga.His position was Chief Commander of Longmen (a place in modernQinzhou,Guangxi). In 1679, after theRevolt of the Three Feudatorieswas put down byQing dynasty,he led 3,000 soldiers and 50 ships toDa Nangtogether withHoàng Tiến,Trần Thượng XuyênandTrần An Bình.Dương Ngạn Địch and Hoàng Tiến were sponsored byNguyễn Phúc Tầnto settleMỹ Tho,where Địch served as chief of a small Chinese community.The Nguyễn court allowed these resistance forces to resettle inNam Ky,which had been newly conquered from theKhmers.These settlers named their settlements as "Minh Huong",to recall their allegiance to theMing dynasty.Địch was murdered by his assistant Hoàng Tiến in 1688, who then revolted against the Nguyễn lord but was put down.In 1679, Trần Thượng Xuyên submitted to the Nguyễn lord and became a Nguyễn general and the Chinese community was allowed to settle in Đông Phố (modernBiên Hòa). Xuyên participated in various Nguyễn campaigns against Cambodia in 1689, 1699-1700 and in 1717.

Literature and thought

Further information:Ming poetryandQing poetry

Shitao(1642–1707), who was related to theMing imperial family,was one of many artists and writers who refused to give their allegiance to theQing.Art historianCraig Clunassuggests that Shitao used a poem inscribed on this "Self-Portrait Supervising the Planting of Pines" (1674) to allude to the restoration of theMing dynasty.

The defeat of theMing dynastyposed practical and moral problems, especially forliterati and officials.Confucianteachings emphasizedloyalty( trungzhōng), but the question arose as to whether Confucians should be loyal to the fallen Ming or to the new power, theQing.Some, like the painterBada Shanren,a descendant of the Ming ruling family, became recluses. Others, likeKong Shangren,who claimed to be a descendant ofConfucius,supported the new regime. Kong wrote a poignant drama,The Peach Blossom Fan,which explored the moral decay of the Ming in order to explain its fall. Poets whose lives bridged the transition betweenMing poetryandQing poetryare attracting modern academic interest.Some of the most important first generation of Qing thinkers were Ming loyalists, at least in their hearts, includingGu Yanwu,Huang Zongxi,andFang Yizhi.Partly in reaction and to protest the laxity and excess of the late Ming, they turned toevidential learning,which emphasized careful textual study and critical thinking.Another important group in this transitional period were the "Three Masters of Jiangdong"—Gong Dingzi,Wu WeiyeandQian Qianyi—who among other things contributed to a revival in theciform of poetry.

The emperors, in order to legitimize their rule, encouraged Qing officials and literary figures to organize and appropriate the legacy of Chinese literature, producing anthologies and critical works. They also patronized the development ofManchu literatureand the translation of Chinese classics intoManchu.Yet the phrase "defeat the Qing and restore the Ming" remained a byword for many.

Aftermath

See also:Names of the Qing dynastyandQing dynasty in Inner Asia

Dulimbai Gurunis theManchuname forChina( trung quốc Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom" ).After extinguishing the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing state (including present dayManchuria,Xinjiang,Mongolia,Tibetand other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meantHan Chineseareas, proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Han Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" ( trung quốc nhân Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to allHan Chinese,Manchu,andMongolsubjects of the Qing.

During the Qing, manyHan Chineselater found themselves in positions of power and influence in Manchu administration and even had their ownslaves.

TheQing dynastyin 1820.

Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905.

When the Qingdefeated Dzungar Mongols in 1759,they proclaimed that theOiratsterritorial lands were absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) realm in a Manchu language memorial.They expounded the ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like theKhalkha Mongols,Inner Mongols,Oirats(includingTibetans,who were then under the rule ofOirat Khanates) together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united under the Qing state. To show that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhongwai yijia" ( trung ngoại nhất gia, "central areas and outer areas as one realm" ) or "neiwai yijia" ( nội ngoại nhất gia, "interior and exterior of great-walls as one family" ), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.A Manchu language version of a treaty with theRussian Empireconcerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called Qing subjects "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)".In the Manchu officialTulisen's Manchu languageaccount of his meetingwith theTorghut leaderAyuka Khan,it was mentioned that while theTorghutswere unlike theRussians,the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun trung quốc Zhongguo) were like the Torghuts, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to theManchus.

