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Names of the Greeks

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TheGreeks(Greek:Έλληνες) have been identified by manyethnonyms.The most common native ethnonym isHellene(Ancient Greek:Ἕλλην), pl.Hellenes(Ἕλληνες); the nameGreeks(Latin:Graeci) was used by theancient Romansand gradually entered theEuropean languagesthrough its use in Latin. The mythological patriarchHellenis the named progenitor of theGreek peoples;his descendants theAeolians,Dorians,AchaeansandIonianscorrespond to the main Greek tribes and to the main dialects spoken inGreeceandAsia Minor (Anatolia).

The firstGreek-speakingpeople, calledMyceneansor Mycenean-Achaeans by historians, entered present-day Greece sometime in theNeolithicera or theBronze Age.Homerrefers to "Achaeans"as the dominanttribeduring theTrojan Warperiod usually dated to the 12th–11th centuries BC,[1][2]usingHellenesto describe a relatively small tribe inThessaly.TheDorians,an important Greek-speaking group, appeared roughly at that time. According to the Greek tradition, theGraeci(Latin; Ancient Greek:Γραικοί,Graikoi,"Greeks" ) were renamedHellenesprobably with the establishment of theGreat Amphictyonic Leagueafter the Trojan War.

When the Romans first encountered Greek colonists inSouthern Italy,they used the name Graeci for the colonists and then for all Greeks; this became the root of all relevant terms inEuropeanlanguages. ThePersiansused the nameYaunas(Yunans) after theIonians,a Greek tribe who colonized part of the coasts of western Asia Minor.[3]The term was used later inHebrew(Yevanim,יוונים‎),Arabic,and also by theTurks.The word entered the languages of the Indian subcontinent as theYona.A unique form is used inGeorgian,where the Greeks are calledBerdzeni(ბერძენი).

ByLate Antiquity(c. 3rd–7th centuries), the Greeks referred to themselves asGraikoi(Γραικοί,"Greeks" ) andRhomaioi/Romioi(Ῥωμαῖοι/Ῥωμηοί/Ρωμιοί,"Romans" ) the latter of which was used since virtually allGreeks were Roman citizensafter 212 AD. The termHellenestarted to be applied to the followers of thepolytheistic( "pagan") religion after the establishment ofChristianitybyTheodosius I.

General names of Greece

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Main article:Name of Greece

Most European languages, as well as other languages that have borrowed the name from one of them, use names for Greece that come from the LatinGraeciaandGraecus,the name the Romans used for the Greeks, itself from the GreekΓραικός:

In languages of Middle East and South and Central Asia, the common root is "yun" or "ywn". It is borrowed from the Greek nameIonia,a once Greek region of Asia Minor, and theIonians:[4]

The third form is "Hellas", used by a few languages around the world, including Greek:

Other forms:

Brief history

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The first people speaking an ancientProto-Greek languageentered mainland Greece during the Neolithic period or theBronze Age.[6]From theAncient Greek dialectsas they presented themselves centuries later, it seems that at least two migrations of Greeks occurred overall, the first of the Ionians and the Aeolians probably in the 19th century BC and the second of the Dorians probably in the 13th century BC. The first migration resulted inMycenean Greek,an archaic Greek language which appears inLinear Bsyllabic inscriptions and the second resulted in the Dorian dialect which displaced theArcadocypriot dialectthat seems to be closest to the Mycenean Greek.[7]

The tribes later called Aeolians and Ionians established several feudal kingdoms around Greece, and the historians called themMyceneansafter their most powerful kingdomMyceneainPeloponnese,orMyceneans-Achaeansbecause inHomertheAchaeanswere the dominating tribe in Greece and the nameAchiyawathat appears inHittitetexts seems to correspond to a thalassocratic country which might beMycenea.[8]

Although Homer referred to a union of the Greek kingdoms under the leadership of the king ofMycenaeduring theTrojan War,there is no evidence that these kingdoms were dominated by a central power. Most of the Mycenaean palaces were destroyed at the end of the 13th century BC. The Greek tradition relates this destruction to the Dorians, but it is suggested that theDorian invasionwas only one of the causes of the Bronze Age collapse in the EasternMediterranean,as there is no evidence that the newcomers established a different civilization.[9]The destruction was followed by theGreek Dark Ageswith very poor archaeological findings, when most occupied areas were deserted, but some areas likeAtticaoccupied by theIoniansremained untouched by the invaders. Several Greek tribes moved to regions of Greece where they acquired different names, and population groups moved through the islands to the western coasts of Asia Minor where they kept their native namesAeolians,IoniansandDorians.

It seems that the myth ofHellen,theprogenitorof theHellenes,was invented when the Greek tribes started to separate from each other, and stressed their common origin. The name "Hellenes" was probably used by the Greeks with the establishment of the Great Amphictyonic League, an ancient association of Greek tribes. According to legend it was founded after the Trojan War, by the eponymousAmphictyon,brother of Hellen. It had twelve founders and was organized to protect the great temples ofApolloinDelphi(Phocis) and ofDemeternearThermopylae(Locris). The twelve founders enumerated byAeschines[10]were theAenianesorOetaeans(Αἰνιᾶνες, Οἰταῖοι), theBoeotians(Βοιωτοί) ofThebes,theDolopes(Δόλοπες), the Dorians (Δωριείς) ofSparta,the Ionians (Ἴωνες) ofAthens,thePhthianAchaeans (Ἀχαιοί), theLocrians(Λοκροί) (Opuntians,Ὀπούντιοι andOzolians,Ὀζολαί), theMagnesians(Μάγνητες), theMalians(Μαλιεῖς), thePerrhaebians(Περραιβοί), thePhocians(Φωκεῖς), thePythians(Πύθιοι) of Delphi, and theThessalians(Θεσσαλοί). Among the descendants ofHellenare mentionedAeolus,Ion,Achaeus,Dorus,GraecosandMakedon.It seems that theMacedonianswere a Dorian tribe that stayed behind in Macedonia when the main Dorian tribes moved to the south.

Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί)

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Main article:Achaeans (Homer)

Late Bronze AgeHittitetexts mention a nation calledAhhiya[11]and subsequentlyAhhiyawa[12]which have been identified in scholarship[13][14][15]as part of the Mycenaean world.[16]Egyptian records mention peoples known asEkwesh,DenyenandTanajuthat have been also linked to the Mycenaean world.[17]

InHomer'sIliad,the Greek allied forces are described under three differentnames;Achaeans(Ἀχαιοί,Akhaioí,used 598 times),Danaans(Δαναοί,Danaoí,used 138 times) andArgives(Ἀργεῖοι,Argeîoi,used 29 times).[18][19]All of the aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek identity.[18]

A fourth term – "Panhellenes" – (Πανέλληνες"All of the Greeks" ) and "Hellenes'" (/ˈhɛliːnz/;Ἕλληνες) – bothappear only once;[20]implying it was not a central concept in Homer's work.[21]In someEnglish translations of theIliad,the Achaeans are simply called "the Greeks" throughout.

Hellenes (Ἕλληνες)

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The main Greek sanctuaries and localization of thesanctuaryof Dodona.

