Rhodes Scholarship

"Rhodes Scholar" redirects here. Not to be confused withRoad Scholar.

Rhodes Scholarship
Rhodes Houseat theUniversity of Oxford
Awarded for	Postgraduate study at theUniversity of Oxford
Sponsored by	Rhodes Trust
Location	Oxford,England
Established	1902
Website	www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk

TheRhodes Scholarshipis an internationalpostgraduateaward for students to study at theUniversity of OxfordinOxford,United Kingdom.

Established in 1902, it is the oldest graduate scholarship in the world. It is considered among the world's most prestigious international scholarship programs.Its founder,Cecil John Rhodes,wanted to promote unity among English-speaking nations and instill a sense of civic-minded leadership and moral fortitude in future leaders, irrespective of their chosen career paths.Initially restricted to male applicants from countries that are today withinthe Commonwealth,Germany and the United States, the scholarship is now open to men and women from all backgrounds around the world.

Rhodes Scholars have achieved distinction as politicians, academics, scientists and doctors, authors, entrepreneurs, andNobel Prizewinners. Many scholars have become heads of state or heads of government, including President of the United StatesBill Clinton,President of PakistanWasim Sajjad,Prime Minister of JamaicaNorman Manley,Prime Minister of MaltaDom Mintoff,Prime Minister Of CanadaJohn Turner,and Prime Ministers of AustraliaTony Abbott,Bob Hawke,andMalcolm Turnbull.Other notable Rhodes Scholars include Nobel Prize-winning scientistHoward Florey,Nobel Prize-winning economistMichael Spence,Australian High Court JusticeJames Edelman,journalist and American television hostGeorge Stephanopolous,astronomerEdwin Hubble,authorNaomi Wolf,musicianKris Kristofferson,Jamaican Minister of FinanceNigel Clarke,U.S. Secretary of TransportationPete Buttigieg,film makerTerrence Malick,and director of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security AgencyJen Easterly,President and CEO of Navigation Capital PartnersDavid K Panton.

History

Founding and motivation

Numerous international scholarship programs were very much underway by 1900. Since the 1880s, governments, universities, and individuals in the settler colonies had been establishing travelling scholarships to home universities. By 1900, the travelling scholarship had become an important part of settler universities' educational visions. It served as a crucial mechanism by which they sought to claim their citizenship of what they saw as the expansive British academic world. The Rhodes program was a copy that soon became the best-known version.TheRhodes Trustestablished the scholarships in 1902 under the terms laid out in the eighth and final will ofCecil John Rhodes,dated 1 July 1899 and appended by several codicils through March 1902.

The scholarships were founded for two reasons: to promote unity within the British empire, and to strengthen diplomatic ties between Britain and the United States of America. In Rhodes's own words, "I…desire to encourage and foster an appreciation of the advantages which I implicitly believe will result from the union of the English-speaking peoples throughout the world and to encourage in the students from North America who would benefit from the American Scholarships."Rhodes also bequeathed scholarships to German students in the hope that, "a good understanding between England, Germany and the United States of America will secure the peace of the world."

Rhodes, who attendedOriel College, Oxford,believed the university's residential colleges would be the best venue to nurture diplomatic ties between future world leaders.

To this day, controversies persist over Rhodes's Anglo-supremacist beliefs, most of which date back to his 1877 confession of faith.However, such convictions did not play a part in the final vision for the scholarship.The scholarships are based on Rhodes's final will and testament, which states that "no student shall be qualified or disqualified for election…on account of his race or religious opinions".

The Rhodes Scholarships are administered and awarded by the Rhodes Trust, which is located atRhodes Housein Oxford. The trust has been modified by four acts of Parliament: the Rhodes Estate Act 1916, the Rhodes Trust Act 1929, the Rhodes Trust Act 1946; and most recently by the Rhodes Trust (Modification) Order 1976, astatutory instrumentin accordance with Section 78 (4) of theSex Discrimination Act 1975.

20th century

In 1925, theCommonwealth Fund Fellowships(later renamed theHarkness Fellowships) were established to reciprocate the Rhodes Scholarships by enabling British graduates to study in the United States.TheKennedy Scholarshipprogram, created in 1966 as a memorial toJohn F. Kennedy,adopts a comparable selection process to the Rhodes Scholarships to allow ten British post-graduate students per year to study at eitherHarvardor theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT). In 1953, the Parliament of the United Kingdom created theMarshall Scholarshipas a coeducational alternative to the Rhodes Scholarship that would serve as a "living gift" to the United States.

