Jump to content

Religion in Syria

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Religion in Syria (est. 2021)[1]

Druze(3%)

Religion in Syriarefers to the range ofreligionspracticed by the citizens ofSyria.Historically, the region has been a mosaic of diverse faiths with a range of different sects within each of these religious communities.

Map of the religions in Syria

The majority of Syrians areMuslims,of which theSunnisare the most numerous (formed mostly ofArabs,Kurds,Turkmens,andCircassians), followed by theAlawites,Shiagroups (particularlyIsma'ilisandTwelver Shi’ism), andDruzes.[2]In addition, there are severalChristianminorities (includingGreek Orthodox,Greek Catholics,Armenian Orthodox,Armenian Catholics,Syriac Orthodox,Syriac Catholics,Nestorians,Chaldeans,Maronites,Latin CatholicsandProtestants).[3][4][5]There is also a smallYazidicommunity. In 2020, the Jewish Chronicle reported that there were noJewsleft in Syria.[6]

Islam

[edit]

Sunnis

[edit]
TheAl-Otrush Mosqueis a 14th-centuryMamlukmosque.

The largest religious group in Syria are Sunni Muslims, who make up about 74% of the population,[7]of whomArabic-speaking Sunnis form the majority, followed by theKurds,Turkmens/Turkomans,Circassians,andPalestinians.The capital cities of eleven of the fourteen governorates have Sunni majority populations, except for the cities ofLatakia,Tartus,andSuwayda.[8]

Sunnis follow nearly all occupations, belong to all social groups and nearly every political party, and live in all parts of the country. There are only three governorates in which they are not a majority: Al-Suwayda, where Druzes predominate, Latakia, where Alawis are a majority, and Tartus, where Alawis are also a majority. In Al Hasakah, SunniKurdsrather than Arabs form a majority.

Of the four major schools of Islamic law, represented in Syria are theShafiischool and theHanafischool, which places greater emphasis on analogical deduction and bases decisions more on precedents set in previous cases than on literal interpretation of theQuranorSunna.After the first coup d'état in 1949, the waqfs were taken out of private religious hands and put under government control. Civil codes have greatly modified the authority of Islamic laws, and before the recent upsurge inIslamismduring theSyrian civil war,the educational role of Muslim religious leaders had been declining with the gradual disappearance of kuttabs, the traditional mosque-affiliated schools. Syria maintains a dual system ofshariaand civil courts.

According to the US government's 2012 International Religious Freedom Report, the government of Syria was increasingly targeting members of faith groups it deemed a threat. The report said the Sunni majority is the primary persecuted group.[6]

TheGreat Mosque of Maarrat al-Numanis a 12th-centuryAyyubid-era mosque.

Arabs

[edit]

Arab Sunnis form the largest Sunni Muslim community in the country.[9]They form a majority of Sunnis in all districts of the country except for theAl-Hasakah Governorate.[9]

In 1991, ProfessorAlasdair Drysdaleand Professor Raymond Hinnebusch said that approximately 60% of the country was formed ofArabic-speaking Sunni Muslims.[4]More recently, Dr. Pierre Beckouche also said that the Arab Sunni Muslims formed 60% of the population, including 500,000Palestinian refugees.[3]

Although the majority of Sunni Syrians are considered "Arabs", this is a term based on spoken language (Arabic), not ethnicity. Some Muslim minorities in Syria have beenArabizedto some degree, particularly the smaller ethnic groups (such as theAlbanians,Bosnians,Cretan Muslims,Pashtuns,Persians,etc.).[10]Moreover, there are also some members of the larger communities, particularly within the Kurdish and Turkmen/Turkoman minorities, who no longer speak their mother tongue and have become Arabized.[10]

Kurds

[edit]

TheKurds in Syriaare the second largest ethnic group in the country (around 10% in 2013) and are mainly Sunni Muslims.[11]The majority live inSyrian Kurdistan,bordering onIraqi KurdistanandTurkish Kurdistan.There are also smaller Kurdish communities inAleppoandDamascus.Damascus Kurds are veryArabizedand do not usually speakKurdish.[11]The only governorate in which Kurds constitute a majority is theHasakah Governorate,where they make up 60% of the population.[11]

In 1979, Dr.Nikolaos van Damsaid that the Syrian Kurds formed 8.5% of the population and were almost exclusively Sunni Muslims.[5]In 1991, Professor Alasdair Drysdale and Professor Raymond Hinnebusch also said that approximately 8.5% of the country was formed of Sunni Muslim Kurds.[4]More recently, Dr. Pierre Beckouche said that before 2011 the Sunni Muslim Kurds formed 9–10% of the country's total population.[3]

Turkmens

[edit]
TheNabi Habeel Mosqueis a 16th-centuryOttomanmosque.
TheAl-Adiliyah Mosqueis a 16th-centuryOttomanmosque.

