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Resettlement of the Jews in England

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Theresettlement of the Jews in Englandwas an informal arrangement during theCommonwealth of Englandin the mid-1650s, which allowedJewsto practice their faith openly. It forms a prominent part of thehistory of the Jews in England.It happened directly after two events. Firstly a prominent rabbiMenasseh ben Israelcame to the country from theNetherlandsto make the case for Jewish resettlement, and secondly a SpanishNew Christian(a supposedly converted Jew, who secretly practised his religion) merchant Antonio Robles requested that he be classified as a Jew rather than Spaniard duringthe warbetween England andSpain.

Historians have disagreed about the reasons behind the resettlement, particularly regardingOliver Cromwell's motives, but the move is generally seen as a part of a current of religious and intellectual thought moving towardsliberty of conscience,encompassingphilosemiticmillenarianismandHebraicism,as well as political and trade interests favouring Jewish presence in England. The schools of thought that led to the resettlement of the Jews in England is the most heavily studied subject of Anglo-Jewish history in the period before the eighteenth century.[1]

Background[edit]

In 1290, KingEdward I of Englandhad issued anedict expelling all Jews from England.[2]However theEnglish Reformation,which started in the 1530s, brought a number of changes that benefited Jews in the long term. Doctrines and rituals of the Roman Catholic church that insulted Jews were eliminated, especially those that emphasised their role in the death of Jesus.[citation needed]Furtheranti-Catholicism,with the Pope asantichrist,came to replace antisemitism.[3][4]The period of theEnglish Civil WarsandInterregnum,were marked by both widespreadmillennialbeliefs and a beginning of religious toleration. Significantly, millenarianism in England often had a strongHebraistcharacter, that emphasised the study of Hebrew and Judaism. This was sometimes extended by certain individuals to claim the English as thedescendants of the Ten lost tribes of Israel,[5][6]with Cromwell himself numbering amongst the supporters of this idea.[7]

Main article:History of the Marranos in England

After both theAlhambra Decreeof 1492, which expelled Jews from Spain in 1492, andsimilar measures in Portugalin 1496, someconversotraders (Jewish converts to Christianity, who often practised Judaism in secret, sometimes also known asNew Christiansor derogatively asMarranos) settled in London and Bristol.[note 1]The small community was largely linked by trade to Antwerp, and was expelled altogether in 1609. It was with London’s growing importance as a trading city that Jews from the Netherlands began to settle in the country once more from the 1630s. It is from this first that the current Jewish population of the UK has grown.[10]

Religious toleration and liberty of conscience[edit]

The 1640s and 1650s in England were marked by intense debates about religious tolerance, marked by speeches and tracts by radical puritans and dissenters who called for liberty of conscience. This extreme diversity of opinion about religious toleration was sorted into 12 schools of thought in the seminal study of the period byW.K. Jordan.[note 2]John Coffey uses a simpler three-point schema: anti-tolerationists, conservative tolerationists, and radical tolerationists, pointing out that although the latter were in a minority, they formed an important part of the debate.[12]Nonetheless it is important to remember that although figures such asWilliam Walwyn,Henry Vane,John Milton,and others made powerful apologia for religious toleration, their frame of reference was theological, rather than secular in nature and they were not calling for religious pluralism as is understood today.[13][14]The early and mid Seventeenth century was also marked by a rise in Hebraism, the study of Jewish scriptures, which were often used to discuss political issues such as the existence of a monarchy or republic, and religious toleration. This debate used Jewish sources to justify its conclusions.[15]The most prominent scholar in the field was the MP and juristJohn Selden,whose thought was influenced byThomas ErastusandGrotius.Selden proposed minimal government intervention on matters of religion, a view he modelled on theHebrew Commonwealth.He in turn influenced similar approaches inJohn Milton(whose plea for freedom of the press, theAreopagitica(1644), directly named him),Thomas HobbesandJames Harrington(the latter of whom proposed settling Jews in Ireland in his bookThe Commonwealth of Oceana).[16][17]