Cecil Rhodes wished current scholars and Rhodes alumni (in the words of his will) to have "opportunities of meeting and discussing their experiences and prospects". This has been reflected, for example, in the initiation by the first warden (SirFrancis Wylie), of an annual warden's Christmas letter (now supplemented by Rhodes e-news and other communications); the creation of alumni associations in several countries, most prominently the Association of American Rhodes Scholars (which publishesThe American Oxonian,founded in 1914, and oversees the Eastman Professorship); and the holding of reunions for Rhodes Scholars of all countries.

In recognition of the centenary of the foundation of the Rhodes Trust in 2003, four former Rhodes Scholars were awardedhonorary degreesby the University of Oxford. These wereJohn Brademas,Bob Hawke(Western Australia andUniversity1953),Rex Nettlefordand David R. Woods. During the centenary celebrations, the foundation of the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was also marked.

21st century

In 2013, during the 110th Rhodes anniversary celebrations,John McCall MacBain,Marcy McCall MacBain and the McCall MacBain Foundation donated £75 million towards the fundraising efforts of the Rhodes Trust.

In 2015, Rhodes ScholarR. W. Johnsonpublished a critical account of the decline of the Rhodes Trust under its warden,John Rowett,and commended its recovery under wardensDonald MarkwellandCharles R. Conn.

As of 2018, due to the introduction of the Global Rhodes Scholarships, the Rhodes Scholarship is open topostgraduatestudents from anywhere in the world. Many of its greatest scholars have carried out its founder's later ideal of "equal rights for all civilized men" becoming some of the foremost voices inhuman rightsandsocial justice.Some have even engaged in criticism of Cecil Rhodes himself (seeRhodes must fall).Because access to further education, particularly post-graduate education, is linked withsocial mobilityandracial wealth disparity,the scholarship (which is for post-graduate students) continues to attract criticism; however, the scholarship's recent partnership with theAtlantic Philanthropiesis intended to help address those issues.

In 2019,University of TennesseegraduateHera Jay Brownbecame the firsttransgender womanto be selected for a Rhodes Scholarship. Twonon-binaryscholars were also selected for the 2020 class.

Selection and selectivity

Selection criteria

In his will, Rhodes specified that he did not want his scholarships to go to "merely bookworms." He wanted each candidate assessed in regard to:

• his literary and scholastic attainments
• his fondness of and success in manly outdoor sports such as cricket, football and the like
• his qualities of manhood, truth, courage, devotion to duty, sympathy for the protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness, and fellowship
• his exhibition during school days of moral force of character and of instincts to lead and to take an interest in his schoolmates for those latter attributes will be likely in after-life to guide him to esteem the performance of public duty as his highest aim

To assess candidates, Rhodes specified a 200-point scale, unequally applied to each of the four areas (3/10 to each of the first and third areas, 2/10 to each of the other two areas). The first area was to be judged by examination, the second and third by ballot from the candidate's fellow students, and the fourth by the headmaster of the candidate's school. The results for each candidate would be sent to the trustees of Rhodes's will, or their appointees, who would then give a final assessment by averaging the marks for each candidate. Except for the candidates submitted by the four schools in southern Africa, the trustees were vested with the final decisions.

Rhodes also added that the scholars should be distributed among the Colleges at Oxford, that the trustees could remove any scholar at their discretion, and that the trustees were to host an annual dinner so scholars could discuss their "experiences and prospects". The trustees were also encouraged to invite to the dinner other "persons who have shown sympathy with the views expressed by me in this my Will".

In 2018, the same criteria underwent revision:

• literary and scholastic attainments
• energy to use one's talents to the full
• truth, courage, devotion to duty, sympathy for and protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness and fellowship
• moral force of character and instincts to lead, and to take an interest in one's fellow beings

Each country's scholarship varies in its selectivity. In the United States, applicants must first pass a university-internal endorsement process, then proceed to one of the 16 U.S. districts committees. In 2020, approximately 2,300 students sought their institution's endorsement for the American Rhodes scholarship, among those 953 from 288 institutions were university-endorsed, of whom 32 were ultimately elected. This represents a 1.4% award rate when considering both endorsed and non-endorsed applicants. As such, the American Rhodes Scholarship is more selective than theChurchill Scholarship,Truman Scholarship,Marshall Scholarship,Fulbright Scholarship,andMitchell Scholarship.It is approximately as selective as theGates Cambridge Scholarship,which has an award rate of 1.3%.In Canada between 1997 and 2002, there were an average of 234 university-endorsed applicants annually for 11 scholarships, for an acceptance rate of 4.7%. In addition, Canadian provinces differ widely in the number of applications received, with Ontario receiving 58 applications on average for 2 spots (3.4%) and Newfoundland and Labrador receiving 18 applications for 1 spot (5.7%).According to the Rhodes Trust, the overall global acceptance rate stands at 0.7%, making it one of the most competitive scholarships in the world.