There is currently no satisfactory etymology for the name Hellenes. Some scholars assert that the name of the priests ofZeusinDodona,Selloi(Σελλοί; also ἙλλοίHelloi), changed toSellanes(by analogy withAkarnanes) and then toHellanesandHellenes.[22]This theory is based onAristotle's comments inMeteorologicawhere he places archaic Hellas inEpirusbetween Dodona and theAchelousriver, where in his opinion the great deluge ofDeucalionmust have occurred. The land was inhabited by Selloi and Graeci, who later came to be known asHellenes.[23]Homermentions that theSelloiwere the prophets ofZeusat Dodona, but he is referring to Zeus of Dodona as god of thePelasgianswho belonged to a Pre-Dorianpopulation.[24]It is possible that the extension of a particular cult of Zeus in Dodona (a tendency among the Greeks to form ever-larger cultic communities oramphictionies) caused the name to further extend to the rest of the peninsula.

This theory connects the nameHelleneswith theDorians(and the substrate of Pelasgians) who occupied Epirus in the extreme north of Greece, rendering uncertain the relation with the nameGraeciused by theRomans.Some toponyms, especially an ancient cityHellasin southernThessaly,and the Greek tradition seem to indicate that the nameHelleneswas Pre-Dorian itself and that the homeland of theGraikoi,who were later calledHellenes,was incentral Greece.A Greek myth mentions an earlier deluge ofOgygesin the region ofBoeotiawhich was occupied by theMinyansa group of autochthonous or Proto-Greek speaking people. The region (situated next toAttica) was calledGraïkein ancient times probably after the old city ofGraea(ΓραῖαGraîa,fromProto-Greekgrau-j-,"old lady" ) on the coast. The nameOgyges(orOgenos) is related withOkeanos(Ὠκεανός), the great river-ocean that Greeks believed to surround the Earth.[25]The adjective derived from the name,Ogygios(Ὠγύγιος "Ogygian" ) came to mean "primeval, primal," or "from earliest days" and also "gigantic".[26]

Homer refers toHellenesas an originally relatively small tribe settled inThessalicPhthia.During the era of theTrojan Warthey were centered along the settlements ofAlos,Alope,Trachis,and the Pelasgian Argos.[27]This HomericHellasis described as "καλλιγύναικος",kalligýnaikos,"of beautiful women", and its warriors, the Hellenes, along with the fearedMyrmidons,were under the command ofAchilles.TheParian Chroniclementions that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (Γραικοί).[28]Alcman(7th century BC) also refers that the mothers ofHelleneswereGraikoi.InGreek mythology,Hellen,the patriarch of Hellenes, was son ofDeucalion,who ruled around Phthia withPyrrha,the only survivors after the great deluge.[29]It seems that the myth was invented when the Greek tribes started to separate from each other in certain areas of Greece and it indicates their common origin. The nameHelleneswas probably used by the Greeks with the establishment of theGreat Amphictyonic League.This was an ancient association of Greek tribes with twelve founders which was organized to protect the great temples ofApolloin Delphi (Phocis) and ofDemeternearThermopylae(Locris).[30]According to legend it was founded after the Trojan War, by the eponymousAmphictyon,brother ofHellen.

Greeks (Γραικοί)

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Further information:Graecians,Graecus,andGraea
Soletois one of the nineGreek-speaking towns in the province ofApulia,Italy. Their inhabitants are descendants of the first wave of Greek settlers in Italy andSicilyin the 8th century BC. The dialect they speak evolved separately fromHellenistic Greek.The people of these towns call themselvesGriki,from theLatinGraecus.

The modern English nounGreek(Old EnglishGrecasorCrecas) is derived from theLatinGraeci,which in turn originates fromAncient GreekΓραικός(Graikós). It seems that the word is related to the Greek wordγέρωνgeron"old man" (from thePIEbase*ǵerh2-"to grow old" ) viaProto-Greek*gera-"old age", also related toMycenean Greekkera/geras/, "gift of honour".[31]TheGermanic languagesborrowed the name with an initialksound, which was probably their initial sound closest to the Lating(GothicKreks).[32]

The first use ofGraikosas equivalent toHellenesis found in Aristotle[33]for the Dorians inEpirusfromGraii,a native name of the people of Epirus.[32]He places the seat of these most ancient "Greeks" in the region of theAchelousriver aroundDodona,where in his opinion the great deluge ofDeucalionmust have occurred. The priests of Zeus in Dodona were calledSelloi,which could lead toSellanes(likeAkarnanes), and then toHellanesandHellenes.

Homeris referring toHellenesas a relatively small tribe inPhthiain central Greece (Achaea Pthiotis). In theParian Chronicleit is mentioned that Phthia was the homeland of Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously calledGraikoi(Γραικοί).[28]InGreek mythology,Hellen,the patriarch of Hellenes, was son ofDeucalion(who ruled around Phthia) andPyrrha,the only survivors after the great deluge.[29]Hesiodis referring toGraecus,son ofPandora,who was sister ofHellen.Alcmanmentions that the mothers ofHelleneswereGraikoi.

The German classical historianGeorg Busolt(1850–1920) derives the name fromGraikos,"inhabitant ofGraea,a town on the coast of Boeotia.[32]The nameGraea(γραῖα) is derived fromProto-Greekgrau-j-,"old lady".[31]Homer,while reciting the Boeotian forces in theIliad'sCatalogue of Ships,provides the first known reference to a region namedGraea,[34]andPausaniasmentions that the ancient city ofTanagrawas for a time called Graea, adding that "no one knows where this Graia really was; Aristotle thought it was nearOropus,further east on the same coast asDelion."[35]Busolt claimed that the name was given by the Romans originally to the Greek colonists from Graea who helped to foundCumaethe important city in southernItalywhere theItalic peoplesfirst encountered the Greeks and then to all Greeks.[32]

According to Irad Malkin,Graikoicould have also been anexonymfor the Greeks, used by neighboringIllyriansandMessapians.[36]It has been suggested that the nameGraeciwas possibly anIllyrianname for a Greek tribe with whom they were in contact in northEpirus.[37]N. G. L. Hammondhas pointed out that the namesGraeciandHellenesspread from contact with small tribes or with Graia, a defunct Greekpolisin the Gulf of Euboea.[38][39]

According to Rene Olivier,[40]in the French language the wordgrec( "Greek" ) is sometimes also used as anethnic slurmeaning "fraudster" (in contrast withhelléniquewhich has no negative connotations).

Spread of the use of the term "Hellenes"

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Hellenesin the wider meaning of the word appears in writing for the first time in an inscription byEchembrotus,dedicated toHeraclesfor his victory in theAmphictyonicGames,[41]and refers to the 48thOlympiad(584 BC).Simonides of Ceosin hisepigramon the tomb of the Athenians who were killed in theBattle of Marathon(490 BC) wrote "Ἑλλήνων προμαχοῦντες Ἀθηναῖοι Μαραθῶνι […]" "Fighting at the forefront of the Hellenes, the Athenians at Marathon […]" [42] and after theGreco-Persian Wars,an inscription was written in Delphi celebrating victory over thePersiansand callingPausaniasthe leading general of the Hellenes.[43]Awareness of a Pan-Hellenic unity was promoted by religious festivals, most significantly in theEleusinian Mysteries,in which prospective initiates had to speakGreek,and almost as importantly through participation in the fourPanhellenic Games,including the Olympic Games, in which participants were exclusively Greek and recognized by tribal affiliation.[44]

The tribal societies of the north

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The development of mythological genealogies of descent fromeponymousfounder-figures, long after the actual southward migration of the four tribal groups recognized by the Greeks, affected how the identity of northern tribes was perceived. According to the most prevailing legend,Hellen,son ofDeucalionandPyrrha,received from the nymphOrseisthree sons,Aeolus,Dorus,andXuthus,each of whom founded a primary tribe of Hellas–theAeolians,Dorians,AchaeansandIonians.