Overall the strongest political group of the 1640s and 50s, the English Puritans, had a negative view of toleration, seeing it as a concession to evil and heresy. It was often associated with tolerating the heresies ofArminianism,the philosophy of free will and free thought, andSocinianism,a doctrine ofAnti-trinitarianism.But despite this Puritan hostility to toleration, England did see a certain religious laissez-faire emerge (for instance, theRump Parliamentrepealed therecusancylaws in 1650). This was partly due to the impossibility of stopping religious free expression, but it also became a part of the cause of thenew model army.[18]The doctrinal policies of the protectorate were largely conservative. However, this Puritan train of thought could also point towards liberty of conscience. ForCongregationalists,truth lay in the spirit rather than institutions. Like thePlatonists,they searched for internal unity amidst external diversity.[19]Further, Puritans valued conscience, which could be neither forced nor tested, over ritual and ceremony. So rather than toleration, the key debate among key figures in the Protectorate revolved aroundliberty of conscience.ForBlair Worden,Cromwell’s religious policy was rooted in a search for union of believers, rather than toleration of differing beliefs, and religious persecution was the largest obstacle to this union. However, liberty of conscience extended only to "God's peculiar" and not heretics (such asQuakers,Socinians,andRanters).[20]

There was a great increase of religious freedom and the ecclesiastical diversity in Cromwellian England. This marked a revolutionary change and led to increasing toleration in the years after the interregnum ended.[21]On the one hand, the loosely Calvinist Cromwell allowed the punishment of men such as theUnitarianJohn Biddleand theQuakerJames Nayler,and accepted the restrictions on religious tolerance found in theHumble Petition and Adviceof 1657. But on the other hand, his entourage included men who wanted more liberty of belief than he allowed. These non-sectarian ‘merciful men’ orpolitiques,who wanted to understand and tolerate beliefs different to their own, includedBulstrode Whitelocke,Matthew Hale,andSir Charles Worsley.[22]

Millenarian 'admissionists'[edit]

The toleration of Jews was largely borne by the hope ofconverting them to Christianity.Leonard Busherwas one of the first to call for the readmission of the Jews to England and the toleration of their faith in 1616. Lawyer and MP,Henry Finchand the scholarJoseph Medeboth wrote of the benefits of the conversion of the Jews in the 1620s. The Scottish ministerJohn Wemyssadvocated readmitting Jews to Christian lands with a view to converting them in the 1630s. So, by the 1640s, the imminent conversion of the Jews was a widespread belief among Puritans. Indeed during that decade the Christians who were most liberal towards Jews are also those who were most committed to their conversion. A number of these ‘admissionists’ were close to Cromwell, includingJohn Sadler,John Dury,andHugh Peter.Other notable readmissionists include exiled Royalist clericThomas Barlowand the DissenterHenry Jessey.TheFifth Monarchy Menwere another example of Puritan millenarians who saw the readmission of the Jews as hastening the kingdom of Christ. The exiled RoyalistSir Edward Nicholasis one of the few admissionists who did not seem interested in conversion. By contrast, the anti-admissionists were often animated by the belief that it would be difficult or impossible to convert the Jews.William Prynne’s anti-Semitic pamphletA Short Demurrer,which was printed on the eve of the Whitehall Conference, and the pamphletAnglo-Judaeus or The History of the Jews Whilst Here in Englandby W.H. both doubt that the Jews would be converted once in England.[23]Many millenarians at the time emphasised the chosen role of England in God’s plan, and this was often accompanied by the identification the Jews as the true Israel of the Bible. Indeed, they saw the Jews as a superior group, sharing some characteristics with the chosen nation of England. This belief was rooted in the literal interpretation of the Biblical primacy of the Jews found in the writings ofThomas Brightman.[24]This meant that if the Jews were specially favoured by God, the English must listen to their appeals for help.[25]These philo-semitic figures, who also believed in the restoration of the Jews to the Holy Land, includedJeremiah Burroughs,Peter Bulkeley(whose father had given Brightman’s funeral sermon),John Fenwicke,andJohn Cotton.[26]

1649 to 1654: First steps towards resettlement[edit]