An early change was the elimination of the scholarships for Germany during theFirstandSecondWorld Wars.No German scholars were chosen from 1914 to 1929, nor from 1940 to 1969.A change occurred in 1929, when anAct of Parliamentestablished a fund separate from the original proceeds of Rhodes's will and made it possible to expand the number of scholarships. Between 1993 and 1995, scholarships were extended to other countries in theEuropean Community.

Scholarship terms

Rhodes Scholars may study any full-time postgraduate course offered by the university, whether a taught master's program, a research degree, or a second undergraduate degree (senior status).The scholarship's basic tenure is two years. However, it may also be held for one year or three years. Applications for a third year are considered during the course of the second year. University and college fees are paid by theRhodes Trust.In addition, scholars receive a monthly maintenancestipendto cover accommodation and living expenses.Although all scholars become affiliated with aresidential collegewhile at Oxford, they also enjoy access toRhodes House,an early 20th-century mansion with numerous public rooms, gardens, a library, study areas, and other facilities.

Allocation of scholarships

Geographic constituency	2022 allocation	1902 allocation
Australia	9	6
Bermuda	1	1
Canada	11	2
China	4	—
East Africa	1	—
Germany	2	5
Hong Kong	2	—
India	5	—
Israel	2	—
Jamaica & the Commonwealth Caribbean	2	1
Kenya	2	—
Malaysia	1	—
Newfoundland	—	1
New Zealand	3	1
Pakistan	1	—
Singapore	1	—
Southern Africa	10	5
Syria, Jordan, Lebanon & Palestine	2	—
United Arab Emirates	2	—
United States	32	32
West Africa	2	—
Zambia & Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia)	2 2 —	— — 3
Global scholarships	2	—
Total	101	57

There were originally 60 scholarships.

FourSouth Africanboys' schools were mentioned in Rhodes's will, each to receive an annual scholarship: theBoys High SchoolinStellenbosch(today known as Paul Roos Gymnasium); theDiocesan College(Bishops) inRondebosch;theSouth African College Schools(SACS) inNewlands;andSt Andrew's CollegeinGrahamstown.These have subsequently been opened also to former students of their partner schools (girls' or co-educational schools).

During the ensuing 100 years, the trustees have added about another 40 scholarships at one time or another, though not all have continued. Some of these extended the scheme to Commonwealth countries not mentioned in the will.A more detailed allocation by region by year can be found atRhodes Scholarship Allocations.Very brief summaries of some of the terms and conditions can be found on the trust's website.Complete details can be obtained from the nominating countries.

As of 2018, scholars are selected from over 20 Rhodes constituencies (64 countries) worldwide.In 2015, the Rhodes Scholarship extended into new territories, first with the announcement of a number of scholarships forChina,later with the announcement of one to two scholarships per year for theUnited Arab Emirates.The organization administering the scholarships is preparing to begin naming scholars from China. The move into China is the biggest expansion since women became eligible in the 1970s.

Controversies

Exclusion of women

The Rhodes Scholarship was originally, as per the language used in Rhodes's will, open only to "male students." That stipulation did not change until 1977. Rhodes developed his scholarships partly through conversation withWilliam Thomas Stead,editor ofThe Pall Mall Gazetteand confidant of Rhodes, and at one time an executor of the Will who was stricken from the role when he objected to Rhodes's ill-fated effort to seize theTransvaal.Shortly after Rhodes's death, Stead implied in a published article about the Will that he suggested that Rhodes open the scholarships to women, but Rhodes refused. Nothing more is said on the matter.

After his death, the will was under the control of the Board of Trustees of the Rhodes Trust. In 1916, however, the trustees introduced a bill into the House of Commons that, catering to popular British sentiment during theWar,"revoked and annulled" the scholarships for Germans.Since then, legal control over the will has resided with Parliament.