At the time of the Trojan War, the Epirotes (Molossians,ThesprotiansandChaonians) were not considered Hellenes, for the people so named were then limited to a small tribe in Thessaly of which Achilles was a member. After the name was extended to all peoples south ofMount Olympus,however, it still left out those of common origin living in the north. One factor contributing to this was their non-participation in thePersian Wars,[45]which were considered a vital affair for all Hellenes; subsequent to the Persian Wars, representatives of these tribes were accepted in the Olympic Games and competed alongside other Hellenes.[46]The fact that each of these northern peoples at this time continued to live as anethnos,or collection of tribes, under an archaicmonarchialpolitical system – as opposed to thedemocraticoroligarchicpolis(city state) of the south–also contributed to this view of them as "barbaric".[47]

Thucydidescalls theAcarnanians,Aetolians,[48]Epirotes[49]and Upper Macedonians[50]barbarians,but does so in a strictly linguistic sense – these peoples were consideredbarbarophoneto the extent that their dialects of Greek were sufficiently different and archaic so as to sound crude and barely understandable to a southernAtticspeaker such as Thucydides.[51]Similarly, when the Athenian oratorDemosthenescalledPhilip II of Macedonworse than a barbarian in hisThird Philippic,he did so with respect to the culture they demonstrated as foreigners not adhering to proper Hellenic standards, and did not raise the issue of their origin: "not only no Greek, nor related to the Greeks, but not even a barbarian from any place that can be named with honors, but a pestilent knave from Macedonia, whence it was never yet possible to buy a decent slave."Herodotus,Polybius,Straboand a large number of other Greek and Roman writers regard the tribes ofwestern Hellas,Epirus, and Macedonia as Hellenic in every respect.[52]Both Thucydides and Demosthenes were themselves of partial non-Attic origins and for Demosthenes it seems of non-Greek origins altogether while notably both of them held strong opposing political positions against Macedonians.

Hellenes and barbarians

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In the following centuries,Hellenetypically contrasted withbarbarian,representing the uncivilized.

The Greek tribes quickly noticed that they did not speak the same tongue as their neighbors, and used the term "βάρβαρος" ( "barbarian" ) for them, with the meanings "uncultured", "uncivilized" or "speaker of a foreign language". The term βάρβαρος is thought to beonomatopoeicin origin: "bar-bar" —i.e.stammering—may have been how the speech of foreign peoples sounded to Greek-speakers.[53]This was also the case for theEgyptians,who, according toHerodotus,"named barbarians all those who spoke a different tongue",[54][55]and in later years for theSlavs,who gave theGermansthe nameněmec,which means "mute", while calling themselvesslověnskior "people of the word". In his playThe Birds,Aristophanescalls the illiterate supervisor a "barbarian" who nevertheless taught the birds how to talk.[56]The term eventually picked up a derogatory use and was extended to indicate the entire lifestyle of foreigners, and finally coming to mean "illiterate" or "uncivilized" in general. Thus "an illiterate man is also a barbarian".[57]According toDionysius of Halicarnassus,a Hellene differed from a barbarian in four ways: refined language, education, religion, and the rule of law.[58]Greek education became identified with noble upbringing.Paul of Tarsusconsidered it his obligation to preach theGospelto all men, "Hellenes and barbarians, both wise and foolish".[59]

Discrimination between Hellenes and barbarians lasted until the 4th century BC.Euripidesthought it plausible that Hellenes should rule over barbarians, because the first were destined forfreedomand the other forslavery.[60]Aristotlecame to the conclusion that "the nature of a barbarian and a slave is one and the same".[61]

Alexander the Great's conquests consolidated Greek influence in the East by exporting Greek culture into Asia and permanently transformed education and society in the region.Isocratesdeclared in his speechPanegyricus,speaking about Athens and Greece: "And so far has our city distanced the rest of mankind in thought and in speech that her pupils have become the teachers of the rest of the world; and she has brought it about that the name Hellenes suggests no longer a race but an intelligence, and that the title Hellenes is applied rather to those who share our culture than to those who share a common blood".[62]With a small reformation, theHellenistic civilizationis the evolution of classical Greek civilization into a civilization with global proportions, this time open to everybody. Similarly,Helleneevolved from a national name signifying anethnicGreek to a cultural term signifying anybody who conducted his life according to Greekmores.

Ionians (Ἴωνες), Yunani, and Yavan (יָוָן)

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Main article:Yona

A wholly different term came to establish itself in theEast.The ancient people of the Middle East referred to the Hellenes asYunan,deriving fromPersianYauna[citation needed],itself a loan ofGreekΙωνία (Ionia), the western coast ofAsia Minor.It is by affiliation with the Ionian tribe thePersiansconquered in the late 6th century BC that their name extended to all Hellenes. All peoples under Persian influence adopted the term, and it is from this root thatSanskritYavanaderives, which one encounters in ancient Sanskrit sources, first attested inPāṇini'sgrammar, and later referring, together withPaliYona,Yonakato theIndo-Greeks.The termYunanis used in currentPersian,Arabic(يوناني),Azeri,Turkish,Hindi(यूनान),IndonesianandMalay.

The relatedHebrewname,YavanorJavan(יָוָן), was used to refer to the Greek nation in the Eastern Mediterranean in earlyBiblicaltimes. There was an eponymous characterJavanmentioned inGenesis10:2. In later times it was used for allHellenistickingdoms (for example, theMaccabeansapplied it to theirSeleucidfoes). "Yavan" is still the name used for modern Greece in contemporaryIsrael.

Although the contemporaryChineseterm for Greece ( hi tịchXīlà) is based onHellas,Chinese previously used what was likely a version of theYunanorYonaroot when referring to theDàyuān( đại uyển ). The Dàyuān were probably the descendants of the Greek colonies that were established byAlexander the Greatand prospered within the Hellenistic realm of theSeleucidsandGreco-Bactrians,until they were isolated by the migrations of theYueh-Chiharound 160 BC. It has been suggested that the nameYuanwas simply a transliteration of the wordsYunan,Yona,or Ionians, so that Dàyuān (literally "Great Yuan" ) would mean "Great Yunans" or "Great Ionians."

Hellene comes to mean "pagan"

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See also:Hellenistic religion

The nameHellenewas given the meaning "pagan" by theearly Christianchurch, and retained that meaning until the end of the millennium. It is believed that contact with ChristianJewsled someChristiansto useHelleneas a means of religious differentiation. Jews, likeGreeks,distinguished themselves from foreigners, but unlike Greeks, did so according to religious rather than cultural standards.

Roman domination of the Greek world enhanced the prestige of the religious institutions that remained intact. Early Christians differentiated people according to religion, so the sense of the wordHelleneas a cultural attribute became marginalized and then supplanted by its religious element. Eventually, Christians came to refer to all pagans asHellenes.