TheTurkish-speakingTurkmen/Turkomanare the third largest ethnic group in the country (around 4%–5% in 2013) and are mainly Sunni Muslims.[11]They mainly live in the urban centres and countryside of the following six governorates: theAleppo Governorate,theDamascus Governorate,theHoms Governorate,theHama Governorate,theLatakia Governorateand theQuneitra Governorate.[11]

In 1979, Dr.Nikolaos van Damclaimed that the Syrian Turkmen/Turkoman (forming 3% of the population) were almost exclusively Sunni Muslims.[5]By 1991 Professor Alasdair Drysdale and Professor Raymond Hinnebusch also said that approximately 3% of the country was formed of Sunni Muslim Turkmen/Turkoman.[4]More recently, Dr. Pierre Beckouche said that before 2011 the Sunni Muslim Turkmen/Turkoman formed 4% of the country's population.[3]

However, the Sunni Turkmen population is believed to be considerably higher ifArabizedTurkmen are also taken into consideration; some estimations indicate that only 30% of Turkmen still speak their mother tongue, therefore, the Arabic-speaking Turkmen are likely to be omitted from the Sunni Turkmen population estimates.[11]

Circassians

[edit]

MostCircassians in Syriaare Sunni Muslims. They form the fifth largest ethnic group in the country (around 1.5% in 2013[11]) but the fourth largest Sunni Muslim community in Syria. They live mostly in three Syrian governorates: theHama Governorate,theHoms Governorateand theQuneitra Governorate.[11]Most Circassians speak very goodArabicbut they have also retained their mother tongue.[11]

In 1991, Professor Alasdair Drysdale and Professor Raymond Hinnebusch said that less than 1% of the country was formed of Sunni Muslim Circassians.[4]

Shias

[edit]
TheSayyidah Zaynab Mosqueis believed to contain the grave ofZaynaband is a pilgrimage site for Shia Muslims.
TheSayyidah Ruqayya Mosquewas built in 1985 and exhibits a modern version of Iranian architecture.

Other Muslims in the country, who do not practiceSunni Islam,form up to 16% of the population and are formed of mostlyAlawites(11%) and otherShias(such astwelver).[3]These Muslim sects include diverse ethnic groups, including: Arabs, Kurds, Turkmen/Turkoman, and other smaller communities.

Alawites

[edit]

The Alawites are the second largest religious group in Syria, after theSunni Muslims.[8]They are divided into two main groups: traditional Alawites, who form the majority, and the minorityMurshid Alawites(which rose from a modern schism in the Alawite sect at the beginning of the 20th century).[8]

In 1991, Professor Alasdair Drysdale and Professor Raymond Hinnebusch said that approximately Alawites formed 11.5% of the country's population.[4]More recently, Dr. Pierre Beckouche said that 11% of the country's population was Alawites.[3]

The Alawites mainly live in theSyrian Coastal Mountain Range,particularly in the countryside of theLatakia governorateand theTartus Governorateon the western side of the mountains, and in the countryside of theHoms GovernorateandHama Governorateon their eastern side.[8]They form a majority (around 60%) inLatakiaandTartus.In theHomsandHamaareas, they make up around 10% of the population in both the countryside and the cities, living in Talkalakh, Al-Mukharram, Al-Qabo, Shin, Al-Riqama, the Houla plain, Maryamin, Qarmas, Al Muhani, and the areas of Zahra and Naziha.[8]

A third of the 250,000 Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in theSyrian Civil War.The Alawites have suffered as a result of their support for the Assad government against the mainly Sunni Arab opposition.[12]

Ismailis

[edit]

TheIsmailisform the second largest Shia group in the country.[13]According to Professor Alasdair Drysdale and Professor Raymond Hinnebusch the Ismailis formed 1.5% of the country's population in 1991.[4]

They mainly in live in two governorates: in theHama Governoratethe Ismailis mainly live in the city ofSalamiyah,which is considered to be the "Ismaili capital". They also live in the city ofMasyafand in the surrounding countryside, as well as a small minority living in the city ofHama.In addition, Ismailis also live in theTartus Governorate,particularly in the town ofQadmusand its surrounding countryside and in the district and villages ofNahr al-Khawabi.