In 1970, the trustees established the Rhodes Visiting Fellowships. Unlike the regular scholarship, a Visiting Fellow was expected to have a doctorate or comparable degree, and to use the two-year funded study to engage in independent research. Only 33 Visiting Fellowships were awarded.

In 1975, Parliament passed theSex Discrimination Act of 1975that banned discrimination based on sex, including in education. The trustees then applied to the Secretary of State for Education to admit women into the scholarship, and in 1976 the request was granted.In 1977, women were finally admitted to the full scholarship.

Before Parliament passed the 1975 Act, some universities protested against the exclusion of women by nominating female candidates, who were later disqualified at the state level of the American competition.In 1977, the first year women were eligible, 24 women (out of 72 total scholars) were selected worldwide, with 13 women and 19 men selected from the United States.Since then, the average female share of the scholarship in the United States has been around 35 percent.

In 2007, theAssociation of American Rhodes Scholarspublished a retrospective on the first 30 years of female recipients, many of whom individually recounted personal experiences as well as professional accomplishments.

In his 2008 bookLegacy: Cecil Rhodes, the Rhodes Trust and Rhodes Scholarship(Yale University Press), biographer and historianPhilip Zieglerwrites that "The advent of women does not seem notably to have affected the balance of Scholars among the various professions, though it has reduced the incidence of worldly success." Although it is true that female recipients have not become heads of state yet, they have succeeded in many other ways as described in the Rhodes Project.

In South Africa, the will of Cecil Rhodes expressly allocated scholarships to four all-male private schools. In 1992, one of the four schools partnered with an all-girls school in order to allow female applicants. In 2012, the three remaining schools followed suit to allow women to apply.Today, four of the nine scholarships allocated to South Africa are open only to students and alumni of these schools and partner schools.

Exclusion of Black Africans

Beginning in 1970, scholars began protesting against the fact that all Rhodes Scholars from southern Africa were white, with 120 Oxford dons and 80 of the 145 Rhodes Scholars in residence at the time signing a petition calling for non-white scholars to be elected in 1971.The case of South Africa was especially difficult to resolve, because in his will establishing the scholarships, unlike for other constituencies, Rhodes specifically allocated four scholarships to alumni of four white-only private secondary schools. According to Schaeper and Schaeper,the issue became "explosive" in the 1970s and 1980s as scholars argued that the scholarship be changed while the trustees argued they were powerless to change the will. Despite such protests, only in 1991 with the rise of theAfrican National Congressdid black South Africans begin to win the scholarships.

Out of five thousand Rhodes Scholarships awarded between 1903 and 1990, about nine hundred went to students from Africa.

Criticism of Rhodes as colonialist

See also:Rhodes Must FallandCecil Rhodes § Political views

Public criticism of the scholarship has also focused on Cecil Rhodes'swhite supremacistviews. For example, in 1966, regional committees in interviews asked a white American candidate to assure them he would not publicly belittle the scholarship after he referred to its founding on "blood money".In 2015, a South African Rhodes Scholar,Ntokozo Qwabe,began a campaign to address Rhodes'scontroversial historical and political legacy,with a focus on Qwabe's own views which included such statements as "dismantling the open glorification of colonial genocide in educational and other public spaces – which makes it easy for British people to believe that these genocides were 'not that bad' – and props up the continuing structural legacies of British colonialism, neocolonialism, and ongoing imperialism".Among other things, the campaign called for the removal of a statue of Rhodes from Oriel College and changes to Oxford's curriculum.While the college agreed to review the placement of the statue, the Chancellor of the university, Lord Patten, was critical of the accuracy of Qwabe's statements and warned against "pandering to contemporary views."

A group of Rhodes Scholars also created the group Redress Rhodes whose mission was to "attain a more critical, honest, and inclusive reflection of the legacy of Cecil John Rhodes" and to "make reparative justice a more central theme for Rhodes Scholars." Their demands include, among other things, shifting the Rhodes Scholarships awarded exclusively to previously all-white South African schools (rather than the at-large national pool), dedicating a "space at Rhodes House for the critical engagement with Cecil Rhodes's legacy, as well as imperial history", and ending a ceremonial toast Rhodes Scholars make to the founder.While the group does not have a position on the removal of the statue, its co-founder has called for the scholarship to be renamed as it is "the ultimate form of veneration and colonial apologism; it's a large part of why many continue to understand Rhodes as a benevolent founder and benefactor."