The original petition for readmission was submitted by Johanna and Ebenezer Cartwright, two English baptists living in Amsterdam, toThomas Fairfax’s Council of War in January 1649. As well as asking that Jews be allowed to live in England, their petition also expressed the wish that the Jews "shall come to know the Emanuell" and that they be transported to the "Land promised to their fore-fathers". It can be seen as a distillation of the Judeo-centric trends of Puritan thought that had developed over the previous century sinceJohn Bale(1495–1563). However, the petition was sent the day before thehigh court was established to try Charles I,so in the ensuing turmoil the Cartwrights never received an answer.[27]The following year Amsterdam-based Rabbi and diplomatMenasseh Ben Israelwrote in his bookHope of Israelof the necessity of the Jews being "spread out to the ends of the earth" (Daniel 12:7) before they could be redeemed. The book was originally published in Dutch and Latin in 1650, and then in English (dedicated to Parliament and the Council of State) in 1652.[28]In 1651 Ben Israel metOliver St Johnand his envoys on their mission to secure an Anglo-Dutch coalition. The English were impressed by learning and manner, and advised him to formally apply for Jewish readmission to England.[29]

In 1653, at Oliver St John’s suggestion, Cromwell issued an official directive to authorise, "Menasseh ben Israel, a rabbi of the Jewish nation, well respected for his learning and good affection to the State, to come from Amsterdam to these parts." Fearing local anti-English opinion so soon after war, ben Israel turned down the invitation. But by the middle of the decade, Cromwell was taking advice fromMarranotraderSimon de Caceres.At de Caceres' suggestion, Cromwell dispatched Marrano physician Abraham de Mercado and his son Raphael toBarbados(which a few years previously had already started admitting Jews escaping from the Portuguese reconquest ofDutch Brazil), where he explored the possibility of Jews setting inJamaica.There they would be offered full civil rights and even land grants.[29][30]

There is some difference of opinion as to Oliver Cromwell’s opinions regarding the readmission of the Jews. It has been pointed out that he held many of the same hopes regarding the readmission and conversion of the Jews as the millenarians.Paul Rycaut,later ambassador to the port ofSmyrnarecalled the Whitehall Conference, "When they all met, he (Cromwell) ordered the Jews to speak for themselves. After that he turned to the clergy, who inveigled much against the Jews as a cruel and cursed people. Cromwell in his answer to the Clergy called them ‘Men of God’ and desired to be informed by the whether it was not their opinion that the Jews were one day to be called into the Church? He then desired to know whether it was not every Christian man’s duty to forward that good end all he could?… was it not then our duty… to encourage them to settle ere where they could be taught the thuth…[sic]"[31]It has also been pointed out that Cromwell held more practical beliefs. Cromwell believed that Jews could be used as skilled purveyors of foreign intelligence (which would assist his territorial ambitions).[32]Further, toleration of Protestant sects made political sense for Cromwell as it prevented disorder and promoted harmony. He justified the readmission of the Jews using this same tolerant approach, as well as believing that it would improve trade (he saw the Jews as an important part of Amsterdam’s financial success).[33]

Competition with the Dutch for trade and the increasingly protectionist commercial policy that led to theNavigation Actin October 1651 madeOliver Cromwellwant to attract the rich Jews of Amsterdam to London so that they might transfer their important trade interests with theSpanish Mainfrom the Netherlands to England. The mission ofOliver St Johnto Amsterdam, though failing to establish a coalition between English and Dutch commercial interests as an alternative to the Navigation Act, had negotiated withMenasseh Ben Israeland the Amsterdam community. A pass was granted to Menasseh to enter England, but he was unable to use it because of theFirst Anglo-Dutch War,which lasted from 1652 to 1654.

1655 and 1656: Informal resettlement achieved[edit]

The years 1655 and 1656 were to prove decisive in the history of the resettlement of the Jews in England. The first of these was the visit of Menasseh ben Israel and the second was the case of the Marrano trader Antonio Rodrigues Robles.

