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Religious perspectives on Jesus

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Thereligious perspectives on Jesusvary among world religions.[1]Jesus' teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course ofhuman history,and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, including non-Christians.[1][2][3]He is considered by many to be one of the most influential persons to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.[4]

InChristianity,Jesus is theMessiah(Christ) foretold in theOld Testamentand theSon of God.Christians believe that through hisdeathandresurrection,humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise ofeternal life.[5]These beliefs emphasize that as the willingLamb of God,Jesuschose tosuffer inCalvaryas a sign of his full obedience to the will of his Father, as an "agent and servant of God".[6][7]Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.

InIslam,Jesus (commonly transliterated asIsa) is the Messiah and one of God's highest-ranked and most-belovedprophets.Islam considers Jesus to be neither the incarnation nor the Son of God. He is referred to as the son of Mary in the Qu’ran. Islamic texts emphasize a strict affirmation of monotheism (tawhid) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be idolatry (shirk).

In theDruzefaith, Jesus is considered one of God's important prophets and theMessiah.[8][9]

TheBaháʼí Faithconsiders Jesus to be one of manymanifestations of God,who are a series of personages who reflect the attributes of the divine into the human world. Baháʼís reject the idea that divinity was contained with a single human body.

Apart from his owndisciplesand followers, theJewsof Jesus' day generally rejected him as the Messiah, as do the great majority of Jews today. MainstreamJewishscholars argue that Jesus neither fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in theTanakhnor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah.

Sikhismviews Jesus as a high-ranked Holy man or saint.

Other world religions such asBuddhismhave no particular view on Jesus, and have but a minor intersection with Christianity.

For non-religious perspectives on Jesus, seehistorical Jesus.

Christianity[edit]

Main article:Jesus in Christianity
See also:Ministry of Jesus,Parables of Jesus,Miracles of Jesus,andNames and titles of Jesus in the New Testament

Christian views of Jesusare based on the teachings and beliefs as outlined in theCanonical gospels,New Testament letters,theChristian creeds,as well as specific denominational teachings. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the Son of God.[10]

Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among major denominations, as stated in theircatecheticalorconfessionaltexts.[11]Generally speaking, adhering to the Christian faith requires a belief that Jesus is theSon of Godand theMessiahorChrist.Jesus refers to himself as the Son of God in the New Testament.[12]

Christians consider Jesus to be the Messiah (Christ) and believe that throughhis death and resurrection,humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise ofeternal life.[5]These teachings emphasize that as the willingLamb of God,Jesuschose tosuffer inCalvaryas a sign of his full obedience to the will of his Father, as an "agent and servant of God".[6][7]The choice Jesus made thus counter-positions him as a new man of morality and obedience, in contrast toAdam's disobedience.[13]

The five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are hisBaptism,Transfiguration,Crucifixion, Resurrection andAscension.[14][15][16]These are usually bracketed by two other episodes: hisNativityat the beginning and the sending of theParacleteat the end.[14][16]The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his "works and words", e.g. hisministry,parablesandmiracles.[17][18]The words of Jesus include several sermons, in addition to parables that appear throughout the narrative of theSynoptic Gospels(the gospel of John includes no parables).

Christians not only attach theological significance to the works of Jesus, but also to his name. Devotions to theHoly Name of Jesusgo back to theearliest days of Christianity.[19][20]These devotions and feasts exist both inEasternandWestern Christianity.[20]

Incarnation[edit]

Further information:Incarnation (Christianity)andChristology

Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God. While there have been theological debate over the nature of Jesus,TrinitarianChristians generally believe that Jesus isGod incarnate,God the Son,and "true God and true man"(or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus,having become fully humanin all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to theBible,God raised him from the dead.[21]Heascended to heaven,to the "right hand of God,"[22]and he willreturn againfor theLast Judgmentand the establishment of theKingdom of God.[23]

Islam[edit]

Main article:Jesus in Islam
See also:Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam

In Islam, Jesus (Isa) is considered to be amessengerof God (Allah) and the Messiah (al-Masih) who was sent to guide theDescendants of Israel(Bani Isra'il) with a new scripture, the Gospel (Injil).[24][25]

TheQuranmentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often thanMuhammad[26]—and emphasises that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message.[27]Unlike Christian writings, the Quran does not describe Jesus as theson of God,but as one of four major humanmessengers(out of manyprophets) sent by God throughout history to guide mankind.[28]Jesus is said to have lived a life of piety and generosity, and abstained from eating flesh of swine.