St. Paulin his Epistles usesHellenealmost always juxtaposed toHebrew,and in disregard of all other ethnicities (Romans, Syrians, Egyptians, etc.) living in the area at the time. A possible exception to this beingColossians 3:11 ( "Where there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision, Barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free: but Christ is all, and in all."King James Version). The aim was probably to represent the aggregate of thepolytheisticand themonotheisticreligious communities, who respectively believed in many gods or one god.[63]Helleneis used in a religious sense for the first time in theNew Testament.InMark 7:26, a woman arrives beforeJesus,and kneeling before him: "The woman was a Hellene, a Syrophœnician by nation; and she besought him that he would cast forth the devil out of her daughter."[64]Since the nationality or ethnicity of the woman is stated to be Syrophœnician, "Greek" (translated as such into the English of theKing James Version,but ashaiþno"heathen"inUlfilas'sGothic;WycliffeandCoverdalelikewise haveheathen) must therefore signify her polytheistic religion. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that phrases in koine Greek similar to the one in Mark 7:26 ( "ἡ δὲ γυνὴ ἦν Ἑλληνίς, Συροφοινίκισσα τῷ γένει·" ) can be found in the new testament being applied to Jewish people (Acts 18:2 "καὶ εὑρών τινα Ἰουδαῖον ὀνόματι Ἀκύλαν, Ποντικὸν τῷ γένει," )(Acts 18:24 "Ἰουδαῖος δέ τις Ἀπολλὼς ὀνόματι, Ἀλεξανδρεὺς τῷ γένει," ) and the Levite Barnabas (Acts 4:36, "Λευΐτης, Κύπριος τῷ γένει" ). In all those cases the terms Hellene/Jew/Levite are mentioned, eventually followed by a comma, a designation such as Syrophoenician/Pontic/Alexandrian/Cypriot and after that the words "τῷ γένει", with the last words tending to have differing translations. A broadly similar terminology is found inJohn 12:20–23: "And there were certain Hellenes among them that came up to worship at the feast... Jesus answered them, saying, The hour is come, that the Son of man should be glorified". This could have one of two interpretations: either that Jesus meant that the time had come for his religion to spread to thepagans(in which case the term "Hellenes" is religious), or that it would spread by using theGreek language(in which case the term "Hellenes" is meant to be linguistic). The development towards a purely religious meaning was slow, and complete by approximately the 2nd or 3rd century AD: Athenian statesmanAristeides,in his written Apology to the EmperorHadrian,picked out theHellenesas one of the representative pagan peoples of the world along with the Egyptians and theChaldæans.[65]Later,Clement of Alexandriareports an unknown Christian writer who named all of the aboveHellenesand spoke of two old nations and one new: the Christian nation.[66]

Several books written at this time demonstrate clearly thesemanticshift. For example,Athanasius'Against Helleneswas originally titledAgainst the Gentiles(Greek:ethnikoi) according to older manuscripts. From then on,Helleneno longer meant an ethnic Greek or an adherent to Greek culture, but pagans in general, regardless of race. EmperorJulian's attempt to restore paganism failed, and according toPope Gregory I,"matters moved in favor of Christianity and the position of the Hellenes was severely aggravated".[67]Half a century later Christians protested against theEparchofAlexandria,whom they accused of being a Hellene.[68]Theodosius Iinitiated the firstlegalsteps against paganism, but it wasJustinian'slegal reforms that triggered pagan persecutions on a massive scale. TheCorpus Juris Civiliscontained two statutes which decreed the total destruction ofHellenism,even in civic life, and were zealously enforced even against men in high position. The official suppression of paganism made non-Christians a public threat, which further derogated the meaning ofHellene.Paradoxically,Tribonian,Justinian's own legal commissioner, according to theSudadictionary, was aHellene(pagan).[69]

The usage of Hellene as a religious term was initially part of an exclusively Christian nomenclature, but some Pagans began to defiantly call themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrow meaning of the word from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, there were many Christians and pagans alike who strongly objected to the evolution of the terminology. The influentialArchbishop of ConstantinopleGregory of Nazianzus,for example, took offence at imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic culture (especially concerning spoken and written Greek) and he openly criticized the emperor.[70]

The name Hellene meaning "pagan" has persisted into modern times. Many groups advocating a revival or reconstruction of the worship of the Olympian Gods call themselves Hellenic Polytheists and the religion Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism orHellenismos.Such groups outside of Greece are careful not to imply that, by calling themselvesHellenes,they consider themselves Greek nationals.

Macedonians (Μακεδόνες)

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The name "Macedonians", in order to colloquially mean the Greek soldiers (etc) thatAlexander the Greatwas first thehegemonof, is being used by – at least – contemporary sources when referring to theHellenistic period,as theancient Macedonian army,including the famoussomatophylakes(e. g.Lysimachus) and, later, thediadochi[71]of Alexander, consisted of warriors from numerous and diverseGreek tribes.Thus, as theSpartans(Lacedaemonians) did not take part in Alexander's campaign, Alexander once ordered for an inscription to be sent, along with some war spoils, to Athens saying "Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except theLacedaemonians[...] ".[72]Likewise, the term "Macedonian", while referring here to Greek dialects, also ended up meaning theKoine Greekin classical sources,[73]whereas diverse major Ancient Greek dialects were natively spoken in the later/expandedMacedonian Kingdom,and even though the Koine dialect was mostly based onAttic Greekthat was natively spoken aroundAthens.Notably, during the reign ofConstantine the Great,who is regarded as the firstByzantine Emperor,theDiocese of Macedoniawas established, comprising principally the area that is modernGreece,withThessalonicaas its capital.

Romans (Ῥωμαῖοι)

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See also:Rum (endonym)andRumelia

Hieronymus Wolfwas a 16th-century German historian. After coming into contact with the works ofLaonicus Chalcondyles,he also went ahead with identifyingByzantinehistoriography for the purpose of distinguishing medieval Greek from ancient Roman history.

Romans orRhomaioi(Ῥωμαῖοι; sg. ῬωμαῖοςRhomaios) andRomioi(Ρωμιοί; sg. ΡωμιόςRomios), is the name by which the Greeks were known in the Middle Ages and duringOttoman rule.The name in antiquity originally signified the inhabitants of the city of Rome in Italy, but with the increasing grants ofRoman citizenshipto the Greeks and other nations of the Roman Empire, it soon lost its connection with theLatins.This process culminated in 212 AD, when Emperor Caracalla'sConstitutio Antoninianagranted the citizenship to all free-born men of the Empire. Later Byzantine authors such as Nikephoros Basilakes,[74]Michael Attaleiates,Theodore Prodromos,PatriarchGermanus II,Niketas ChoniatesandNicaean EmperorTheodore II Laskarisalso used the classicizing termAusonesto refer to the people of the Eastern Roman Empire,[75]although, asJohn Tzetzespoints out (in hisScholia toLycophron's "Alexandra",attributed to himself and his brother Isaac), that should be understood in its proper context as a literary device.[76]Overall, the wordRhomaioscame to represent the Hellenized inhabitants of the East Roman Empire.

