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Reverse racism

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For a definition of the term "reverse racism", see the Wiktionary entryreverse racism.

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Reverse racism,sometimes referred to asreverse discrimination,[1]is the concept thataffirmative actionand similarcolor-consciousprograms for redressingracial inequalityare forms of anti-whiteracism.[2]The concept is often associated withconservativesocial movements,[2][3]and reflects a belief that social and economic gains byBlack peopleand otherpeople of colorcause disadvantages forwhite people.[4][5][6]

Belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States; however, there is little to no empirical evidence thatwhite Americansas a group are disadvantaged.[Note 1]Racial and ethnic minorities generally lack the power to damage the interests of whites, who remain the dominant group in the U.S.[7]Claims of reverse racism tend to ignore such disparities in the exercise of power and authority, which most scholars argue constitute an essential component of racism.[1][8][3]

Allegations of reverse racism by opponents of affirmative action began to emerge in the 1970s,[2][9]and have formed part of aracial backlashagainst social gains by people of color.[10]While the U.S. dominates the debate over the issue, the concept of reverse racism has been used internationally to some extent whereverwhite supremacyhas diminished, such as in post-apartheidSouth Africa.[4]

United States

See also:Race and ethnicity in the United States

Overview

The concept ofreverse racismin the United States is commonly associated withconservativeopposition to color-conscious policies aimed at addressing racial inequality, such asaffirmative action.Amy E. Ansell ofEmerson Collegeidentifies three main claims about reverse racism: (1) that government programs to redress racial inequality create "invisible victims" inwhitemen; (2) that racial preferences violate the individual right ofequal protectionbefore the law; and (3) thatcolor consciousnessitself prevents moving beyond the legacy of racism.[2]The concept of reverse racism has also been used in relation to various expressions of hostility, prejudice or discrimination toward white people by members of minority groups.[8]

History

Concerns that the advancement ofAfrican Americansmight cause harm towhite Americansdate back as far as theReconstruction Erain the context of debates over providingreparations for slavery.[2]Claims of reverse racism in the early 21st century tend to rely on individualanecdotes,often based on third- or fourth-hand reports, such as of a white person losing a job to a Black person.[7]

Allegations of reverse racism emerged prominently in the 1970s, building on theracially color-blindview that any preferential treatment linked to membership in a racial group was morally wrong.[2]SociologistBob Blaunerargues that reverse racism had become the primary meaning ofracismamong whites by the late 1970s, suggesting that conservatives andcentrist liberalsin the U.S. had effectively "won the battle over the meaning of racism".[11]Where past race-conscious policies such asJim Crowhave been used to maintainwhite supremacy,modern programs such as affirmative action aim to reduce racial inequality.[12]Despite affirmative-action programs' successes in doing so, conservative opponents claimed that such programs constituted a form of anti-white racism.[13]For example, sociologistNathan Glazerargued in his 1975 bookAffirmative Discriminationthat affirmative action was a form of reverse racism[14][15]violating white people's right to equal protection under the law.[16]This view was boosted by the Supreme Court's decision inRegents of the University of California v. Bakke(1978), which said thatracial quotasfor minority students were discriminatory againstwhite people.[13]

Legal cases concerning so-called "reverse racism" date back as far as the 1970s, for instanceRegents of the University of California v. Bakke;Gratz v. Bollinger;andGrutter v. Bollinger(regarding discrimination in higher education admissions) andRicci v. DeStefano(regarding employment discrimination).[17]Such cases are rare; out of almost half a million complaints filed with theEqual Employment Opportunity Commission(EEOC) between 1987 and 1994, four percent were about reverse discrimination.[18]SociologistEduardo Bonilla-Silvawrites that the actual number of reverse discrimination cases filed with the EEOC is quite small, and the vast majority are dismissed as unfounded.[19]Between 1990 and 1994, courts in the U.S. rejected all reverse discrimination cases as without merit.[18]

Public attitudes

While not empirically supported, belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States,[20][21]primarily among white people.[6]Psychological studies with white Americans have shown that belief in anti-white racism is linked with support for the existing racial hierarchy in the U.S.[22][23]as well as the belief that "hard work" and meritocracy explain any racial disparities.[24][25]The idea that whites have become a socially disadvantaged group has contributed to the rise of conservative social movements such as theTea Partyand support forDonald Trump.[3]Conservatives in the U.S. tend to believe that affirmative action based on membership in a designated racial group threatens the American system of individualism andmeritocracy.[26]Ansell associates the idea of reverse racism with that of the "angry white male"[2]and abacklashagainst government actions meant to remedy racial discrimination.[10]