Muslims also believe that Jesus received a Gospel from God, called theInjil.However, Muslims hold that Jesus' original message waslost or alteredand that the Christian New Testament does not accurately represent God's original message to mankind.[29]

Despite major differences, the Quran and New Testament overlap in other aspects of Jesus' life; both Muslims and Christians believe that Jesus was miraculously born without a human biological father by the will of God, and that his mother, Mary (Maryamin Arabic), is among the most saintly, pious, chaste and virtuous women ever.[30]The Quran also specifies that Jesus was able to performmiracles—though only by the will of God—including being able to raise the dead, restore sight to the blind and cure lepers.[31]One miracle attributed to Jesus in the Quran, but not in the New Testament, is his being able to speak at only a few days old, to defend his mother from accusations ofadultery.[32]It also says that Jesus was a 'word' from God, since he was predicted to come in theOld Testament.

Most Muslims believe that he was neither killed nor crucified, but that God made it appear so to his enemies. With the noteworthy exception ofAhmadiMuslims who believe that Jesus was indeed put on the cross, survived the crucifixion and was not lifted bodily to the heaven, the majority of Muslims believe that Jesus ascended bodily to heaven and is alive. Some Muslim scholars maintain that Jesus was indeed put up on the cross, but did not die on it; rather, he revived and then ascended bodily to heaven. Others say that it was actuallyJudas Iscariotwho was mistakenly crucified by the Romans. Regardless, Muslims believe that Jesus is alive inheavenand will return to the world in the flesh to defeat theAntichrist,once the world has become filled with sin, deception and injustice, and then live out the rest of his natural life.[24]

Islam rejects theTrinitarian Christianview that Jesus wasGod incarnateor theson of God,that he was ever crucified or resurrected or that he everatonedfor the sins of mankind. The Quran says that Jesus himself, when asked by God if he said that people shall regard him and Mary as gods, will deny this.[Quran5:116]

Judaism[edit]

Main article:Judaism's view of Jesus

Judaismrejects the idea of Jesus being God, or a person of a Trinity, or a mediator to God. Judaism also holds that Jesus is not theMessiah,arguing that he had not fulfilled theMessianic propheciesin theTanakhnor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. According to Jewish tradition, there were no more prophets afterMalachi,who lived centuries before Jesus and delivered his prophesies about 420 BCE.[33]

According toConservative Judaism,Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah have "crossed the line out of the Jewish community".[34]Reform Judaism,the modern progressive movement, states "For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is anapostate".[35]

Jesus in Jewish writings[edit]

See also:Jesus in the Talmud

TheBabylonian Talmudinclude stories ofYeshuיֵשׁוּ;the vast majority of contemporary historians disregard these as sources on thehistorical Jesus.[36]Contemporary Talmud scholars view these as comments on the relationship between Judaism and Christians or other sectarians, rather than comments on the historical Jesus.[37][38]

TheMishneh Torah,an authoritative work ofJewish law,states inHilkhot Melakhim11:10–12 that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God".

Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would beMessiahand was killed by the court, was already prophesied byDaniel.So that it was said, "And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled."[39]Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of theprophetsspoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of (Muhammad) theIshmaelitewho stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, "Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder."[40]Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of theTorah,and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart.[41]

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

TheBaháʼí Faithconsider Jesus to be amanifestation of God,who are a series of personages who reflect the attributes of the divine into the human world for the progress and advancement of human morals and civilization.[42]In Baháʼí belief, the Manifestations have always been sent by God, and always will, as part of the singleprogressive religionfrom God bringing more teachings through time to help humanity progress.[43]The Manifestations of God are taught to be "one and the same", and in their relationship to one another have both the station of unity and the station of distinction.[42]In this way each Manifestation of God manifested the Word of God and taught the same religion, with modifications for the particular audience's needs and culture.Bahá'u'lláhwrote that since each Manifestation of God has the same divine attributes, they can be seen as the spiritual "return" of all the previous Manifestations of God.[42]In this way, Baháʼís believe that Bahá'u'lláh is, in both respects, the return of Jesus.