Overall, the foreign borrowed name (Romans) initially had a more political than national meaning, which went hand in hand with the universalizing ideology of Rome that aspired to encompass all nations of the world under one true God. Up until the early 7th century, when the Empire still extended over large areas and many peoples, the use of the name "Roman" always indicatedcitizenshipand never descent. Various ethnicities could apply their ownethnonymsortoponymsto disambiguate citizenship from genealogy, which is why the historianProcopiusprefers to call the Byzantines asHellenized Romans,[77]while other authors useRomhellenesandGraecoromans,[78]aiming to indicate descent and citizenship simultaneously. TheLombardandArabinvasions in the same century resulted in the loss of most of the provinces including Italy and all of the Middle East, save forAnatolia.The areas that did remain were mostly Greek-speaking, thereby turning the empire into a much more cohesive unit that eventually developed a fairly self-conscious Greek identity.

The Byzantines' failure to protect thePopefrom theLombardsforced the Pope to search for help elsewhere. The man who answered his call wasPepin IIofAquitaine,whom he had named "Patrician", a title that caused a serious conflict. In 772, Rome ceased commemorating the emperor that first ruled fromConstantinople,and in 800Charlemagnewas crowned Roman Emperor by the Pope himself, officially rejecting the Eastern Roman Empire as true Romans. According to theFrankishinterpretation of events, thepapacyappropriately "transferred Roman imperial authority from the Greeks to theGermans,in the name of His Greatness, Charles ".[79]From then on, a war of names about theNew Romerevolved around Roman imperial rights. Unable to deny that an emperor did exist in Constantinople, they sufficed in renouncing him as a successor of Roman heritage on the grounds thatGreekshave nothing to do with the Roman legacy. In 865,Pope Nicholas Iwrote to the EmperorMichael III:"You ceased to be called 'Emperor of the Romans' since the Romans, of whom you claim to be Emperor, are in fact according to you barbarians."[80]

Henceforth, the emperor in the East was known and referred to in the West asEmperor of the Greeksand their land asGreek Empire,reserving both "Roman" titles for the Frankish king. The interests of both sides were nominal rather than actual. No land areas were ever claimed, but the insult the Byzantines took on the accusation demonstrates how close at heart the Roman name (Ῥωμαῖος) had become to them. In fact, BishopLiutprand of Cremona,a delegate of the Frankish court, was briefly imprisoned in Constantinople for not referring to the Roman emperor,Nikephoros II Phokas,by his appropriate title,[81]and in reprisal for his king,Otto I,claiming the "Roman" title by styling himself asHoly Roman Emperor.

Revival in the meaning of "Hellene"

[edit]
The Entry of theCrusadersintoConstantinople,byEugène Delacroix,1840. The sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Crusaders acerbatedGreeknationalism and created disdain for the Latins which is well illustrated in the documents of the era.Niketas Choniatesportrays an especially lively account of the sack and its aftermath.

The secular use ofHellenerevived in the 9th century, after paganism had been eclipsed and was no longer a threat toChristianity's dominance. The revival followed the same track as its disappearance. The name had originally declined from a national term inantiquity,to a cultural term in the Hellenistic years, to a religious term in the earlyChristianyears. With the demise of paganism and the revival of learning in theByzantine Empireit had regained its cultural meaning, and finally, by the 11th century it had returned to its ancient national form of an "ethnic Greek", synonymous at the time to "Roman". After 1204, when the Empire consisted purely of Hellenic provinces, the term "Hellenes" was increasingly used instead.[82]

Accounts from the 11th century onward (fromAnna Komnene,Michael Psellos,John III Vatatzes,George Gemistos Plethonand several others) prove that the revival of the term Hellene (as a potential replacement for ethnic terms like Graikos and Romaios) did occur. For example, Anna Komnene writes of her contemporaries as Hellenes, but does not use the word as a synonym for a pagan worshiper. Moreover, Anna boasts about her Hellenic classical education, and she speaks as a native Greek and not as an outsider/foreigner who learned Greek.

The refounding of theUniversity of Constantinoplein the palaces ofMagnaurapromoted an interest in learning, particularly in Greek studies.Patriarch Photiuswas irritated because "Hellenic studies are preferred over spiritual works". Michael Psellos thought it a compliment when EmperorRomanos IIIpraised him for being raised "in the Hellenic way" and a weakness for EmperorMichael IVfor being completely devoid of a Hellenic education,[83]while Anna Komnene claimed that she had "carried the study of Hellenic to the highest pitch".[84]Also, commenting on the orphanage her father founded, she stated that "there could be seen a Latin being trained, and aScythianstudying Hellenic, and a Roman handling Hellenic texts and an illiterate Hellene speaking Hellenic correctly ".[85]In this case we reach a point where the Byzantines are Romans on the political level but Hellenic by descent.Eustathius of Thessalonicadisambiguates the distinction in his account of thesack of Thessaloniki in 1185by referring to the invaders with the generic term "Latins", encompassing all adherents to theRoman Catholic Church,and the "Hellenes" as the dominant population of the empire.[86]

After the fall of Constantinople to theCrusaders,Greek nationalism accentuated.Niketas Choniatesinsisted on using the name "Hellenes", stressing the outrages of the "Latins" against the "Hellenes" in thePeloponneseand how theAlfeios Rivermight carry the news to the barbarians inSicily,theNormans.[87]Nikephoros Blemmydesreferred to theByzantine emperorsas Hellenes,[88]andTheodore Alaniaswrote in a letter to his brother that "the homeland may have been captured, but Hellas still exists within every wise man".[89]The second Emperor of Nicaea,John III Doukas Vatatzes,wrote in a letter toPope Gregory IXabout the wisdom that "rains upon the Hellenic nation". He maintained that the transfer of the imperial authority from Rome to Constantinople was national and not geographic, and therefore did not belong to theLatinsoccupying Constantinople:Constantine'sheritage was passed on to the Hellenes, so he argued, and they alone were its inheritors and successors.[90]His son,Theodore II Laskaris,was eager to project the name of the Greeks with true nationalistic zeal. He made it a point that "the Hellenic race looms over all other languages" and that "every kind of philosophy and form of knowledge is a discovery of Hellenes […]. What do you, O Italian, have to display?"[91]

The evolution of the name was slow and did not replace the "Roman" name completely.Nikephoros Gregorasnamed his historical workRoman History.[92]EmperorJohn VI Kantakouzenos,a great supporter of Greek education, in his own memoirs always refers to the Byzantines as "Romans",[93]yet, in a letter sent by theMamluk sultan,An-Nasir Hasan,referred to him as "Emperor of the Hellenes,Bulgars,Sassanians,Vlachs,Russians,Alanians"but not of the" Romans ".[94]Over the next century, George Gemistos Plethon pointed out toConstantine XI Palaiologosthat the people he leads are "Hellenes, as their race and language and education testifies",[95]whileLaonicus Chalcondyleswas a proponent of completely substituting "Roman" terminology for "Greek" terminology.[96]Constantine Palaiologos himself in the end proclaimedConstantinoplethe "refuge for Christians, hope and delight of all Hellenes".[97]On the other hand, the same Emperor in his final speech before the Empire's demise called upon his audience to rally to the defenses by characteristically referring to them as "descendants of Hellenes and Romans", most possibly as an attempt to combine Greek national sentiment with the Roman tradition of the Byzantine crown and Empire, both highly respected elements in his subjects' psyche at that moment.