The perception of decreasing anti-Black discrimination has been correlated with white people's belief in rising anti-white discrimination.[5]A survey inPennsylvaniain the mid-1990s found that most white respondents (80%) thought it was likely that a white worker might lose a job or a promotion to a less qualified Black worker, while most Black respondents (57%) thought this was unlikely.[27]A majority (57%) of white respondents to a 2016 survey by thePublic Religion Research Institutesaid they believed discrimination against white people was as significant a problem as discrimination against Black people, while only a minority of African Americans (29%) and Hispanics (38%) agreed.[28][29]Researchers atTufts UniversityandHarvardreport that as of the early 2010s many white Americans feel as though they suffer the greatest discrimination among racial groups, despite data to the contrary.[21][30][31]Whereas Black respondents see anti-Black racism as a continuing problem, white ones tend to think it has largely disappeared, to the point that they see prejudice against white people as being more prevalent.[17][32]Among white respondents since the 1990s:

Whites have replaced Blacks as the primary victims of discrimination. This emerging perspective is particularly notable because by nearly any metric [...] statistics continue to indicate drastically poorer outcomes for Black than White Americans.[33]

Bonilla-Silva describes the "anti–affirmative action and 'reverse racism' mentality" that has become dominant since the 1980s as part of a "mean-spirited white racial animus".[9]He argues that this results from a new dominant ideology of "color-blind racism",which treats racial inequality as a thing of the past, thereby allowing it to continue by opposing concrete efforts at reform.[34]JournalistVann R. Newkirk IIwrites that white people's belief in reverse racism has steadily increased since thecivil rights movementof the 1960s.[35]

Scholarly analysis

While there has been little empirical study on the subject of reverse racism, the few existing studies have found little evidence that white males, in particular, are victimized by affirmative-action programs.[4]Race relations in the United Stateshave been historically shaped byEuropean imperialismand long-standing oppression of Blacks by whites,[8]who remain the dominant group.[7]Such disparities in power and authority are seen by scholars as an essential component ofracism;in this view, isolated examples of favoring disadvantaged people do not constitute racism.[1][36]In a widely reprinted article, legal scholarStanley Fishwrote that"'Reverse racism' is a cogent description of affirmative action only if one considers the cancer of racism to be morally and medically indistinguishable from the therapy we apply to it ".[37]

SociologistEllis Cashmorewrites that the termsreverse racismandreverse discriminationimply that racism is defined solely by individual beliefs and prejudices, ignoring the material relations between different groups.[8]SociologistJoe Feaginargues that the termreverse discriminationis anoxymoronin the context of U.S. race relations in that it obscures the "central issue ofsystemic racism"disadvantaging people of color.[38]Critical race theoristDavid Theo Goldbergsays the notion of reverse racism represents a denial of the historical and contemporary reality of racial discrimination.[39]SociologistKaryn McKinneywrites, "most claims that whites are victimizedas whitesrely on false parallels, as they ignore the power differences between whites and people of color at the group level ".[40]AnthropologistJane H. Hillargues that charges of reverse racism tend to deny the existence ofwhite privilegeand power in society.[41]LinguistMary Bucholtzsays the concept of reverse racism, which she callsracial reversal,"runs counter to or ignores empirically observable racial asymmetries regarding material resources and structural power".[42]

According to sociologistRutledge Dennis,individual members of minority groups in the United States "may be racists" toward white people, but cannot wield institutional power or shape the opportunities available to the majority as the white majority does in relation to minorities.[7]SociologistsMatthew DesmondandMustafa Emirbayerdistinguish betweeninstitutional racismandinterpersonal racism,[43]arguing that while "members of all racial groups can harbor negative attitudes toward members of other groups", there is no "black institutional racism" or "reverse institutional racism" since people of color have not created a socially ingrained system of racial domination over white people.[44]Psychologist and educatorBeverly Daniel Tatumargues that racial bigotry or prejudices held by people of color are not comparable to white racism since "there is no systematic cultural and institutional support or sanction" for them.[45]Tatum writes, "In my view, reserving the termracistonly for behaviors committed by Whites in the context of a White-dominated society is a way of acknowledging the ever-present power differential afforded Whites by the culture and institutions that make up the system of advantage and continue to reinforce notions of White superiority. "[45]