Druze Faith[edit]

TheDruzemaqamof Al-masih (Jesus) inAs-Suwayda Governorate.

In theDruzefaith, Jesus is considered one of God's important prophets and theMessiah,[44][45]being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[46][47]The Druze venerateJesus"the son ofJosephandMary"and hisfour disciples,who wrote the Gospels.[48]In theDruzetradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.[49]

According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of UltimateReason(Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd),[48]and regards Jesus andHamza ibn Alias the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.[50]Druze believe that Hamza ibn Ali was areincarnationof Jesus,[51]and thatHamza ibn Aliis the true Messiah, who directed the deeds of the messiah Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary", but when Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" strayed from the path of the true Messiah, Hamza filled the hearts of the Jews with hatred for him - and for that reason, they crucified him, according to the Druze manuscripts.[48][52]Despite this,Hamza ibn Alitook him down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, in order to prepare men for the preaching of his religion.[48]

In an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism,Baha al-Din al-Muqtana,[53]probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews ofcrucifying Jesus.[54]

Other[edit]

Traditionally,Buddhistsas a group take no particular view on Jesus, andBuddhism and Christianityhave but a minor intersection. However, some scholars have noted similarities between the life and teachings ofGautama BuddhaandJesus.These similarities might be attributed to Buddhist missionaries sent as early as EmperorAshokaaround 250 BCE in many of the GreekSeleucidkingdoms that existed then and then later became the same regions in which Christianity began.[55]

Jesus was seen as the saviour and bringer ofgnosisby variousGnosticsects, such as the quasi-extinctManichaeism.

The Vietnamese syncretic religionCao Dailocates Jesus in the celestial Council of Great Spirits that directs the universe.[56]

In theAhmadiyya Islamic view,Jesus survived the crucifixion and later travelled toIndia,where he lived as a prophet (and died) under the name ofYuz Asaf.

According toThe Urantia Book,Jesus was one of numerous sons of God named Michael of Nebadon, who took on earthly incarnation.[57]

InRaëlism,Jesus and several other religious figures are considered prophets sent by an extraterrestrial race called theElohim.[58][59]

TheReligious Sciencemovement considers Jesus to be a teacher of “Science of Mind”.[58][60]

TheLacandon peopleof Central America acknowledge Äkyantho', the god of foreigners. He has a son named Hesuklistos (Jesus Christ) who is supposed to be the god of the foreigners. They recognize that Hesuklistos is a god but do not feel he is worthy of worship as he is a minor god.[61]