Twelvers

[edit]

TheTwelvers/Imamis form the smallest of the Islamic sects in Syria, making up around 0.5% of the population.[13]They live in the Amin neighbourhood in Damascus and in two villages close to Aleppo. TheJa’afari Shi’itesare found mainly inQadmus,in theTartous Governorate.[13]

In Damascus, there are Twelvers/Imamis living near to the Shia pilgrimage sites, especially in theal-Amara-quarter which is near toUmayyad MosqueandSayyidah Ruqayya Mosque,and aroundSayyidah Zaynab Mosque.Another important site isBab Saghir Cemetery.[citation needed]The Shia Twelvers in Syria have close links to theLebanese Shi'aTwelvers.[14]Imami Shias are also found in villages inIdlib,HomsandAleppoprovinces.[citation needed]

Alevis

[edit]

In northern Syria, there are some Kurdish and TurkmenAlevis.The town ofMaabatliinAfrin Districtis mainly inhabited by Kurdish Alevis.[15]In 2014, the AleviHêvî Îbrahîmbecame the Prime Minister of the then-Kurdish controlledAfrin Canton.Thousands of Turkmen Alevis were living in Aleppo, and a significant portion of these fled to Turkey.[16]

Druze

[edit]
Maqam Ain al-Zaman: The headquarters of the Druze community in Syria

TheSyrian Druzecommunity constitute the third largest Islamic sects in the country, forming approximately 3% of the population of Syria.[17]The main centre of the Druze population is inAs-Suwayda;the small towns and villages under its authority is called theJabal al-Druze(the "Mountain of the Druze" ). The rest of the community mainly live in theQuneitra Governorate,theRif Dimashq Governorate,and theIdlib Governorate.[17]Even though the faith originally developed out ofIsmaili Islam,mostDruzedo not identify asMuslims,[18][19][20][21][22]and they do not accept thefive pillars of Islam.[23]

There are many Syrian Druze also living abroad, particularly inLatin America,who have been living there for over the past hundred years.[17]InVenezuelaalone, there are approximately half a million Druze of Syrian origin.[17]

Christianity

[edit]
Our Lady of Saidnaya MonasteryinSaidnaya,Rif Dimashq
Saint Elijah Maronite CathedralinAleppo.

Christianity inSyria1956[24]

Protestant(2.46%)
Syriac(2.31%)

The Christian communities of Syria in 2011 accounted for about 5-6% of the population. The country's largest Christian denomination was theGreek Orthodox Church of Antioch.Estimates of the number of Christians in Syria in 2022 ranged from less than 2% to around 2.5% of the Syrian population.[6][25]

In 2012, Christians were split into five traditions. A primary distinguishing feature is acceptance or otherwise of the 3rd and 4th Ecumenical Councils of 431 and 451, which concerned the precise relationship of the human and divine natures of Christ. The traditions are:Oriental Orthodox(Armenian OrthodoxandSyriac Orthodox) which accept the 3rd Ecumenical Council,Eastern Orthodox(such as Greeks or Russians),Roman Catholics,variousEastern Catholic Churchesthat are under the authority of the Pope, andProtestantswho accept the 4th Ecumenical Council (two natures before and after the Incarnation in one person). The Assyrians accept only the First and Second and deny beingNestorianin doctrine (two natures in a personal non-essential union).

The Syriacs reject the 4th Council, denying beingmonophysites(one nature, the human being subsumed into the divine) and asserting instead that they are miaphytes (two natures united as one in one person, without separation, mixture, confusion or alteration). The East Syriac (Syro-Oriental) Rite is represented by theAssyrian Church of the East,Chaldean CatholicandAncient Church of the East.Members of the Syriac tradition are allEastern Aramaic-speaking ethnicAssyrians.Slight differences concerning which books of the Bible are counted as canonical are also apparent.