South Africa

See also:Racism in South Africa

The concept ofreverse racismhas been used by some white South Africans concerned about "reverse apartheid" following the end ofwhite-supremacist rule.[4]Affirmative action in South Africa's white-dominated civil service was also met with charges of "reverse racism".[46]

Nelson Mandelain 1995 described "racism in reverse" when Black students demonstrated in favor of changing the racial makeup of staff atSouth African universities.[47]Students denied Mandela's claim and argued that a great deal of ongoing actual racism persisted from apartheid.[48]

Mixed-race South Africanshave also sometimes claimed to be victimized by reverse racism of the new government.[49]Similar accusations have been leveled byIndianandAfrikanergroups, who feel that they have not been dominant historically but now suffer from discrimination by the government.[50]

Helen Suzman,a prominent white anti-apartheid politician, charged theAfrican National Congressand the Mbeki administration with reverse racism since Mandela's departure in 1999.[51]

South African critics of the "reverse racism" concept use similar arguments as those employed by Americans.[52][verification needed]

See also

Notes

  1. ^
    • Ansell (2013),p. 137: "Not much sober empirical study has been applied to the subject, but the studies that do exist find little evidence that reverse racism in fact exists."
    • Garner (2017),p. 185: "[T]here is no evidence that [reverse racism] is a social fact, or that a pattern of disadvantageous outcomes for white people qua white people exists."
    • Spanierman & Cabrera (2014),p. 16: "While there is no empirical basis for white people experiencing 'reverse racism', this view is held by a large number of Americans."
    • Bax (2018):"Many Americans—including some people of color—staunchly believe in the existence of reverse racism, or racism against whites. The evidence to support this perception of 'whiteness as disadvantage' is highly suspect."
    • Roussell et al. (2019):"Claims of reverse racism are often deployed to undermine efforts toward racial equity, particularly affirmative action measures, but evidence for these claims has been rigorously debunked"