Unlike other religions, Hinduism has no established set of beliefs and thus no universal or common view of Jesus. However, a lot of Hindus, including religious and political leaders, tend to variously venerate Jesus as either aĀchārya,SadhuorAvatar.[62][63][64]Some Hindus andHare Krishnasalso claim that Jesus waspredictedorprophesiedin the scriptureBhavishya Purana.[65]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^abThe Blackwell Companion to Jesusedited by Delbert Burkett 2010ISBN1-4051-9362-Xpage 1[1]
  2. ^The Cambridge companion to Jesusedited by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001ISBN0-521-79678-4pages 156-157
  3. ^The historical Christ and the Jesus of faithby C. Stephen Evans 1996, Oxford University PressISBN0-19-826397-Xpage v
  4. ^Bauckham, Richard (2011).Jesus: A Very Short Introduction.United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2.ISBN978-0199575275.
  5. ^abOxford Companion to the Biblep.649
  6. ^abThe Christology of Anselm of Canterburyby Dániel Deme 2004ISBN0-7546-3779-4pages 199-200
  7. ^abThe Christology of the New Testamentby Oscar Cullmann 1959ISBN0-664-24351-7page 79
  8. ^Hitti, Philip K. (1928).The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings.Library of Alexandria. p. 37.ISBN9781465546623.
  9. ^Dana, Nissim (2008).The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status.Michigan University press. p. 17.ISBN9781903900369.
  10. ^Schreiner, Thomas R. (2008).New Testament Theology: Magnifying God in Christ.Baker Academic. pp. 23–37.ISBN978-0-8010-2680-5.
  11. ^Jackson, Gregory L. (1993).Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison.Christian News. pp. 11–17.ISBN978-0-615-16635-3.
  12. ^One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospelby John Yueh-Han Yieh 2004ISBN3-11-018151-7pages 240-241
  13. ^Systematic Theology, Volume 2by Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 0567084663 ISBN pages 297-303
  14. ^abEssays in New Testament interpretationby Charles Francis Digby Moule 1982ISBN0-521-23783-1page 63
  15. ^The Melody of Faith: Theology in an Orthodox Keyby Vigen Guroian 2010ISBN0-8028-6496-1page 28
  16. ^abScripture in traditionby John Breck 2001ISBN0-88141-226-0page 12
  17. ^The Bible Knowledge Commentaryby John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983ISBN0-88207-812-7page 100
  18. ^The words and works of Jesus Christby J. Dwight Pentecost 2000ISBN978-0-310-30940-6page 212
  19. ^Outlines of dogmatic theology, Volume 2 by Sylvester Hunter 2010ISBN1-146-98633-5page 443
  20. ^abJesus: the complete guideby Leslie Houlden 2006ISBN0-8264-8011-Xpage 426
  21. ^Acts 2:24,Romans 10:9,1Cor 15:15,Acts 2:31–32,3:15,3:26,4:10,5:30,10:40–41,13:30,13:34,13:37,17:30–31,1Cor 6:14,2Cor 4:14,Gal 1:1,Eph 1:20,Col 2:12,1Thess 1:10,Heb 13:20,1Pet 1:3,1:21
  22. ^Mark 16:19,Luke 22:69,Acts 2:33,5:31,7:55–56,Romans 8:34,Eph 1:20,Col 3:1,Hebrews 1:3,1:13,10:12,12:2,1Peter 3:22
  23. ^cf.John 14:1–3,Acts 1:10–11,Luke 21:27,Revelation 1:7
  24. ^abGlassé, Cyril (2008).Concise Encyclopedia of Islam.Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 270–271.ISBN978-0-7425-6296-7.
  25. ^Esposito, John L. (2003).The Oxford Dictionary of Islam.Oxford University Press. p. 158.ISBN978-0-19-975726-8.
  26. ^Aboul-Enein, Youssef H. (2010).Militant Islamist Ideology: Understanding the Global Threat.Naval Institute Press. p. 20.ISBN978-1-61251-015-6.
  27. ^Fasching, Darrell J.; deChant, Dell (2001).Comparative Religious Ethics: A Narrative Approach.John Wiley & Sons. pp.241, 274–275.ISBN978-0-631-20125-0.
  28. ^Annemarie Schimmel (1975).Mystical Dimensions of Islam.Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press. p.202.
  29. ^Paget, James C. (2001)."Quests for the historical Jesus".In Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. (ed.).Cambridge companion to Jesus.Cambridge University Press. p. 183.ISBN978-0-521-79678-1.
  30. ^Esposito, John.What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam.New York: University Press, 2002. P31.
  31. ^Morgan, Diane (2010).Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice.ABC-CLIO. pp.45–46.ISBN978-0-313-36025-1.
  32. ^Quran19:27-33
  33. ^Simmons, Shraga,"Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus",Retrieved April 15, 2007;"Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus",Ohr Samayach—Ask the Rabbi,Retrieved April 15, 2007; "Why do not Jews believe that Jesus was the Messiah?",AskMoses.com,Retrieved April 15, 2007
  34. ^Waxman, Jonathan (2006)."Messianic Jews Are Not Jews".United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism.Archived fromthe originalon January 9, 2008.RetrievedJanuary 15,2008.Judaism has held that the Mashiach will come and usher in a new era; not that he will proclaim his arrival, die and wait centuries to finish his task. To continue to assert that Jesus was the Mashiach goes against the belief that the Mashiach will transform the world when he does come, not merely hint at a future transformation at some undefined time to come... Judaism rejects the claim that a new covenant was created with Jesus and asserts instead that the chain of Tradition reaching back to Moshe continues to make valid claims on our lives, and serve as more than mere window dressing.