Menasseh Ben Israel's petition[edit]

Menasseh ben Israel’s son Samuel had arrived in England accompanied by trader David Dormido[34]in 1653 to investigate the possibility of the resettlement of the Jews. In May 1655, he was sent back to Amsterdam in order to try to convince his father to visit England. The rabbi came to England in September 1655 with three other local rabbis, where they were lodged as guests of Cromwell.[29]There he printed his "humble address" to Cromwell.[note 3](When ben Israel began his stay in London it is reckoned that there were about 20New Christianfamilies living in the city.)[35]As a consequence, anational conference was summoned at Whitehallin the early part of December, which included some of the most eminent lawyers, clergymen, and merchants in the country. The lawyers declared no opposition to the Jews' residing in England, but both the clergymen and merchants were opposed to readmission, leading Cromwell to stop the discussion to prevent an adverse decision.[36][note 4]Nonetheless, some change to official policy must have occurred, because the diaristJohn Evelynwrote in hisdiaryon 14 December, "Now were the Jews admitted". [note 5]Ben Israel stayed in England until September 1657, during which time he met and engaged with a number of influential people.[40]Although he did not achieve a legal ruling on the resettlement of the Jews, his presence gave prominent Englishmen a positive impression of learning and virtue among Jews.[41]

The Robles case[edit]

Early in the following year (1656), the question came to a practical issue through the declaration ofwar against Spain,which resulted in the arrest ofAntonio Rodrigues Robles,one of the community of Iberian New Christians who traded between London and the Canary Islands.[42]Robles petitioned for the return of his seized property on account of his being ‘of the Hebrew nation’ rather than Spanish. At the same time six leading members of the New Christian community petitioned Cromwell for permission to gather to worship and acquire a burial ground. Although no formal permission was granted, some assurances must have been given because in the summer Menasseh asked for the Torah scroll to be sent over from Amsterdam, and in the autumn Moses Athias moved from Hamburg to act as religious preceptor. By December 1656 they had rented a house for use as a synagogue, and services began in January of 1657.[43]In February of 1657 the new community, represented byAntonio Fernandez CarvajalandSimon de Caceres,acquired land nearMile Endfor use as a Synagogue. Historian Todd Endelman makes the point that it is unlikely this activity could have happened without Cromwell’s permission that they could live as professing Jews. The informal nature of the resettlement also meant the forces ranged against it had no target and never united to form any significant opposition. Further, at a later date it meant there were no restrictive laws to repeal when Jews wanted fuller citizenship rights. By the end of the decade the number of Jewish families had risen to thirty five.[44]In 1657Solomon Dormido,a nephew of Menasseh Ben Israel, was admitted to theRoyal Exchangeas a duly licensed broker of the City of London, without taking the usual oath involving a statement of faith inChristianity(when he was finally sworn in in 1668, the oath was changed for him).[34]Carvajal had previously been granted letters ofdenizationfor himself and his son, which guaranteed certain rights of citizenship.

Debating the return of the Jews[edit]

During the years 1655–56 the question of the return of Jews to England was fought in apamphlet war.Conservative opponents includingWilliam Prynneopposed the return while the QuakerMargaret Fellwas in favour. Christian supporters believed the conversion of Jews was a sign of theend timesand the readmission to England was a step towards that goal.[45]

This method of debate had the advantage of not raisinganti-Semiticfeelings too strongly; and it likewise enabledCharles II,on hisRestorationin 1660, to avoid taking any action on the petition of the merchants of London asking him to revoke Cromwell's concession. He had been assisted during his exile by several Jews of royalist sympathies, such as Andrea Mendes da Costa (ChamberlainofCatherine of Braganza,wife of Charles II), Antonio Mendes (the physician brother of Andrea, who had cured Catherine oferysipelaswhile in Portugal) and Augustine Coronel-Chacon. In 1664 a further attempt was made by theEarl of BerkshireandPaul Ricautto bring about the expulsion of the Jews, but theKing-in-Councilassured the latter of the continuance of former favour. Similar appeals to prejudice were made in 1673, when Jews, for meeting in Duke's Place for a religious service, were indicted on a charge of rioting, and in 1685, when thirty-seven were arrested on the Royal Exchange; but the proceedings in both cases were put a stop to by direction of thePrivy Council.The status of the Jews was still very indeterminate, with theAttorney-Generaldeclaring that they resided in England only under an implied licence. As a matter of fact, the majority of them were still legally aliens and liable to all thedisabilitiesthat condition carried with it.