References

  1. ^abcYee, June Ying (2008). "Racism, Types of". In Shaefer, Richard T. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 3.SAGE Publications. pp. 1118–19.ISBN978-1-41-292694-2.[T]he termreverse racism(orreverse discrimination) has been coined to describe situations where typically advantaged people are relegated to inferior positions or denied social opportunities to benefit racial and ethnic minorities, or, in some instances, women. However, scholars argue that a critical component of racism is the broad exercise of authority and power and that isolated instances of favoring the disadvantaged over the privileged cannot be seen as constituting racism.
  2. ^abcdefgAnsell, Amy Elizabeth (2013).Race and Ethnicity: The Key Concepts.Routledge. pp. 135–136.ISBN978-0-415-33794-6.Reverse racism is a concept commonly associated with conservative opposition to affirmative action and other color-conscious victories of the civil rights movement in the United States and anti-racist movements abroad. While traditional forms of racism involve prejudice and discrimination on the part of whites against blacks, reverse racism is alleged to be a new form of anti-white racism practiced by blacks and/or the so-called civil rights establishment (alternately referred to as the anti-racism industry).
  3. ^abcGarner, Steve (2017). "New Racisms?".Racisms: An Introduction(2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. p. 185.ISBN978-1-5264-1285-0.
  4. ^abcdAnsell (2013),p. 137.
  5. ^abMazzocco, Philip J. (2017).The Psychology of Racial Colorblindness: A Critical Review.New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 91.ISBN978-1-13-759967-4.
  6. ^abRoussell, Aaron; Henne, Kathryn; Glover, Karen S.; Willits, Dale (2019). "Impossibility of a 'Reverse Racism' Effect: A Rejoinder to James, James, and Vila".Criminology & Public Policy.18(1): E5–E16.doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12289.ISSN1745-9133.Reverse racism is the idea that the Civil Rights Movement not only ended the subordination of communities of color in all aspects of social life but also simultaneously led to a similar subordination of Whites. This idea is primarily supported by Whites who perceive gains in racial equity as losses in White status
  7. ^abcdDennis, Rutledge M. (2004). "Racism". In Kuper, A.; Kuper, J. (eds.).The Social Science Encyclopedia, Volume 2(3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 843–845.ISBN978-1-13-435970-7.
  8. ^abcdCashmore, Ellis, ed. (2004)."Reverse Racism/Discrimination".Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies.Routledge. p. 373.ISBN978-1-13-444706-0.
  9. ^abBonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2010).Racism Without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States(3rd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 211.ISBN978-1-4422-0218-4.
  10. ^abAnsell (2013),pp. 17, 137.
  11. ^Blauner, Bob (1994)."Talking Past Each Other: Black and White Languages of Race".In Pincus, Fred L.; Ehrlich, Howard J. (eds.).Race And Ethnic Conflict: Contending Views On Prejudice, Discrimination, And Ethnoviolence.Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. p. 23.ISBN0-8133-1661-8.
  12. ^Ansell (2013),pp. 4, 46.
  13. ^abMcBride, David (2005). "Affirmative Action". In Carlisle, Rodney P. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and The Right, Volume 1: The Left.Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. p. 8.ISBN978-1-41-290409-4.
  14. ^Mazzocco (2017),p. 23.
  15. ^Blauner, Bob (1989).Black Lives, White Lives: Three Decades of Race Relations in America.Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 346.ISBN978-0-520-06261-0.
  16. ^Ansell (2013),p. 57.
  17. ^abNorton, Michael I.; Sommers, Samuel R. (2011a)."Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing"(PDF).Perspectives on Psychological Science.6(3): 215–18.doi:10.1177/1745691611406922.PMID26168512.S2CID10616480.See also:
    "Whites Believe They Are Victims of Racism More Often Than Blacks".TuftsNow(Press release). May 23, 2011.RetrievedMarch 7,2023.
  18. ^abDesmond, Matthew; Emirbayer, Mustafa (2010).Racial Domination, Racial Progress: The Sociology of Race in America(1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 197.ISBN978-0-07-297051-7.
  19. ^Bonilla-Silva (2010),p. 83.
  20. ^Bax, Anna (2018). "'The C-Word' Meets 'the N-Word': The Slur-Once-Removed and the Discursive Construction of 'Reverse Racism'".Journal of Linguistic Anthropology.28(2): 114–136.doi:10.1111/jola.12185.ISSN1055-1360.S2CID4768398.
  21. ^abSpanierman, Lisa; Cabrera, Nolan (2014). "The Emotions of White Racism and Antiracism". In Watson, V.; Howard-Wagner, D.; Spanierman, L. (eds.).Unveiling Whiteness in the Twenty-First Century: Global Manifestations, Transdisciplinary Interventions.Lexington Books. p. 16.ISBN978-0-73-919297-9.
  22. ^Mazzocco (2017),p. 85.
  23. ^Wilkins, C. L.; Kaiser, C. R. (2013). "Racial Progress as Threat to the Status Hierarchy: Implications for Perceptions of Anti-White Bias".Psychological Science.25(2): 439–46.doi:10.1177/0956797613508412.PMID24343099.S2CID6934961.