  35. ^Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68, "Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?",faqs.org. Retrieved April 15, 2007.
  36. ^Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition)
  37. ^Daniel Boyarin,Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and JudaismStanford: Stanford University Press, 1999
  38. ^Jeffrey RubensteinRabbinic Stories(The Classics of Western Spirituality) New York: The Paulist Press, 2002
  39. ^Dan. 11:14
  40. ^Zeph. 3:9
  41. ^Hilchot Malachim (laws concerning kings) (Hebrew)",MechonMamre.org, Retrieved April 15, 2007
  42. ^abcCole, Juan (1982)."The Concept of Manifestation in the Baháʼí Writings".Études Baháʼí Studies.monograph 9: 1–38 – via Bahá'í Library Online.
  43. ^Smith, Peter (2000)."Progressive revelation".A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith.Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp.276–277.ISBN1-85168-184-1.
  44. ^Hitti, Philip K. (1928).The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings.Library of Alexandria. p. 37.ISBN9781465546623.
  45. ^Dana, Nissim (2008).The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status.Michigan University press. p. 17.ISBN9781903900369.
  46. ^Hitti, Philip K. (1928).The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings.Library of Alexandria. p. 37.ISBN9781465546623.
  47. ^Dana, Nissim (2008).The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status.Michigan University press. p. 17.ISBN9781903900369.
  48. ^abcdDana, Nissim (2008).The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status.Michigan University press. p. 47.ISBN978-1-903900-36-9.
  49. ^Swayd, Samy (2019).The A to Z of the Druzes.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 88.ISBN9780810870024.Jesus is known in the Druze tradition as the "True Messiah" (al-Masih al-Haq), for he delivered what Druzes view as the true message. He is also referred to as the "Messiah of the Nations" (Masih al-Umam) because he was sent to the world as "Masih of Sins" because he is the one who forgives.
  50. ^Crone, Patricia (2013).The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought.Princeton University Press. p. 139.ISBN9780691134840.
  51. ^S. Sorenson, David (2008).The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought.Routledge. p. 239.ISBN9780429975042.They further believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of many prophets, including Christ, Plato, Aristotle.
  52. ^Massignon, Louis (2019).The Passion of Al-Hallaj, Mystic and Martyr of Islam, Volume 1: The Life of Al-Hallaj.Princeton University Press. p. 594.ISBN9780691610832.
  53. ^Nettler, Ronald (2014).Muslim-Jewish Encounters.Routledge. p. 140.ISBN9781134408542....One example of Druze anti—Jewish bias is contained in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din
  54. ^L. Rogan, Eugene (2011).The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948.Cambridge University Press.p. 73.ISBN9780521794763.
  55. ^Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times "by Jerry H.Bentley (Oxford University Press, 1993)ISBN0-19-507639-7
  56. ^Blagov, Serguei A. (2001). "5: Caodaist Hierarchy and Ritials [sic]".Caodaism: Vietnamese Traditionalism and Its Leap Into Modernity.Nova Publishers. p. 53.ISBN978-1-59033-150-7.Retrieved3 March2021.
  57. ^House, Wayne (2000).Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements.Zondervan.p. 262.ISBN9780310385516.
  58. ^abHutson, Steven (2006).What They Never Taught You in Sunday School: A Fresh Look at Following Jesus.City Boy Enterprises. p. 57.ISBN978-1-59886-300-0.
  59. ^Beyer, Catherine."Raelian Movement".About.com.RetrievedJune 13,2013.
  60. ^Ankerberg, John; Weldon, John."What Does Religious Science Teach About Jesus?"(PDF).Ankerberg Theological Research Institute.RetrievedJune 13,2013.
  61. ^McGee, Jon (2002) "Watching Lacandon Maya Lives," Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
  62. ^"A Hindu's Jesus | Reform Magazine".
  63. ^Wallace, J. Warner (2017-12-04)."Who Is Jesus, According to Other Religions? | Cold Case Christianity".coldcasechristianity.com.Retrieved2023-12-03.
  64. ^Braun, Henrik (2023-05-01)."Was Jesus a Hindu avatar?".Medium.Retrieved2023-12-03.
  65. ^Dāsa, Maitreya Ṛṣi (2021-01-13)."What do the Hare Krishnas think about Jesus Christ?".Hare Krishna London.Retrieved2023-12-03.

Further reading[edit]

Slade, Darren M. (January 2014)."Arabia Haeresium Ferax (Arabia Bearer of Heresies): Schismatic Christianity's Potential Influence on Muhammad and the Qur'an"(PDF).American Theological Inquiry.7(1): 43–53. Archived fromthe originalon 2014-02-02.

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