Public criticism has also focused on the alleged hypocrisy of applying for and accepting the Rhodes Scholarship while criticizing it, with University of Cambridge academicMary Beard,writing inThe Times Literary Supplement,arguing that Scholars "[could not] have your cake and eat it here: I mean you can't whitewash Rhodes out of history, but go on using his cash."Reacting to this criticism, Qwabe replied that "all that [Rhodes] looted must absolutely be returned immediately. I'm no beneficiary of Rhodes. I'm a beneficiary of the resources and labor of my people which Rhodes pillaged and slaved."A group of 198 Rhodes Scholars of various years later signed a statement supporting Qwabe and arguing that there was "no hypocrisy in being a recipient of a Rhodes scholarship and being publicly critical of Cecil Rhodes and his legacy—a legacy that continues to alienate, silence, exclude and dehumanize in unacceptable ways. There is no clause that binds us to find 'the good' in Rhodes's character, nor to sanitize the imperialist, colonial agenda he propagated."

Criticism over recipients not entering public service

The tendency of a growing number of Rhodes Scholars to enter business or private law, as opposed to public service for which the scholarship was intended, has been a source of frequent criticism and "occasional embarrassment."Writing in 2009, the Secretary of the Rhodes Trust criticised the trend of Rhodes Scholars to pursue careers in finance and business, noting that "more than twice as many [now] went into business in just one year than did in the entire 1970s", attributing it to "grotesque" remuneration offered by such occupations.At least a half dozen 1990s Rhodes Scholars became partners atGoldman Sachsand, since the 1980s,McKinseyhas had numerous Rhodes Scholars as partners. Similarly, of Rhodes Scholars who became attorneys, about one-third serve as staff attorneys for private corporations, while another third remain in private practice or academic posts.

According to Schaeper and Schaeper, "From 1904 to the present, the program's critics have had two main themes: first, that too many scholars were content with comfortable, safe jobs in academe, in law, and in business; second, that too few had careers in government or other fields where public service was the number-one goal."Andrew Sullivanwrote in 1988 that "of the 1,900 or so living American scholars…about 250 fill middle-rank administrative and professorial positions in middle-rank state colleges and universities…[while] another 260...have ended up as lawyers."

Quality of post-graduate education at Oxford

In 2007, anop-edinThe Harvard Crimsonby two American Rhodes Scholars caused an "international row over Oxford's status as a top university" when they criticised the university's post-graduate education as "outdated" and "frustrating" in comparison to their education in the United States, specifically pointing to the perceived low quality of instruction and an insufficient scholarship stipend for living expenses.They also criticised the Rhodes application process itself, arguing that potential applicants should not apply unless they are "ready to study and live in Oxford."

The original op-ed spurred responses on both sides of the Atlantic.Other students criticised the authors for their tone of "ingratitude and entitlement," whileThe Sunday Timesnoted that it fueled the rivalry between theUniversity of Cambridge,Harvard University,and theUniversity of Oxfordand existing concerns about the quality of British graduate education. In response, the Rhodes Trust released two statements, one toThe Sunday Timessaying that "the criticisms…are unrepresentative of the vast majority of Americans" studying at Oxford, and another as a reply to the original op-ed arguing that "false expectations," particularly for those uncertain about their degree choice, and going to Oxford for the "wrong reasons," could contribute to dissatisfaction.

Notable scholars and career trajectories

See also:List of Rhodes Scholars

Surveying the history of the Rhodes Scholarship, Schaeper and Schaeper concludethat while "few of them have 'changed the world'…most of them have been a credit to their professions…and communities," finding that "the great majority of Rhodes Scholars have had solid, respectable careers." Eight former Rhodes scholars subsequently became heads of government or heads of state, includingWasim Sajjad(Pakistan),Bill Clinton(United States),Dom Mintoff(Malta),John Turner(Canada),Norman Manley(Jamaica), and threePrime Ministers of Australia:Bob Hawke,Tony AbbottandMalcolm Turnbull.

From 1951 to 1997, 32% of American Rhodes Scholars pursued careers in education and academia, 20% in law, 15% in business, and 10% in medicine and science.Although Cecil Rhodes imagined that scholars would "pursue a full-time career in government…the number of scholars in local, state and federal government has remained at a steady 7 per cent" over the past century. Of the 200 or so scholars who have spent their careers in government, "most of them have had solid, but undistinguished careers," while "perhaps forty or more can be said to have had a significant, national impact in their particular areas."