Byzantines (Βυζαντινοί)

[edit]

By the time of the fall of theWestern Roman Empiremost easterners had come to think of themselves as Christians and, more than ever before, as Romans. Although they may not have liked their government any more than they had previously, the Greeks among them could no longer consider it foreign, run by Latins from Italy. The wordHelleneitself had already begun to mean a pagan rather than a person of Greek race or culture. Instead eastern Greeks overwhelmingly used the self-identifying termRhomaios,"Roman".[98][99]

As early as the 7th century, "Byzantine" was occasionally used to refer to monastic communities associated but outside of the east-Roman capital in Constantinople.[100]

The term "Byzantine Empire" is commonly understood to have been introduced in 1557, about a century after theFall of Constantinople,by German historianHieronymus Wolf,who introduced a system of Byzantinehistoriographyin his workCorpus Historiae Byzantinaein order to distinguish ancient Roman from medieval Greek history without drawing attention to their ancient predecessors. According toAnthony Kaldellis,an AthenianLaonikos Chalkokondylesin the mid 15th century who advocated a neo-Hellenic identity of the Romans, was the first to use the term in this way.[101]Several authors adopted his terminology, but it remained relatively unknown. English historians preferred to use Roman terminology (Edward Gibbonused it in a particularly belittling manner), while French historians preferred to call it Greek.[102]The term reappeared in the mid-19th century and has since dominated completely in historiography, even in Greece, despite objections fromConstantine Paparregopoulos,Gibbon's influential Greek counterpart, that the empire should be called Greek. Few Greek scholars adopted the terminology at that time, but it became popular in the second half of the 20th century.[103]

Hellenic continuity and Byzantine consciousness

[edit]
Main article:Byzantine Greeks
The first printedCharterof the Greek Community ofTrieste,Italy 1787 – Archives of the Community of Trieste.

The "Byzantines" referred to themselves asRhomaioito retain both their Roman citizenship and their ancient Hellenic heritage. In fact, the overwhelming majority of the "Byzantines" themselves were also very conscious of their uninterrupted continuity with the ancient Greeks. Even though the ancient Greeks were not Christians, the "Byzantines" still regarded them as their ancestors. A common substitute for the termHellene,other thanRhomaios,was the termGraikos(Γραικός), a term that was used often by the "Byzantines" (along withRhomaios) for ethnic self-identification. Evidence of the use of the termGraikoscan be found in the works ofPriscus,a historian of the 5th century AD. He stated in one of his accounts that on an unofficial embassy to Attila the Hun, he had met at Attila's court someone who dressed like aScythianbut spoke Greek. When Priskos asked the person where he had learned the language, the man smiled and said that he was a Graekos by birth. Many other "Byzantine" authors speak of the Empire's natives as Greeks [Graikoi] or Hellenes such as Constantine Porphyrogennitos of the 10th century. His accounts discuss about the revolt of a Slavic tribe in the district of Patras in the Peloponnese. Constantine states that the Slavs who revolted first proceeded to sack the dwellings of their neighbors, the Greeks (ton Graikon) and then moved against the inhabitants of the city of Patras. Overall, ancient Hellenic continuity was evident throughout the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The "Byzantines" were not merely a general Orthodox Christian populace that referred to themselves as merely "Romans". They used the term for legal and administrative purposes, but other terms were used to distinguish themselves ethnically. In short, the Greek inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire were very conscious of their ancient Hellenic heritage and could preserve their identity while they adapted to the changes that the world was undergoing.[104][unreliable source]

Contest between the namesHellene,Roman,andGreek

[edit]

Following theOttoman conquest of Constantinopleand duringOttoman Greecea fierce ideological battle ensued regarding the three rival national names of the Greeks. This struggle may have settled down after theGreek War of Independencebut was permanently resolved only recently in the 20th century after the loss ofAsia Minorto theTurks.

The struggle reflected the diverging view of history betweenclassicistsandmedievalists(katharevousaanddemotic) in their attempt to define Greeknationalityat a time without aByzantinestate to foster the movement. The concept ofHellenefor a person of Greek origin was already well established from the lateMiddle Ages.However, for the majority of the population, especially those in rural areas away from urban centers, the dominant self-perception was still that ofRomaioiandGraikoi.[105]ScholarRigas Feraioscalled "Bulgars andArvanites,Armeniansand Romans "to rise in arms against the Ottomans.[106]GeneralMakrygiannisrecalled a friend asking him: "What say you, is the Roman State far away from coming? Are we to sleep with the Turks and awaken with the Romans?"[107]

Preference for the termGreek(Γραικός) was exhibited by scholars such asAdamantios Korais,a renowned Greek classicist, who justified his selection inA Dialogue between Two Greeks:"Our ancestors used to call themselves Greeks but adopted afterwards the name Hellenes by a Greek who called himselfHellen.One of the above two, therefore, is our true name. I approved 'Greece' because that is what all the enlightened nations of Europe call us. "[108]Hellenesfor Korais are the pre-Christian inhabitants of Greece.

The absence of a Byzantine state gradually led to the marginalization of the Roman name and allowedHellene(Ἕλλην) to resurface as the primary national name.Dionysius Pyrrhus[el]requests the exclusive use of Hellene in hisCheiragogy:"Never desire to call yourselves Romans, but Hellenes, for the Romans from ancient Rome enslaved and destroyed Hellas".[109]The anonymous author ofThe Hellenic Realm of Law,published in 1806 inPavia,Italy, speaks of Hellenes: "The time has come, O Hellenes, to liberate our home".[110]The leader of theGreek War of Independencebegan hisDeclarationwith a phrase similar to the above: "The time has come, O men, Hellenes".[111]After the name was accepted by the spiritual and political leadership of the land, it rapidly spread to the population, especially with the onset of the Greek War of Independence where many naïve leaders and war figures distinguished between idle Romans and rebellious Hellenes.[112]GeneralTheodoros Kolokotronisin particular made a point of always addressing his revolutionary troops as Hellenes and invariably wore ahelmetof ancient Greek style.

GeneralMakrygiannistells of a priest who performed his duty in front of the "Romans" (civilians) but secretly spied on the "Hellenes" (fighters). "Roman" almost came to be associated with passiveness and enslavement, and "Hellene" brought back the memory of ancient glories and the fight for freedom. Eyewitness historianAmbrosius Phrantzes[el]writes that while the Turkish authorities and colonists inNiokastrohad surrendered to the advancing Greek army, reportedly, shouts of defiance were made that led to theirmassacre by the mob:"They spoke to the petty and small Hellenes as 'Romans'. It was as if they called them 'slaves'! The Hellenes not bearing to hear the word, for it reminded of their situation and the outcome of tyranny […]"[113]