The total number of Christians before 2011, not includingIraqi refugeeChristians, numbered about 5-6% (1.1-1.2 million) of the total population estimate (22.5 million): 500,000Greek Orthodox,400,000Syriac Orthodox,70,000–80,000ArmenianChristians (ApostolicsandCatholics), 200,000Catholicsof various rites and theAssyrian Church of the East(Assyrian) numbers unknown, and Protestants. BecauseProtestantismwas introduced by missionaries, a small number of Syrians are members of these Western denominations. The Catholics are divided into several groups:Greek Catholics(from a schism in theGreek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antiochin 1724),Latin ChurchCatholics, Armenian Catholics,Syriac Catholics,Chaldean CatholicsandMaronites.The latter declared their allegiance to the See of St. Peter in 1182 which was confirmed by the Pope in 1100: the other Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Rite Christians which are in union with the Papacy came into existence in the 18th and 19th centuries. Catholic and Orthodox Christians were members of one Church until 1054. The Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch ignored the split: technically this Church was in union with both Rome and Constantinople until the split in 1724 over a disputed election (the irony is that the excommunication of the Patriarch by the Pope in 1054 was invalid since he was already dead when it was delivered in Constantinople).

The vast majority of Christians belong to the Eastern communions, which have existed in Syria since the earliest days of Christianity. TheOrthodoxchurches are autonomous; theUniatechurches, which are in communion with Rome; and theAssyrian Church of the Eastis independent. Even though each group forms a separate community, Christians nevertheless cooperate increasingly, largely because of their fear of the Muslim majority. In 1920 Syria was 12% Christian in a population of 1.5 million. Christians have emigrated in higher numbers than Muslims and have a lower birth rate.

Christian population in Syria has significantly diminished due to the departure of many Christians from the country amidst theSyrian civil war.[26]Assyrian Democratic Organization(ADO), an Assyrian opposition group affiliated with theSyrian National Revolutionary Coalition(SNRC), estimated that approximately two-thirds of Syrian Christians had left the country by 2021. The estimate was also verified by other Christian organizations in Syria.[27]

With the exception of theArmeniansandAssyrians,most Syrian Christians identify ethnically asArab Christians.Many Christians, particularly the Eastern Orthodox, have joined the Arab nationalist movement and some are changing their Aramaic or Westernized names to Arabic ones. Syrian Christians participate higher proportionally speaking in political and administrative affairs than do Muslims. Especially among the young, relations between Christians and Muslims are improving.

There are several social differences between Christians and Muslims. For example, Syrian Christians are more highly urbanized than Muslims; many live either in or around Damascus, Aleppo,Hamah,orLatakia,and there are relatively fewer of them in the lower income groups.Syrian Christiansare relatively wealthy and highlyeducatedthan other Syrian religious groups.[28]

The presence of the Christian communities is expressed also by the presence of manymonasteriesin several parts of the country.

Judaism

[edit]
TheCentral Synagogue of Aleppo.

MostJewsnow living in the Arab World belong to communities dating back toBiblicaltimes or originating as colonies of refugees fleeing theSpanish Inquisition.

Syrian Jews

[edit]

In Syria, Jews of both origins numbered altogether fewer than 3,000 in 1987. The government treated theJewsas a religious community and not as a racial group. Official documents referred to them as musawiyin (followers ofMoses) and not yahudin (Jews). The synagogues of the Jewish community had a protected status by the Syrian government.

In 2020, there were no known Jews left in the country.[6]

Israeli Jews

[edit]

TheGolan Heights,which is mostly internationally recognized as part of Syria, has been occupied and governed byIsraelsince theSix-Day War.It has resulted in the region being settled by an influx ofIsraeli Jewswho have become the overall majority. In 2010, the Jewish settlers had expanded to 20,000[29]living in 32 settlements.[30][31]

Yazidis

[edit]

During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, theYazidis,whose religion dates back to pre-Islamic times, migrated from southernTurkeyand settled in their present mountainous stronghold –Jabal Sinjarin northeastern Syria and Iraq. Although some are scattered inIran,Turkey,and theCaucasus,Iraq is the center of their religious life, the home of their amir, and the site (north ofMosul) of the tomb of their most revered saint,Shaykh Adi.

