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Rainforest

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For other uses, seeRainforest (disambiguation).

A thick rainforest inChiapas,Mexico
Olympic rainforestlocated atOlympic Peninsula,Washington state
Rainforest atMount Palung National Park,Borneo
A paranomic view of the Tropical rainforest,Nilgiri mountains,India
CanopyofKhao Soktropical rainforest
Primitive tropical rainforest inPalawan
Rainforests inPacific Rim National Park Reserve

Rainforestsareforestscharacterized by a closed and continuous treecanopy,moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence ofepiphytesandlianasand the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified astropical rainforestsortemperate rainforests,but other types have been described.

Estimates vary from 40% to 75% of allbioticspeciesbeingindigenousto the rainforests.[1]There may be many millions of species of plants, insects andmicroorganismsstill undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called the "jewels of the Earth" and the "world's largest pharmacy",because over one quarter of naturalmedicineshave been discovered there.[2]

Rainforests as well as endemic rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due todeforestation,the resultinghabitat lossandpollution of the atmosphere.[3]

Definition

Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, high humidity, the presence of moisture-dependent vegetation, a moist layer of leaf litter, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. The largest areas of rainforest are tropical or temperate rainforests, but other vegetation associations includingsubtropical rainforest,littoral rainforest,cloud forest,vine thicket and even dry rainforest have been described.[4][5][6][7][8]

Tropical rainforest

Worldwide tropical rainforest climate zones.
Main article:Tropical rainforest

Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of theequator.Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year.[9]Average annualrainfallis no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in).[10]

Many of the world'stropical forestsare associated with the location of themonsoon trough,also known as theIntertropical Convergence Zone.[11]The broader category oftropical moist forestsare located in theequatorial zonebetween theTropic of CancerandTropic of Capricorn.Tropical rainforests exist inSoutheast Asia(fromMyanmar (Burma)) to thePhilippines,Malaysia,Indonesia,Papua New GuineaandSri Lanka;also inSub-Saharan Africafrom theCameroonto theCongo(Congo Rainforest),South America(e.g. theAmazon rainforest),Central America(e.g.Bosawás,the southernYucatán Peninsula-El Peten-Belize-Calakmul),Australia,and onPacific Islands(such asHawaiʻi). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth'slungs",although it is now known that rainforests contribute little netoxygenaddition to theatmospherethroughphotosynthesis.[12][13]

Temperate rainforest

General distribution oftemperate rainforests
Temperate rainforest inPacific Rim National Park Reservein Canada
Main article:Temperate rainforest

Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in a few regions around the world.[14][15]Temperate rainforests are rainforests intemperateregions. They occur inNorth America(in thePacific NorthwestinAlaska,British Columbia,Washington,OregonandCalifornia), inEurope(parts of theBritish Islessuch as the coastal areas ofIrelandandScotland,southern Norway,parts of the westernBalkansalong theAdriaticcoast, as well as inGaliciaand coastal areas of the easternBlack Sea,includingGeorgiaand coastalTurkey), inEast Asia(insouthern China,Highlands ofTaiwan,much ofJapanandKorea,and onSakhalin Islandand the adjacentRussian Far Eastcoast), inSouth America(southernChile) and also inAustraliaandNew Zealand.[16]

Dry rainforest

Dry rainforests have a more open canopy layer than other rainforests,[17]and are found in areas of lower rainfall (630–1,100 mm (25–43 in)). They generally have two layers of trees.[18]

Layers

Main article:Stratification (vegetation)

A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent,canopy,understoryandforest floorlayers.[19][20]

Emergent layer

Theemergent layercontains a small number of very largetreescalledemergents,which grow above the generalcanopy,reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall.[21][22]They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas.Eagles,butterflies,batsand certainmonkeysinhabit this layer.

Canopy layer

Main article:Canopy (biology)
The canopy at theForest Research Institute Malaysiashowingcrown shyness

Thecanopylayer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas ofbiodiversityare found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species.Epiphytic plantsattach totrunksandbranches,and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917,naturalistWilliam Beebedeclared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon the Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles." A true exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees usingcrossbows.Exploration of the canopyis still in its infancy, but other methods include the use ofballoonsandairshipsto float above the highest branches and the building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is calleddendronautics.[23]

Understory layer

Main article:Understory

Theunderstoryorunderstoreylayer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number ofbirds,snakesandlizards,as well aspredatorssuch asjaguars,boa constrictorsandleopards.The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life is abundant. Manyseedlingsthat will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called ashrub layer,although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer.

Forest floor

Main article:Forest floor
Rainforest in theBlue Mountains,Australia

Theforest floor,the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plantsadaptedto low light can grow in this region. Away fromriverbanks,swampsand clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also containsdecayingplant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms offungigrowing here help decay the animal and plant waste.

Flora and fauna

More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in rainforests.[24]Rainforests support a very broad array offauna,includingmammals,reptiles,amphibians,birdsandinvertebrates.Mammals may includeprimates,felidsand other families. Reptiles includesnakes,turtles,chameleonsand other families; while birds include such families asvangidaeandCuculidae.Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests.Fungiare also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on the decomposing remains of plants and animals.