The citizens of the newly independent state were called "Hellenes" making the connection with ancient Greece all the more clear. That in turn also fostered a fixation on antiquity and negligence for the other periods of history, especially theByzantine Empire,for an age that bore different names and was a devisor to different and in many ways more important legacies. The classicist trend was soon balanced by theGreek Great Ideathat sought to recoverConstantinopleand reestablish the Byzantine Empire for all Greeks. As the Prime Minister,Ioannis Kolettis,proclaimed in front of Parliament in 1844, "TheKingdom of Greeceis not Greece; it is only part of it, a small and poor part of Greece […]. There are two great centers ofHellenism.Athens is the capital of the Kingdom. Constantinople is the great capital, the City, dream and hope of all Greeks. "[114]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^C. Mossé. (1984).La Grèce archaïque d'Homère à Eschyle.Editions du Seuil, Paris, p. 12.
  2. ^Those who believe that the stories of the Trojan War are derived from a specific historical conflict usually date it to the 12th or 11th centuries BC, often preferring the dates given by Eratosthenes, 1194–1184 BC, which roughly corresponds with archaeological evidence of a catastrophic burning of Troy VIIa.
  3. ^Johannes Engels (2010). "Macedonians and Greeks". In Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington'sA Companion to Ancient Macedonia,Oxford, Chichester & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 81–98.
  4. ^Braun, T.F.R.G. (1982)."The Greeks in the Near East".InBoardman, John;Hammond, N. G. L.(eds.).The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume III, Part 3: The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries B.C.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1.ISBN978-0-5212-3447-4.
  5. ^Newmark, Leonard (2005)."Albanian-English Dictionary".Slavic and Eurasian Language Resource Center (Duke University).Ella'dhënf (Old)Greece = Greqi'
  6. ^A comprehensive overview in J. T. Hooker.Mycenean Greece(1976,22014), especially Chapter 2, "Before the Mycenenan Age", pp. 11–33 and passim; for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and favoring an autochthonous scenario see, C. Renfrew. "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Authochous origin" in: R. A. Crossland & A. Birchall (eds.).Bronze age Migrations(1974), pp. 263–275, especially p. 267.
  7. ^Chadwick, John(1976).The Mycenaean world.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.1–3.ISBN0-521-29037-6.
  8. ^O. R. Gurney (1975).The Hittites.Oxford University Press, p. 15.
  9. ^C. Mossé. (1984).La Grèce archaïque d'Homère à Eschyle.Editions du Seuil, Paris, pp. 16, 18.
  10. ^Aeschines, II (On the Embassy), 115; see alsoStrabo,IX.3.7, andPausanias,X.8.2–5.
  11. ^Translation of the Sins of MadduwattaArchivedFebruary 28, 2007, at theWayback Machine
  12. ^Translation of the Tawagalawa LetterArchived2013-10-21 at theWayback Machine
  13. ^Huxley, George Leonard (1960).Achaeans and Hittites.Oxford: Vincent Baxter Press.
  14. ^Güterbock, Hans G. (April 1983). "The Hittites and the Aegean World: Part 1. The Ahhiyawa Problem Reconsidered".American Journal of Archaeology.87(2). Archaeological Institute of America: 133–138.doi:10.2307/504928.JSTOR504928.S2CID191376388.
  15. ^Mellink, Machteld J. (April 1983). "The Hittites and the Aegean World: Part 2. Archaeological Comments on Ahhiyawa-Achaians in Western Anatolia".American Journal of Archaeology.87(2). Archaeological Institute of America: 138–141.doi:10.2307/504929.JSTOR504929.S2CID194070218.
  16. ^Windle, Joachim Latacz (2004).Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-926308-0.
  17. ^Kelder, Jorrit M. (2010)."The Egyptian Interest in Mycenaean Greece".Jaarbericht "Ex Oriente Lux" (JEOL).42:125–140.
  18. ^abPaul Cartledge.Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 23: "The late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does in fact apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'." Counted, excluding hisCatalogue of Ships.
  19. ^Homer.Iliad,2.155–175,4.8;Odyssey,8.578,4.6.
  20. ^SeeIliad,II.2.530 for "Panhellenes" andIliadII.2.684 for "Hellenes".
  21. ^Nagy 2014,Texts and Commentaries – Introduction #2: "Panhellenism is the least common denominator of ancient Greek civilization...
  22. ^Robert S. P. Beekes(2009).Etymological Dictionary of Greek.Entry "Selloi"[permanent dead link‍].
  23. ^Aristotle,Meteorologica,I, 352b.
  24. ^Homer (Iliad,16.233–235) writes ofAchillespraying to the DodonianZeus:' "King Zeus", he cried, "lord of Dodona, god of thePelasgi,who dwellest afar, you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway, where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you with their feet unwashed and their couches made upon the ground "'.
  25. ^Compare Fontenrose,p. 236.
  26. ^SeeLiddell & Scott,"Ὠγύγιος".
  27. ^Homer.Iliad,2.681–685.
  28. ^abThe Parian Marble, Entry No. 6: "From when Hellen (Έλλην) [son of] Deuc[alion] became king of [Phthi]otis and those previously calledGraikoiwere named Hellenes "(online text).
  29. ^abPseudo-Apollodorus,Bibliotheca1.7.2.
  30. ^Aeschines,II (On the Embassy), 115.Pausanias.Description of Greece,8.2–5.
  31. ^abRobert S. P. Beekes(2009).Etymological Dictionary of Greek.Leiden: Brill, p. 267.
  32. ^abcdGreekentry in Douglas Harper'sOnline Etymology Dictionary.
  33. ^Aristotle.Meteorologica,I.XIV.
  34. ^Homer,Iliad,II, 498.
  35. ^Pausanias,Periegesis,book 5, p. 136.
  36. ^Malkin, Irad (1998).The Returns of Odysseus: Colonization and Ethnicity.University of California Press.p. 148-149.ISBN978-0-520-92026-2.
  37. ^Palmer, Leonard Robert (1988).The Latin Language.University of Oklahoma Press. p. 40.ISBN0-8061-2136-X.
  38. ^Campbell, Duncan R. J. (2009).The so-called Galatae, Celts, and Gauls in the Early Hellenistic Balkans and the Attack on Delphi in 280–279 BC(Thesis). University of Leicester. p. 120 including footnote 59.
  39. ^N. G. L. Hammond (1966). "The Kingdoms in Illyria circa 400–167 BC",Annual of the British School at Athens,61: 239–253}}
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  41. ^Pausanias."Description of Greece", 10.7.6:
    ...μαρτυρεῖ δέ μοι καὶ τοῦ Ἐχεμβρότου τὸ ἀνάθημα, τρίπους χαλκοῦς ἀνατεθεὶς τῷ Ἡρακλεῖ τῷ ἐν Θήβαις: ἐπίγραμμα δὲ ὁ τρίπους εἶχεν: ...testimony of the dedication of Echembrotus, a coppertripod,dedicated to Hercules the Thebean; this tripod had thisepigram:
    "Ἐχέμβροτος Ἀρκὰς θῆκε τῷ Ἡρακλεῖ "EchembrotusfromArcadia,dedicated (this) toHercules,
    νικήσας τόδ' ἄγαλμ' Ἀμφικτυόνων ἐν ἀέθλοις, having won this statue in the Amphictyonic Games,
    Ἕλλησιδ' ἀείδων μέλεα καὶ ἐλέγους. " singingto the Greekstunes and lamentations. "
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  43. ^Thucydides.Histories,I.132.
  44. ^Jacob Burckhardt (1999) [1872].The Greeks and Greek Civilization.New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 168.