In 1964, there were about 10,000 Yazidis in Syria, primarily in the Jazirah and northwest of Aleppo; population data were not available in 1987. Once seminomadic, most Yazidis now are settled; they have no great chiefs and, although generally Kurdish-speaking or Arabic speaking, gradually are being assimilated into the surrounding Arab population.

Yazidis generally refuse to discuss their faith which, in any case, is known fully to only a few among them. The Yazidi religion has elements of Mesopotamian religions.

Folk spiritual beliefs

[edit]

In addition to the beliefs taught by the organized religions, many people believe strongly in powers of good and evil and in the efficacy of local saints. The former beliefs are especially marked among thebedouin,who use amulets, charms, and incantations as protective devices against the evil power ofjinns(spirits) and theevil eye.Belief insaintsis widespread among non-beduin populations. Most villages contain a saint's shrine, often the grave of a local person considered to have led a particularly exemplary life. Believers, especially women, visit these shrines to pray for help, good fortune, and protection. Although the identification of the individual with their religious community is strong, belief in saints is not limited to one religious group. Persons routinely revere saints who were members of other religious communities and, in many cases, members of various faiths pray at the same shrine.[citation needed]

Unorthodox religious beliefs of this kind are probably more common among women than men. Because they are excluded by the social separation of the sexes from much of the formal religious life of the community, women attempt to meet their own spiritual needs through informal and unorthodox religious beliefs and practices, which are passed on from generation to generation.[citation needed]

Hinduism

[edit]

There were 2,041 (0.01%)HindusinSyriain 2010 according toARDA.[32]In 2020, the portion was still 0.01%.[33]

Census statistics

[edit]

There has been no official census on Religion in Syria since the sixties.

Religions inSyriain 1943[34]

SunniIslam(68.91%)
ShiaIslam(Alawite11.37%,Ismaili1.00%,Twelver Shia0.44%)(12.81%)
Christianity(14.09%)
Druze(3.05%)
Jews(1.04%)

Religions inSyriain 1953[35]

SunniIslam(70.54%)
ShiaIslam(Alawite10.90%,Ismaili1.01%),Twelver Shia0.41%)(12.32%)
Christianity(13.10%)
Druze(3.10%)
Jews(0.87%)

Demographics of Syria, study by geographerFabrice Balanche(2017)[36]

Kurds(16%)
Druze(4%)
Shia (1%)
Ismaili (1%)
Religion in Syria
1943[34] 1953[35]
# % # %
Sunni Muslims 1 971 053
68.91%
2 578 810
70.54%
Alawites 325 311
11.37%
398 445
10.90%
Ismailis 28 527
1.00%
36 745
1.01%
Shia Muslims 12 742
0.44%
14 887
0.41%
Druzes 87 184
3.05%
113 318
3.10%
Yazidis 2 788
0.10%
3 082
0.08%
Jews 29 770
1.04%
31 647
0.87%
Greek Orthodox 136 957
4.79%
168 747
4.62%
Greek Catholics 46 733
1.63%
55 880
1.53%
Armenians Armenian Orthodox 101 747
3.56%
110 594
3.03%
Armenian Catholics 16 790
0.59%
19 492
0.53%
Total 118 537
4.15%
130 086
3.56%
Assyrian-
Chaldean-
Syriacs
Syriac Orthodox 40 135
1.40%
51 363
1.40%
Syriac Catholics 16 247
0.57%
19 738
0.54%
Nestorians 9 176
0.32%
11 176
0.31%
Chaldeans 4 719
0.16%
5 492
0.15%
Total 70 277
2.45%
87 769
2.40%
Maronites 13 349
0.47%
16 530
0.45%
Latin Catholics 5 996
0.21%
6 749
0.18%
Protestants 11 187
0.39%
13 209
0.36%
Total Christians 403 036
14.09%
478 970
13.10%
Total 2 860 411
100.00%
3 655 904
100.00%
  • 1960[37]unofficial census with religious data:
    • Sunni Muslims: 75%
      • Alawites: 11%
      • Ismailis 1%
    • Druzes: 3%
  • Total Muslims: 92.1% (4,053,349)
  • Total Christians: 7.8% (344,621)
  • Jews: 0.1% (4,860)
  • Other: 0% (342)
  • Total: 100% (4,403,172)

In the next census of 1970, the religion statistics were no longer mentioned.