Help from and to Jews abroad[edit]

William IIIis reported to have been assisted in his ascent to the English throne by a loan of 2,000,000guildersfromFrancisco Lopes Suasso(1614–1685) (of the well-knownLopes Suassofamily), later made first Barond'Avernas le GrasbyCharles II of Spain.William did not interfere when in 1689 some of the chief Jewish merchants of London were forced to pay the duty levied on the goods of aliens, but he refused a petition fromJamaicato expel the Jews. William's reign brought about a closer connection between the predominantly Sephardic communities of London and Amsterdam; this aided in the transfer of the European finance centre from the Dutch capital to the English capital. Over this time a smallGermanAshkenazicommunity had arrived and established their ownsynagoguein 1692, but they were of little mercantile consequence, and did not figure in the relations between the established Jewish community and the government. One of therabbiwasSolomon Ayllon.

Early in the eighteenth century the Jewish community of London comprised representatives of the chief Jewish financiers in northern Europe; these included theMendez da Costa,Abudiente(later known as Gideon and Eardley),Salvador,Lopez,Fonseca, andSeixasfamilies. The utility of these prominent Jewish merchants and financiers was widely recognised.Marlboroughin particular made great use of the services of SirSolomon de Medina,and indeed was publicly charged with taking an annualsubventionfrom him. The early merchants of the resettlement are estimated to have brought with them a capital of £1,500,000 into the country; this amount is estimated to have increased to £5,000,000 by the middle of the 18th century.[citation needed]

As early as 1723 an act of Parliament allowed Jews holding land to omit the words "on the true faith of a Christian", when registering their title.[46]Only once more would this allowance be made[47]in the passage of thePlantation Act 1740,but more significantly the act allowed Jews who had or would have resided inBritish Americafor seven years to become naturalised British subjects.

Shortly afterwards a similar bill was introduced into theIrish Parliament,where it passed theCommonsin 1745 and 1746, but failed to pass theLordsin 1747; it was ultimately dropped.[citation needed]Meanwhile, during theJacobiterising of 1745 the Jews had shown particular loyalty to the government. Their chief financier,Samson Gideon,had strengthened the stock market, and several of the younger members had volunteered in the corps raised to defend London.[citation needed]

In popular culture[edit]