The most popular career choice for Rhodes Scholars is education and academia, with many becoming deans of law and medical schools and others becoming professors and lecturers. Many of the most distinguished Rhodes Scholars, such as Zambian activistLucy Banda,have become prominent members of the civil rights movement.In 1990, third-wave feminist author Naomi Wolf put forward ideas about beauty and power with her bookThe Beauty Myth,ushering in a new type of feminism that has risen to prominence in the digital age.

Rhodes Scholars have had a notable impact in the fields of medicine and science.Howard Floreywas awarded a Rhodes Scholarship in 1922 after studying medicine at theUniversity of Adelaide Medical School.In 1939 Florey, along with fellow scientistErnst Boris Chain,led the team that successfully isolated and purified penicillin.Robert Q. Marston,an American Rhodes Scholar who studied with Florey, was Director of theNational Institutes of Health(USA) from 1968 to 1973. He was credited with maintaining the high quality of basic science research in the Institutes.

Human rights, social justice and advocacy

Law

Challenging some of the convictions of the scholarship's founder is not a recent occurrence. As early as 1931,Afrikaans-born anti-apartheid lawyer and Rhodes ScholarBram Fischercampaigned for equal rights for all South Africans. This led him to join theCommunist Party of South Africa.Fischer was struck off the roll by theJohannesburg Bar Councilin 1965 after he skipped bail on charges under theSuppression of Communism Act.He was later arrested and sentenced to life in prison.Other Rhodes Scholars have taken on difficult social causes with more success.Fred Patersondefended workers and unions at a reduced price, before he sat in parliament as the first and only Communist party member in Australian history.In 1978, former Rhodes ScholarAnn OlivariussuedYale Universityover their mis-handling of on-campus sexual harassment complaints.

Education and child welfare

After leaving Oxford to write his first novel, former Rhodes ScholarJonathan Kozolworked as a teacher in theRoxburyneighborhood ofBoston,Massachusetts. He would go on to writeDeath at an Early Age: The Destruction of the Hearts and Minds of Negro Children in the Boston Public Schools,after witnessing first-hand the devastating effecteducational inequalitywas having on America.Rhodes ScholarsMarc KielburgerandRoxanne Joyalconduct similar work with their organizationFree the Children.Together they build schools and educate children in developing countries across Africa.

Civil and human rights

Much of the Rhodes alumni civil and human rights work has been focused in Africa, particularlySouth Africa.South African JusticeEdwin Cameroninitially focused his attention on law and employment law, but later worked in the field ofLGBTrights as well as co-founding theAids Consortium.Two-timePulitzer Prizewinning journalistNick Kristofwas pivotal in shedding light on atrocities such asTiananmen Squareand theDarfur genocide.ProfessorSandra Fredmanhas also written extensively on anti-discrimination law, human rights law and labour law.Rhiana Gunn-Wrightwas the creator of theGreen New Deal.

Medical innovation

Genetics

In 2014,IranianRhodes ScholarPardis Sabetiused genome sequencing and computational genetics to identify the source of the Ebola outbreak in West Africa.She is also the front-person forindie-rockbandThousand Days.

Another Rhodes Scholar working ingenomeresearch is the mathematician and geneticistEric Lander.His ideas in human genetics, particularly mapping and sequencing, led to the creation ofThe Cancer Genome Atlas.

Disease and epidemiology

Salim Yusuf,anIndianscholar, conducted significant research into heart health and its relationship to developing economies. He observed that shifts in the developing world, particularly dietary changes and increased urbanization, lead to higher incidences of heart attacks and strokes.

InZimbabwe,A. Tariro Makadzangehas researched perinatally infected children withHIVand HIV-positive adults withcryptococcal disease.Since graduating from Oxford, she has set up a new infectious disease laboratory at theUniversity of ZimbabweinHarare.

SirAlimuddin Zumla,a British-Zambian, infectious diseases scholar declined an offer to take up the scholarship.Decades later, Zumla was recognized byClarivate Analytics,Web of Scienceas one of the world's top 1% most cited researchers.

Surgery

After studying at Oxford, surgeon and authorAtul Gawandebecame an advisor toBill Clintonand theU.S Department of Health and Human Services.In recent years he has devised an innovative checklist for a successful surgery.Other surgical innovations brought about by Rhodes Scholars include theGliaSitetechnique, a device that lowers the risks associated with radiation therapy in brain tumours.