Religion and law

[edit]

In matters of personal status, such asbirth,marriage,andinheritance,the Christian, Jewish, and Druze minorities follow their own legal systems. All other groups, in such matters, come under the jurisdiction of the Muslim code. However, in 2016 the de facto autonomousFederation of Northern Syria - Rojavafor the first time in Syrian history introduced and started to promotecivil marriageas a move towards a secular open society and intermarriage between people of different religious backgrounds.[38]

Although the faiths theoretically enjoy equal legal status, to some extent Islam is favored. Despite guarantees ofreligious freedom,some observers maintain that the conditions of the non-Muslim minorities have been steadily deteriorating, especially since the June 1967 war. An instance of this deterioration was the nationalization of over 300 Christian schools, together with approximately 75 private Muslim schools, in the autumn of 1967. Since the early 1960s, heavyemigrationof Christians has been noted; in fact, some authorities state that at least 50 percent of the 600,000 people who left during the decade ending in 1968 were Christians. In recent decades, however, emigration was slow until theSyrian Civil War.

Freedom of religion in the 2020s

[edit]

In 2023, the country was scored 2 out of 4 for religious freedom,[39]with the government controlling the appointment of Muslim religious leaders, restricted proselytizing, a ban on conversion of Muslims and active terror threats.

In the same year, the country was ranked as the 12th most difficult place in the world to be a Christian.[40]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^"Syria".www.cia.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 9 January 2021.Retrieved28 January2020.
  2. ^Khalifa, Mustafa (2013),"The impossible partition of Syria",Arab Reform Initiative,archivedfrom the original on 2016-10-09,retrieved2018-08-02
  3. ^abcdefPierre, Beckouche (2017), "The Country Reports: Syria",Europe's Mediterranean Neighbourhood,Edward Elgar Publishing,p. 178,ISBN978-1786431493,Before 2011, Syria's population was 74% Sunni Muslim, including 500,000 Palestinians and non-Arab populations, that is Kurds (9-10%) and Turkmen (4%). Other Muslims, including Shias and Alawites (11% of the Syrian population)...Various Christian denominations made up 10%. There were a few Jewish communities in Aleppo and Damascus as well as 1500 people of Greek descent and small Armenians populations.
  4. ^abcdefgDrysdale, Alasdair; Hinnebusch, Raymond A. (1991),Syria and the Middle East Peace Process,Council on Foreign Relations,p.222,ISBN0876091052,roughly 85 percent of all Syrians are Arabic-speaking and some 70 percent are Sunni Muslim, but these categories are not completely congruent and Arabic-speaking Sunni Muslims account for less than 60 percent of the total population. The religious and ethnic minorities that comprise 40 percent of Syria's population are diverse. Although nearly 90 percent of all Syrians are Muslim and almost all the rest are Christian, both communities are subdivided into many sects. Among the former, the main minorities are the Alawis (11.5 percent), Druzes (3 percent) and Isma'ilis (1.5 percent), all of whom are Arabic-speaking splinter Shiite groups. The largely Arab Christians are divided among a large number of denominations, with the Greek Orthodox the largest (4.7 percent). The main ethnic minorities, among whom Arabic is now widely used, are the Kurds (8.5 percent), Armenians (4 percent), Turcomans (3 percent), and Circassians (under 1 percent). Of these, all but the Christian Armenians are Sunni Muslim.
  5. ^abcVan Dam, Nikolaos (1979),The Struggle for Power in Syria,Taylor & Francis,p. 1,ISBN9780856647031
  6. ^abcdUS State Dept 2022 report
  7. ^"Syria (CIA Factbook)".19 May 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 9 January 2021.Retrieved24 January2021.
  8. ^abcdeKhalifa 2013,6.
  9. ^abKhalifa 2013,3.
  10. ^abKhalifa 2013,3–5.
  11. ^abcdefghiKhalifa 2013,4.
  12. ^Sherlock, Ruth (7 April 2015)."In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad".London: The Daily Telegraph.Archivedfrom the original on 7 April 2015.Retrieved4 April2018.
  13. ^abcKhalifa 2013,7.