The meeting between Menasseh Ben Israel and Oliver Cromwell was painted bySolomon Alexander Hartin 1873 and bought bySir Francis Goldsmid.[48][49] The historical figure of Menasseh Ben Israel and the admission of Sephardic Jews from the Netherlands into England are featured in the novel, "The Weight of Ink," by Rachel Kadish (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017.).[50]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Gow, Andrew Colin and Fradkin, Jeremy (2016).Protestantism and Non-Christian Religionsin ed. Rublack, Ulinka (2017). The Oxford Handbook of the Protestant Reformations. OUPISBN9780199646920
  2. ^Tara Holmes (24 June 2011)."Readmission of Jews to Britain in 1656".BBC.
  3. ^Lindemann, Albert S.; Levy, Richard S. (2008).Antisemitism: A History.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780199235032.p. 151.
  4. ^Endelman, Todd M. (1999).The Jews of Georgian England, 1714–1830: Tradition and Change in a Liberal Society.University of Michigan Press.ISBN9780472086092.p. 47
  5. ^Scult, Mel (1978).Millennial Expectations and Jewish Liberties: A Study of the Efforts to Convert the Jews in Britain, Up to the Mid Nineteenth Century.Brill Archive. p. 18.
  6. ^Hirschman, Elizabeth Caldwell and Yates, Donald N. (2014).The Early Jews and Muslims of England and Wales: A Genetic and Genealogical History.McFarland.ISBN9780786476848pp. 163–173
  7. ^Lapide, Pinchas E. (1984).Hebrew in the Church: The Foundations of Jewish-Christian Dialogue.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.ISBN9780802849175.p. 73.
  8. ^Henderson, John P (2012).The Life and Economics of David RicardoSpringer Science & Business Media.ISBN9781461561293pp. 71–73.
  9. ^African freedom in Tudor England: Dr Hector Nunes’ petitionourmigrationstory.org.uk
  10. ^Edelman, Todd M. (2002).The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000.University of California Press.ISBN9780520935662pp. 17–18
  11. ^Jordan, Wilbur Kitchener (1938 and 1940).The Development of Religious Toleration in England. Vols. III and IV.in Coffey (2006)
  12. ^Coffey, John (2006).The Toleration Controversy during the English Revolution.in C. Durston and J. Maltby, eds, Religion in Revolutionary England. Manchester University Press, 2006. pp. 42–68.
  13. ^Walsham, Alexandra (2006).Charitable Hatred: Tolerance and Intolerance in England, 1500–1700.Manchester University Press. pp. 232–233.ISBN9780719052392
  14. ^Zagorin, Peter (2003).How the Idea of Religious Toleration Came to the West.Princeton University Press. pp. 195–196.ISBN9781400850716.
  15. ^Parker, Kim Ian (2015).‘A King Like Other Nations’: Political Theory and The Hebrew Republic in the Early Modern Agein Kileen, Kevin, Smith, Helen, Willie, Rachel Judith (2015). The Oxford Handbook of the Bible in Early Modern England, c. 1530–1700. OUP Oxford.ISBN9780191510595.
  16. ^Himmelfarb, Gertrude(2011).The People of the Book: Philosemitism in England, From Cromwell to Churchill.Encounter Books.ISBN9781594035715.pp. 144–146
  17. ^Nelson, Eric(2011).The Religious Origins of Religious Tolerance.Foreign Policy Research Institute.
  18. ^Worden, Blair (2012).God's Instruments: Political Conduct in the England of Oliver Cromwell.OUP. p. 68.ISBN9780199570492
  19. ^Worden (2012). pp. 69–70.
  20. ^Worden (2012). pp. 71–73.
  21. ^Worden (2012). pp. 73–74.
  22. ^Worden, Blair (2012).God's Instruments: Political Conduct in the England of Oliver Cromwell.OUP. pp. 85–86.ISBN9780199570492
  23. ^Scult, Mel (1978).Millennial Expectations and Jewish Liberties: A Study of the Efforts to Convert the Jews in Britain, Up to the Mid Nineteenth Century.Brill Archive. pp. 18–32
  24. ^Hirschman and Yates (2014). p. 167
  25. ^Crome, Andrew (2014).The Restoration of the Jews: Early Modern Hermeneutics, Eschatology, and National Identity in the Works of Thomas Brightman.Springer.ISBN9783319047614.p. 189
  26. ^Crome (2014). pp. 179, 184–188
  27. ^Smith, Robert O. (2013).More Desired than Our Owne Salvation: The Roots of Christian Zionism.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780199993253.pps. 95–117
  28. ^Scult, Mel (1978).Millennial Expectations and Jewish Liberties: A Study of the Efforts to Convert the Jews in Britain, Up to the Mid Nineteenth Century.Brill Archive. p. 24
  29. ^abcSachar, Howard M. (1994).Farewell Espana: The World of the Sephardim Rememberedpp. 313–314. Knopf Doubleday.ISBN9780804150538
  30. ^Stiefel, Barry L. (2014).Jewish Sanctuary in the Atlantic World: A Social and Architectural History.Univ of South Carolina Press.ISBN9781611173215.p. 128
  31. ^Scult, Mel (1978). p. 30
  32. ^Fraser, Antonia. (1973).Cromwell, Our Chief of Men.Hachette. 2011.ISBN9781780220697This view first appeared inLucien Wolf’s essayCromwell's Jewish Intelligencers: A Paper Read at Jews' College Literary Society, May 10th, 1891.
  33. ^Sharp, David (2003).Oliver Cromwell.pp. 67–68. Heinemann.ISBN9780435327569
  34. ^abeds.Rubinstein, William D.;Jolles, Michael andRubinstein, Hilary L.(2011).The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History – Dormido, David Abrabanel.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 227
  35. ^Edelman, Todd M. (2002).The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000.University of California Press.ISBN9780520935662p. 26
  36. ^Sigal, Philip (1986).The Emergence of Contemporary Judaism, Volume 3: From Medievalism to Proto-Modernity in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN9780915138579p. 175
  37. ^Abrahams, Israel (1911)."Menasseh ben Israel".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  38. ^Green, David B (18 December 2016)/On This Day in Jewish Historyhaaretz.com
  39. ^The diary of John Evelyned. Bray, William. p. 307
  40. ^Katz, David S. (1989).Menasseh Ben Israel’s Christian Connection: Henry Jessey and the Jewspp. 117–119 in eds. Qaplan, Yosef; Popkin, Richard Henry; Mechoulan, HenryMenasseh Ben Israel and His World,Brill,ISBN9789004091146
  41. ^Sigal (1986).
  42. ^Samuel, Edgar. "Robles, Antonio Rodrigues".Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(online ed.). Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/71429.(Subscription orUK public library membershiprequired.)
  43. ^Jewish Community and Records – Creechurch Lane Synagoguehttp://www.jewishgen.org/
  44. ^Edelman, Todd M. (2002).The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000.University of California Press.ISBN9780520935662pp. 26–27, 29
  45. ^"The Debate over the Resettlement of Jews in England, 1655–56".The Norton Anthology of English Literature.
  46. ^Cecil Roth,A History Of The Jews In England(1941),accessible here"An Act of 1722, which added to Roman Catholic disabilities by enforcing the Oath of Abjuration on all landowners, was followed the next year by a further measure (to Geo. 1. c. 4) exempting Jews from the necessity of including in it the words 'on the true faith of a Christian';"
  47. ^Henriques, H. S. Q. (January 1907). "The Political Rights of English Jews".The Jewish Quarterly Review.19(2). University of Pennsylvania Press: 298–341.doi:10.2307/1451130.JSTOR1451130.
  48. ^Report & Transactions 1881 – Art in Devonshire.The Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature and Art. Vol 13. pp. 234–235
  49. ^Study for 'Manasseh ben Israel before Oliver Cromwell', by 1873.RA Collection: Art. Royal Academy of Art.
  50. ^"Summoning 17th-Century Scholars: Researching the Weight of Ink".10 October 2017.