The great diversity in rainforest species is in large part the result of diverse and numerous physicalrefuges,[25]i.e. places in which plants are inaccessible to many herbivores, or in which animals can hide from predators. Having numerous refuges available also results in much higher totalbiomassthan would otherwise be possible.[26][27]

Some species of fauna show a trend towards declining populations in rainforests, for example, reptiles that feed on amphibians and reptiles. This trend requires close monitoring.[28]The seasonality of rainforests affects the reproductive patterns of amphibians, and this in turn can directly affect the species of reptiles that feed on these groups,[29]particularly species with specialized feeding, since these are less likely to use alternative resources.[30]

Soils

Despite the growth ofvegetationin a tropical rainforest,soil qualityis often quite poor. Rapidbacterialdecay prevents the accumulation ofhumus.The concentration ofironandaluminiumoxidesby thelaterizationprocess gives theoxisolsa bright red colour and sometimes producesmineraldepositssuch asbauxite.Most trees have roots near the surface because there are insufficient nutrients below the surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially ofvolcanicorigin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off, and beginning a process of soilerosion.Eventually, streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible. There are several reasons for the poor soil quality. First is that the soil is highly acidic. The roots of plants rely on an acidity difference between the roots and the soil in order to absorb nutrients. When the soil is acidic, there is little difference, and therefore little absorption of nutrients from the soil. Second, the type of clay particles present in tropical rainforest soil has a poor ability to trap nutrients and stop them from washing away. Even if humans artificially add nutrients to the soil, the nutrients mostly wash away and are not absorbed by the plants. Finally, these soils are poor due to the high volume of rain in tropical rainforests washes nutrients out of the soil more quickly than in other climates.[31]

Effect on global climate

A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities ofcarbon dioxide.On a global scale, long-term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have a small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels,[32]though they may have other climatic effects (oncloudformation, for example, by recyclingwater vapour). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed.[33]Human-induceddeforestationplays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide,[34][35][36]as do other factors, whether human-induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought.[37]Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict a large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due todrought,forest diebackand the subsequent release of more carbon dioxide.[38]

Human uses

Aerial view of theAmazon rainforest,taken from a plane.
Further information:Tropical rainforest § Human dimensions

Tropical rainforests providetimberas well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value astourismdestinations and for theecosystem servicesprovided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown onplantationsin regions that were formerly primary forest.[39]Also, plant-derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment.[40]At the same time, rainforests are usually not usedsustainablyby non-native peoples but are beingexploitedor removed foragricultural purposes.

Native people

On January 18, 2007,FUNAIreported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 differentuncontacted tribesin Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition,Brazilhas now overtaken the island ofNew Guineaas the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes.[41]The province of Irian Jaya orWest Papuain the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.[42]The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil.

Central African rainforest is home of theMbutipygmies,one of the hunter-gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of a study byColin Turnbull,The Forest People,in 1962.[43]Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as "Negrito". There are many tribes in the rainforests of the Malaysian state of Sarawak. Sarawak is part of Borneo, the third largest island in the world. Some of the other tribes in Sarawak are: the Kayan, Kenyah, Kejaman, Kelabit, Punan Bah, Tanjong, Sekapan, and the Lahanan. Collectively, they are referred to as Dayaks or Orangulu which means" people of the interior ".[44]

About half of Sarawak's 1.5 million people are Dayaks. Most Dayaks, it is believed by anthropologists, came originally from the South-East Asian mainland. Their mythologies support this.

Deforestation

Further information:Deforestation in Southeast Asia,Deforestation in Madagascar,andDeforestation of the Amazon Rainforest
Satellite photograph of thehazeaboveBorneoandSumatra,24 September 2015

Tropicalandtemperate rainforestshave been subjected to heavylegalandillegal loggingfor their valuablehardwoodsandagriculturalclearance (slash-and-burn,clearcutting) throughout the 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking.[45]Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven toextinction(possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, saysE. O. WilsonofHarvard University,a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years)[46]due to the removal of habitat with destruction of the rainforests.

Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expandingurban areas.Littoralrainforest growing alongcoastalareas of easternAustraliais now rare due toribbon developmentto accommodate the demand forseachangelifestyles.[47]

Forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace.[48][49][50]Almost 90% ofWest Africa's rainforest has been destroyed.[51]Since the arrival of humans,Madagascarhas lost two thirds of its original rainforest.[52]At present rates, tropical rainforests inIndonesiawould be logged out in 10 years andPapua New Guineain 13 to 16 years.[53]According toRainforest Rescue,an important reason for the increasingdeforestationrate, especially in Indonesia, is the expansion ofoil palmplantations to meet growing demand for cheap vegetable fats andbiofuels.In Indonesia,palm oilis already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together withMalaysia,the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world's palm oil.[54][unreliable source?]

Several countries,[55]notablyBrazil,have declared their deforestation a national emergency.[56]Amazon deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data.[57]

However, a January 30, 2009New York Timesarticle stated, "By one estimate, for everyacreof rainforest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics. "The new forest includes secondary forest on former farmland and so-calleddegraded forest.[58]

See also

References

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Further reading

View of the temperate rain forest inMount Revelstoke National Park,British Columbia,Canada
Wikimedia Commons has media related toRainforest.
Look uprainforestin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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