A number of Rhodes scholars have gone on to careers inneurosurgery.One of the most influential neurosurgeons of all time,Wilder Penfield,was aCanadianRhodes Scholar in 1915. Neurosurgeon SirHugh Cairnswas a Rhodes Scholar for South Australia in 1917, whose treatment ofLawrence of Arabialed to research that informed the introduction of motorcycle helmets. NeurosurgeonGriffith Harshwas a Rhodes Scholar and created the GliaSite device.

Arts

Literature

One of the first recipients of the Rhodes Scholarship was the American poet, educator and criticJohn Crowe Ransom.He became a founding member of the influential Fugitive literary group.A contemporary of Ransom's who also became a Rhodes Scholar wasRobert Penn Warren.Warren was lambasted by his peers who told him that the study of English literature was a soft option; seeking to rebut such attacks, he introduced new critical ideas into the study of poetry and fiction, and these ideas went on to change how literature was taught at undergraduate and postgraduate levels, not only in America itself.Tasmanian Rhodes ScholarRichard Flanagan(Tasmaniaand Worcester, 1984) is a celebrated author, having been awarded theMan Booker Prizein 2014 for his novelThe Narrow Road to the Deep North.

Hip-hop

In 2006 (before receiving a Rhodes Scholarship), lawyer and current Lieutenant Governor of New YorkAntonio Delgadocritiqued capitalism and racial injustice under the name "AD the Voice."

Roughly 90 years previously, the phrase "keeping it real" was used by Rhodes scholarAlain Lockein his bookThe New Negroto describe the pursuit of in the face of mainstream media's portrayal of African American culture.Locke's work inspired theHarlem Renaissancemovement, and "keeping it real" has since become a universally recognizedhip-hopethos.

Science and technology

Space exploration

After studying ion propulsion at Oxford, Dr.Jennifer Gruberembarked on a career as aspace engineer.She is currently coordinating missions between theJohnson Space Centerand theInternational Space Stationas an employee ofNASA. 

Cosmology

Rhodes ScholarBrian Greeneco-founded ISCAP, Columbia'sInstitute for Strings, Cosmology, and Astroparticle Physics.As well as winning a Pulitzer Prize for non-fiction, Greene made some ground-breaking discoveries in the field of superstring theory and was one of the cosmologists to co-discoversuperstring theory.

Comparison to other post-graduate scholarships

The Rhodes Scholarship model has inspired successor scholarships in many countries. These include:

• TheKennedy Scholarshipfor British nationals to study atHarvard Universityor theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(1964)
• The internationalYenching Scholarshipfor study atPeking University(2015)
• The internationalSchwarzman Scholarshipfor study atTsinghua University(2016)
• The internationalKnight-Hennessy Scholarsto study atStanford University(2018)
• The internationalMcCall MacBain Scholarsto study atMcGill University(2019)

In structure and selection criteria, the scholarship is similar to theJohn Monash Scholarship,Schwarzman Scholarship,Knight-Hennessy Scholarship,Weidenfeld-Hoffmann Scholarship and Leadership Program,Gates Cambridge Scholarship,Marshall Scholarship,Yenching Scholarship,Fulbright Program,Erasmus Mundusscholarship, andChevening Scholarship.As with the Rhodes, the Gates Cambridge, Yenching, Knight-Hennessy, and Schwarzman scholarships are tenable at only one university. The Knight-Hennessy and Schwarzman Scholarships similarly award scholarships to students from all nations, with a focus on public service and leadership.

See also

• John Behan
• List of Rhodes Scholars
• Gates Cambridge Scholarship
• Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan
• Fulbright Program
• Jardine Scholarship
• Thouron Award
• Rise (education program)

Further reading

• Godfrey Elton,The First Fifty Years of The Rhodes Trust and Scholarships, 1903-1953.London: Blackwell, 1955.
• R.I. Rotberg,The Founder: Cecil Rhodes and the Pursuit of Power.New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
• Philip Ziegler,Cecil Rhodes, the Rhodes Trust and Rhodes Scholarships.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
• R.W. Johnson,Look Back in Laughter: Oxford's Postwar Golden Age.Threshold Press, 2015

Books by former Wardens of Rhodes House, Oxford:

• Anthony Kenny,The History of the Rhodes Trust.Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2001.
• Donald Markwell,"Instincts to Lead": On Leadership, Peace, and Education,2013.

External links

• Rhodes Trust official website
• Rhodes Project: The first in-depth study of Rhodes women