  14. ^January 9, 2013."Report: Hizbullah Training Shiite Syrians to Defend Villages against Rebels".Naharnet.Archivedfrom the original on 2013-01-16.Retrieved2022-11-28.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  15. ^"DerStandard.at".Archivedfrom the original on 2018-05-26.Retrieved2018-10-27.
  16. ^"Tek suçları Alevi olmak..."www.odatv4.com(in Turkish). 1 September 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 28 November 2022.Retrieved28 November2022.
  17. ^abcdKhalifa 2013,6–7.
  18. ^Pintak, Lawrence (2019).America & Islam: Soundbites, Suicide Bombs and the Road to Donald Trump.Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 86.ISBN9781788315593.
  19. ^Jonas, Margaret (2011).The Templar Spirit: The Esoteric Inspiration, Rituals and Beliefs of the Knights Templar.Temple Lodge Publishing. p. 83.ISBN9781906999254.[Druze] often they are not regarded as being Muslim at all, nor do all the Druze consider themselves as Muslim
  20. ^"Are the Druze People Arabs or Muslims? Deciphering Who They Are".Arab America.Arab America. 8 August 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 20 October 2019.Retrieved13 April2020.
  21. ^J. Stewart, Dona (2008).The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives.Routledge. p. 33.ISBN9781135980795.Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
  22. ^Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014).The Oxford Handbook of American Islam.Oxford University Press. p. 142.ISBN9780199862634.While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..
  23. ^De McLaurin, Ronald (1979).The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East.Michigan University Press. p. 114.ISBN9780030525964.Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..
  24. ^Samir Abdoh, "[1]Archived2022-11-30 at theWayback Machine",Christian Denominations in Syria,year 2003, p.33
  25. ^al-Salem, Majd (22 June 2023)."Emigration empties Qamishli of its Christian people".Enab Baladi.Archived fromthe originalon 15 July 2023.
  26. ^"Syria".CIA World Factbook.Archived fromthe originalon 16 January 2024.the Christian population may be considerably smaller as a result of Christians fleeing the country during the ongoing civil war
  27. ^"Syria's Christian population reduced by two-thirds since 2011: party".rudaw.9 August 2021. Archived fromthe originalon 9 August 2021.
  28. ^Why Do So Few Christian Syrian Refugees Register With The United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees?Archived2018-08-29 at theWayback Machine,Marwan Kreidie: Adjunct Professor of Political Science,West Chester University.
  29. ^Regions and territories: The Golan HeightsArchived2011-04-15 at theWayback MachineBBC
  30. ^Oudat, Basel.Shouting in the hillsArchived2009-08-09 at theWayback Machine,Al-Ahram Weekly,12–18 June 2008. Issue No. 901.
  31. ^"Population by District, Sub-District and Religion".Statistical Abstract of Israel, no. 60.Israel Central Bureau of Statistics.2009.Archivedfrom the original on 2011-06-10.Retrieved2015-02-08.
  32. ^"Most Hindu Nations (2010)".QuickLists > Compare Nations > Religions >.The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2010.Archivedfrom the original on April 10, 2016.RetrievedFebruary 20,2022.
  33. ^The ARDA website, retrieved 2023-08-28
  34. ^abHourani, Albert Habib (1947).Minorities in the Arab World.London: Oxford University Press. pp.76.
  35. ^abEtienne de Vaumas, "La population de la SyrieArchived2018-05-04 at theWayback Machine",Annales de géographie,Année 1955, Vol. 64, n° 341, p.75
  36. ^Balanche, Fabrice (2018)."Sectarianism in Syria's Civil War: A Geopolitical Study".WINEP.Archivedfrom the original on 10 May 2023.
  37. ^(in French)Mouna Liliane Samman,La population de la Syrie: étude géo-démographiqueArchived2017-10-12 at theWayback Machine,IRD Editions, Paris, 1978,ISBN9782709905008table p.9
  38. ^"Syria Kurds challenging traditions, promote civil marriage".ARA News. 2016-02-20. Archived fromthe originalon 2016-02-22.Retrieved2016-08-23.
  39. ^Freedom House website, retrieved 2023-08-08
  40. ^Open Doors website, retrieved 2023-08-08

Further reading

[edit]
  • Marcel Stüssi,Models of Religious Freedom: Switzerland, the United States, and Syria by Analytical, Methodological, and Eclectic Representation,2012, p. 375 ff.
[edit]