  24. ^Cyr, Lauren (2018). "Literature Review: Interdisciplinary Findings on Diversity and Inclusion". In Kim Gertz, S.; Huang, B.; Cyr, L. (eds.).Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education and Societal Contexts: International and Interdisciplinary Approaches.Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 24.ISBN978-3-31-970174-5.
  25. ^Wilkins, Clara L.; Wellman, Joseph D.; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2013). "Status legitimizing beliefs predict positivity toward Whites who claim anti-White bias".Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.49(6): 1114–19.doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.017.
  26. ^Ansell (2013),p. 17.
  27. ^Feagin, Joe R. (2001).Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations.New York: Routledge. p. 127.ISBN978-0-4159-2532-7.
  28. ^Massie, Victoria M. (June 29, 2016)."Americans are split on" reverse racism ". That still doesn't mean it exists".Vox.RetrievedSeptember 18,2016.
  29. ^Jones, Robert P.; et al. (June 23, 2016).How Immigration and Concerns About Cultural Changes Are Shaping the 2016 Election: Findings from the 2016 PRRI/Brookings Immigration Survey(PDF)(Report). Washington, D.C.: Public Religion Research Institute. p. 2.
  30. ^Fletcher, Michael A. (October 8, 2014)."Whites think discrimination against whites is a bigger problem than bias against blacks".The Washington Post.
  31. ^Ingraham, Christopher (August 2, 2017)."White Trump voters think they face more discrimination than blacks. The Trump administration is listening".The Washington Post.
  32. ^Norton, Michael I.; Sommers, Samuel R. (May 23, 2011b)."Jockeying for Stigma".The New York Times.
  33. ^Norton & Sommers (2011a),p. 215, quoted inGarner (2017),p. 185
  34. ^Garner (2017),p. 186.
  35. ^Newkirk, Vann R. II (August 5, 2017)."How The Myth of Reverse Racism Drives the Affirmative Action Debate".The Atlantic.RetrievedMarch 18,2018.
  36. ^McKinney, Karyn D. (2005).Being White: Stories of Race and Racism.New York: Routledge. p. 147.ISBN978-0-4159-3572-2.
  37. ^Fish, quoted inPincus, Fred L. (2003).Reverse Discrimination: Dismantling the Myth.Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 68–69.ISBN978-1-58-826203-5.
  38. ^Feagin (2001),p. 250. Cited inCashmore (2004),p. 373.
  39. ^Pinder, Sherrow O. (2015).Colorblindness, Post-raciality, and Whiteness in the United States.New York: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-1-13-743488-3.[page needed]
  40. ^McKinney (2005),p. 146. Cited inBax (2018).
  41. ^Hill, Jane H. (2011).The Everyday Language of White Racism.John Wiley & Sons. p. 15.ISBN978-1-4443-5669-4.
  42. ^Bucholtz, Mary (2011)."'It's different for guys': Gendered narratives of racial conflict among white California youth ".Discourse & Society.22(4): 385–402.doi:10.1177/0957926510395832.ISSN0957-9265.S2CID145109978.Cited inBax (2018).
  43. ^Desmond & Emirbayer (2010),p. 30.
  44. ^Desmond & Emirbayer (2010),p. 32.
  45. ^abTatum, Beverly Daniel (2004). "Defining Racism:'Can We Talk?' ".In Rothenberg, Paula S. (ed.).Race, Class and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study(6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 129.ISBN978-0-7167-5515-9.Cited inMcKinney (2005),p. 147.
  46. ^de Villiers, Susan; Simanowitz, Stefan (March 2012)."South Africa: The ANC at 100".The Contemporary Review.Vol. 294, no. 1704. pp. 39–45.ISSN0010-7565.ProQuest1013463231– via ProQuest.[A]ffirmative action and black economic empowerment were controversial and often misrepresented. In a society in which the greater majority of desk and management jobs were held by whites, there was a clear need for action to move towards a more level job market. Yet many whites have persisted in claiming 'reverse racism'.
  47. ^MacGregor, Karen (March 24, 1995)."Mandela slams 'reverse racism'".Times Higher Education.London.ISSN0049-3929.
  48. ^Sinclair, Abiola (September 16, 1995). "Media Watch: All is not well, disappointments, racial clashes".New York Amsterdam News.p. 26.ISSN1059-1818.The students maintained that the university was living in the apartheid past with the upper echelons reserved for whites. The students are demanding that some jobs be reserved for Blacks. AZASM had denied the charge of reverse racism. They maintain it is unfair for thousands of Black teachers to be out of work while white teachers sit up in good jobs in Black schools.
  49. ^Polgreen, Lydia (July 27, 2003)."For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity Is Elusive".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on March 31, 2013.
  50. ^Harman, Dana (September 26, 2002)."South Africans try to 'beat' a segregated past".Christian Science Monitor.p. 1.ISSN2166-3262.But old feelings die hard, and some groups – in particular the Afrikaner and Indian minorities – even complain that they are now being targeted by a reverse racism.
  51. ^Calvert, Scott (May 13, 2005)."Against apartheid, at odds with blacks".The Baltimore Sun.ISSN1930-8965.
  52. ^Dalamba, Yolisa (2000). "Towards An African Renaissance: Identity, Race And Representation In Post-Apartheid South Africa".Journal of Cultural Studies.2(1): 40–61.doi:10.4314/jcs.v2i1.6231.

Further reading

External links

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