Notes[edit]

  1. ^In addition to these small communities of ‘port Jews’, Henry VIII consulted rabbis on the biblical legitimacy of his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and during the reign of Edward VI the Regius professor of Hebrew at Cambridge was the converso HebraistImmanuel Tremellius.Elizabeth had a Jewish physician,Roderigo Lopes,and her spymasterFrancis Walsingham’s network of intelligencers included the Portuguese Marrano traders, Hector Nuñes and Dunstan Añez, as well as Lopes. Further,Sir Walter Raleightravelled to the New World with Jewish mining expertJoachim Gansin 1584. It is estimated that there were roughly 80 to 90 Portuguese converses in Elizabethan London.[8][9]
  2. ^These categories were: orthodox Presbyterians, moderate Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Latitudinarians, Cambridge Platonists, rationalists and sceptics, Erastians, the rank and file, Anglican extremists, moderate Anglicans, and Roman Catholics.[11]
  3. ^ben Israel’s petition was titled ’To His Highness the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland, the Humble Addresses of Menasseh ben Israel, a Divine, and Doctor of Physick, in behalf of the Jewish Nation’. The document argued that the Jews contribute to the wealth of the nations in which they dwell and are loyal to their host’s rulers. Further the negative accounts of the Jews are untrue. He concluded by asking for the Jews to be allowed to settle in the commonwealth.
  4. ^JudgesJohn GlynneandWilliam Steeledeclared that "there was no law which forbade the Jews’ return to England" because their original expulsion had been by royal decree, rather than parliamentary vote.[37][38]
  5. ^John Evelyn’s diary entry for 14 December 1655.
    I visitedMr. Hobbes,the famous philosopher ofMalmesbury,with who I had been long acquainted in France.
    Now were the Jews admitted.[39]

External links[edit]

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