The rebellions led byLi Zicheng,Zhang Xianzhong,and the subsequent expansion by the Qing was one of the most devastating wars in Chinese history. Examples of the devastation include theYangzhou massacre,in which some 800,000 people, (although this number is now considered an exaggeration)including women and children, were massacred.The Qing carried out massacres in cities which resisted likeYangzhouandGuangzhoubut did not carry out violence in cities which surrendered and capitulated to Qing rule likeBeijingandNanjing.Nanjing surrendered to the Qing without a violence as all officials surrendered and defected.Whole provinces, such asSichuan,were thoroughly devastated and depopulated by the rebelZhang Xianzhong.Zhang Xianzhong killed 600,000 to 6 million civilians.A massive famine inShaanxihad spurred Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng to revolt and brutality by the rebels was widespread across northern China.This period saw innumerablenatural disasterssuch as those caused by theLittle Ice Age,andepidemicslike theGreat Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynastycaused the deaths of more than 200,000 people in Beijing in the year 1643 alone.Coastal China was also devastated by the Qing coastal evacuation order while fighting with theKoxinga regime.An estimated25 million people diedin China during the entire period.Some scholars estimate that the Chinese economy did not regain the level reached in the late Ming until the mid-Qing dynasty.According to economic historian Robert Allen, family income in theYangtze delta,China's richest province, was actually below Ming levels in 1820 (but equal to that of contemporaryBritain).However, the Qing encouraged settlements over larger portions of the empire since these regions offered the best opportunities to improve one's livelihood by clearing and farming large tracts. Economic growth in the middle and upper Yangtze regions complemented growth in the lower Yangtze, as more people began to move out of already crowded regions and into new lands of opportunity.

Immediately before theMing dynastywas overthrown byLi Zichengand theQingenteredShanhai Pass,disease, famine, starvation and bandits ravaged the population of China. A disease killed half of the population in cities across China from 1640 to 1642 and three out of ten people inHuzhoudied of plague and starvation. As the rural areas were hit by famine, peasants abandoned their homes by the millions, bandits took overHuguang,entire parts of the countryside in the middle of China were abandoned. Theft and begging by hungry peasants became widespread in cities andcannibalismspread all over famine-hitHenan.In 1641, northern China was hit by disease and plague spreading toHuangpi,and plague-infected corpses were the only food available to survivors. A massive drought in 1636 hit Huangpi amidst a series of natural disasters. Plague, locusts and famine spread all over. The plains and villages were hit by bandits and rebels, because starving refugees, orphans who had lost parents to disease as well as fired postal couriers and soldiers whose salary had been cut off turned into rebels in 1642 all over China.

Further information:Cannibalism in Asia § Ming and Qing dynasties

China's population growth led to devastating death tolls due to famine from cold weather, drought and floods. Soil and anything that was consumable was eaten by people in 1637 inJiangxiin a massive famine. The massive disease epidemic devastatedSouth Zhili(Jiangnan) from 1641 to 1642 hitting the region twice, leaving corpses from the disease all over Zhili and killing 9 out of 10 across northernZhejiangafter it spread there from theGrand Canalfrom northwestern China. Due to the loss in people, crops were not farmed further exacerbating the famine.TheYangtzeriver delta's urban regions, the coastal southeast and the northwest were all hit by massive famine as the grain producing regions lost productivity. Massive deflation blew up as silver bullion remained inFujianand stopped grain and payments for famine relief from reaching famine victims. The rebellions broke out because of these famines.Famine hitHangzhoufrom 1640 to 1642, killing 50% of the population, forcing the impoverished to eat cocoons and silkworms, and forcing the rich to eat rice gruel.In multiple counties only three out of ten survived whenHenanwas hit by the 1641 disease plague epidemic.

Selected groups ofHan Chinesebannermen were transferred en masse into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese toManchu.Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan đài ni kham (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan phủ thuận ni kham (FushunChinese)backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the QingQianlong emperor.It was between 1618 and 1629 when the Han Chinese fromLiaodongwho later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus).These Han Chinese-origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han Chinese surnames and are marked as of Han Chinese origin onQing lists of Manchu clans.

Accounts of atrocities during the transition from the Ming to Qing were used by revolutionaries in the anti-QingXinhai revolutionto fuel massacres against Manchus. Manchu bannermen and their families were massacred in several banner garrisons across China during the revolution, one of the massacres taking place inXi'an.TheHui Muslimcommunity was divided in its support for the 1911Xinhai Revolution.The Hui Muslims ofShaanxisupported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims ofGansusupported the Qing. The local Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) ofXi'an(Shaanxi province) joined theHan Chineserevolutionaries in slaughtering the entire 20,000Manchupopulation ofXi'an.The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by generalMa Anliangsided with the Qing and prepared to attack the anti-Qing revolutionaries of Xi'an city. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slavesand Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives.Young pretty Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.

See also

• Manchuria under Ming rule
• Mongol invasion of China
• Dzungar–Qing War

Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang (c. 1620–1750)

• Dzungar–Qing Wars
• Qing conquest of Mongolia
• Qing conquest of Tibet
• Qing dynasty in Inner Asia(Xinjiangand parts ofCentral Asia)
• Tibet under Qing rule

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