  45. ^The Macedonians were Persian subjects at this time but their King, Alexander I, secretly pursued a pro-Hellenic policy. See Herodotus,Histories,IX.45.
  46. ^In respect to the kingdom of Macedon, participation was originally limited to the Argead kings such as Alexander I, Archelaus I and Philip II. Onwards from the age of Alexander I, participation of ordinary Macedonians in the Olympic Games became common.
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  49. ^Thucydides.History,II.68.9, II.80.5 and I.47.3.
  50. ^Thucydides.History,II.80.5.
  51. ^See discussion in Chapter 5 of Jonathan Hall'sHellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture,Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002.
  52. ^J. Juthner.Hellenen and Barbaren.Leipzig 1928, p. 4.
  53. ^Oxford English Dictionary(2nd Edition), 1989, "barbarous" (entry)
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  55. ^Herodotus.Histories,II.158.
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  57. ^Aristophanes.The Clouds,492.
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  63. ^Saint Paul,Acts of the Apostles,13:48, 15:3 and 7:12,Galatians3:28.
  64. ^New Testament.Gospel of Mark,7.26.
  65. ^Aristides,Apology.
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  67. ^Pope Gregory.Against Julian,1.88.
  68. ^Suda Dictionary, entry τ (t)
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  75. ^Kaldellis, Anthony (2008).Hellenism in Byzantium.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 63, 374, 355.ISBN978-1-139-46842-8.
  76. ^Isaac Tzetzes; John Tzetzes; Lycophron; Christian Gottfried Müller (1811).Isaakiou kai Iōannou tou Tzetzou Scholia eis Lykophrona.Sumtibus F.C.G. Vogelii. p.179.
  77. ^Procopius.Gothic War,III.1 andVandal War,I.21.
  78. ^Lambru.Palaeologeia and Peloponnesiaka,3.152.
  79. ^Pope Innocent.Decretalium,Romanourm imperium in persona magnifici Caroli a Grecis transtuli in Germanos.
  80. ^Epistola86, of year 865,PL119, 926.
  81. ^Liutprand,Antapodosis
  82. ^Nicol, Donald M. (30 December 1967)."The Byzantine View of Western Europe".Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies.8(4): 318.ISSN2159-3159.Archivedfrom the original on 30 April 2018.Retrieved10 September2018.
  83. ^Romanus III.Towards the son of Romanus himself,p. 49.
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  85. ^Anna Komnene.Alexiad,15.7.
  86. ^Espugnazione di Thessalonica,Palermo 1961, p. 32.
  87. ^Niketas Choniates.The Sack of Constantinople,Bonn, p. 806.
  88. ^Nikephoros Blemmydes.Partial Narration,1.4.
  89. ^Theodore Alanias,PG140, 414.
  90. ^John Vatatzes.Ανέκδοτος επιστολή του Αυτοκράτορος Ιωάννου Δούκα Βατάτση προς τον Πάπαν Γρηγόριον, ανεβρεθείσα εν Πάτμω(= "Unpublished Letters of Emperor John Vatatzes to Pope Gregory, discovered in Patmos" ), inAthenaionI (1872), pp. 369–378 (in Greek).
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  92. ^Nikephoros Gregoras,Roman History.
  93. ^John Kantakouzenos.History,4.14.
  94. ^Similar texts were composed by the scribes of the kings in the north such as Russia, Poland, Lithuania, etc.
  95. ^George Gemistos Plethon inPalaiologeia kai Peloponnesiaka,p. 247.
  96. ^Laonicus Chalcondyles,HistoryI.
  97. ^George Phrantzes.History,3.6.
  98. ^Warren Treadgold (1997).History of the Byzantine State and Society.Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 136.
  99. ^Gill Page (2008).Being Byzantine: Greek Identity Before the Ottomans.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 6.
  100. ^Theodoropoulos, Panagiotis (April 2021)."Did the Byzantines call themselves Byzantines? Elements of Eastern Roman identity in the imperial discourse of the seventh century".Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies.45(1): 25–41.doi:10.1017/byz.2020.28.ISSN0307-0131.S2CID232344683.
  101. ^Kaldellis, Anthony (2022). "From" Empire of the Greeks "to" Byzantium "".In Ransohoff, Jake; Aschenbrenner, Nathanael (eds.).The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe.Harvard University Press. pp. 349–367.ISBN978-0-88402-484-2.
  102. ^Edward Gibbon,Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;Alexandre Rambeau,L'empire Grecque au Xesiecle.
  103. ^Ῥωμαῖος (Roman) remained a popular name for a Greek in Greece even after the foundation of the modern Greek state in 1829.Argyris Eftaliotispublished his history of Greece series in 1901 under the title "History of Romanity", reflecting how well rooted Roman heritage still was in Greeks.
  104. ^Constantelos, Demetrios J. (12 September 2004)."Christian Hellenism and How the Byzantines Saw Themselves".Orthodox News.The National Herald. Archived fromthe originalon 25 May 2006.Retrieved19 September2008.
  105. ^Kakavas, George (2002).Post-Byzantium: The Greek Renaissance 15th–18th Century Treasures from the Byzantine & Christian Museum,Athens. Athens, Greece: Hellenic Ministry of Culture, p. 29.
  106. ^Rigas Feraios,Thurius,Line 45.
  107. ^Strategus Makrygiannis,Memoirs,Book 1, Athens 1849, p. 117.
  108. ^Adamantios Korais.Dialogue between two Greeks,Venice, 1805, p. 37.
  109. ^Dionysius Pyrrhus.Cheiragogy,Venice, 1810.
  110. ^Hellenic Prefecture,Athens, 1948, p. 191.
  111. ^Ioannes Philemon (Ιωάννης Φιλήμων, 1799–1874).Δοκίμιον ιστορικόν περί της ελληνικής Επαναστάσεως(= "Historical Essay on the Greek Revolution" ), Vol. 2. Athens 1859, p. 79 (in Greek;digitized versions).
  112. ^Ioannis Kakrides.Ancient Greeks and Greeks of 1821,Thessalonike, 1956.
  113. ^Ambrosius Phrantzes (Αμβρόσιος Φραντζής, 1778–1851).Επιτομή της Ιστορίας της Αναγεννηθείσης Ελλάδος(= "Abridged history of the Revived Greece" ), vol. 1. Athens 1839, p. 398 ([2]).
  114. ^Hamilakis, Yannis (2007).The Nation and Its Ruins: Antiquity, Archaeology, and National Imagination in Greece.Oxford University Press. pp. 114–115.

Sources

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Bibliography

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In English

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  • John Romanides,"Romanity, Romania, Rum", Thessalonike, 1974
  • Steven Runciman,"Byzantine and Hellene in the 14th century"

In other languages

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  • Panagiotis Christou,The Adventures of the National Names of the Greeks,Thessalonike, 1964
  • Antonios Hatzis,Elle, Hellas, Hellene,Athens, 1935–1936
  • J. Juthner,Hellenen und Barbaren,Leipzig, 1923
  • Basileios A. Mystakides,Αι λέξεις Έλλην, Γραικός (Γραικύλος), Ρωμαίος (Γραικορρωμαίος), Βυζαντινός, Μωαμεθανός, Τούρκος,Istanbul, 1920
  • Ioannis Kakrides,Ancient Greeks and Greeks of 1821,Athens, 1956
  • A. Rambeau,"L'empire Grecque au X' siecle"
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Look upGreekorΓραικόςin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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