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Right-wing politicsis the range ofpolitical ideologiesthat view certainsocial ordersandhierarchiesas inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable,[1][2][3]typically supporting this position based onnatural law,economics,authority,property,religion,biology,ortradition.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10]Hierarchy andinequalitymay be seen as natural results of traditional social differences[11][12]or competition inmarket economies.[13][14][15]

Right-wing politics are considered the counterpart toleft-wing politics,and theleft–right political spectrumis one of the most commonpolitical spectrums.[16]The right includessocial conservativesandfiscal conservatives[17][18][19]as well asright-libertarians."Right" and "right-wing" have been variously used as compliments andpejorativesdescribingneoliberal,conservative,andfascisteconomic and social ideas.[20]

Positions[edit]

The following positions are typically associated with right-wing politics.

Anti-communism[edit]

The original use of the term "right-wing", relative tocommunism,placed the conservatives on the right, the liberals in the centre and the communists on the left. Both the conservatives and the liberals were stronglyanti-communist,although conservatives' anti-communism is much stronger than liberals'. The history of the use of the termright-wingabout anti-communism is a complicated one.[21]

Early Marxist movements were at odds with the traditional monarchies that ruled over much of theEuropeancontinent at the time. Many European monarchies outlawed the public expression of communist views and theCommunist Manifesto,which began "[a] spectre [that] is haunting Europe", and stated that monarchs feared for their thrones. Advocacy of communism was illegal in theRussian Empire,theGerman Empire,andAustria-Hungary,the three most powerful monarchies in continental Europe beforeWorld War I.Many monarchists (exceptconstitutional monarchists) viewed inequality in wealth and political power as resulting from a divine natural order. The struggle between monarchists and communists was often described as a struggle between the Right and the Left.

Anti-communistpropaganda poster depicting theWhite movement.which says "For a united Russia", 1919

ByWorld War I,in most European monarchies thedivine right of kingshad become discredited and was replaced byliberalandnationalistmovements. Most European monarchs became figureheads, or they yielded some power to elected governments. The most conservative European monarchy, the Russian Empire, was replaced by the communistSoviet Union.TheRussian Revolutioninspired a series of othercommunist revolutions across Europe in the years 1917–1923.Many of these, such as theGerman Revolution,were defeated by nationalist and monarchist military units. During this period, nationalism began to be considered right-wing, especially when it opposed the internationalism of the communists.

The 1920s and 1930s saw the decline of traditional right-wing politics. The mantle of conservative anti-communism was taken up by the risingfascistmovements on the one hand and by American-inspiredliberal conservativeson the other. When communist groups and political parties began appearing around the world, their opponents were usuallycolonial authoritiesand the termright-wingcame to be applied tocolonialism.

AfterWorld War II,communism became a global phenomenon and anti-communism became an integral part of the domestic and foreign policies of theUnited Statesand itsNATOallies. Conservatism in the post-war era abandoned its monarchist and aristocratic roots, focusing instead on patriotism, religious values, and nationalism. Throughout theCold War,postcolonial governments inAsia,Africa,andLatin Americaturned to the United States for political and economic support. Communists were also enemies of capitalism, portrayingWall Streetas the oppressor of the masses. The United States made anti-communism the top priority of its foreign policy, and many American conservatives sought to combat what they saw as communist influence at home. This led to the adoption of several domestic policies that are collectively known under the termMcCarthyism.While both liberals and conservatives were anti-communist, the followers of Senator McCarthy were calledright-wingand those on the right called liberals who favored free speech, even for communists,leftist.[22]

Economics[edit]

Main articles:CapitalismandCorporatism
Plato(left) andAristotle(right)

Early forms of corporatism would be developed inClassical Greeceand used inAncient Rome.Plato would develop the ideas oftotalitarianandcommunitariancorporatist systems of natural based classes and social hierarchies that would be organized based on function, such that groups would cooperate to achieve social harmony by emphasizingcollectivesinterests overindividualinterests.[23][24]Corporatism as apolitical ideologyadvocates the organization of society bycorporate groups—such as agricultural, labour, military, scientific, or guild associations—based on their common interests.[25][26]

After thedecline of the Western Roman Empirecorporatism became limited toreligious ordersand to the idea ofChristian brotherhood,especially in the context of economic transactions.[24]From theHigh Middle Agesonwards corporatist organizations became increasingly common in Europe, including such groups as religious orders,monasteries,fraternities,military orderssuch as theKnights Templarand theTeutonic Order,educational organizations such as the emerginguniversitiesandlearned societies,thecharteredtownsandcities,and most notably theguild systemwhich dominated the economics of population centers inEurope.[24]

In post-revolutionary France, the Right fought against the rising power of those who had grown rich through commerce, and sought to preserve the rights of the hereditary nobility. They were uncomfortable with capitalism, the Enlightenment, individualism, and industrialism, and fought to retain traditional social hierarchies and institutions.[27][28]In Europe's history, there have been strongcollectivistright-wing movements, such as in thesocial Catholic right,that have exhibited hostility to all forms ofliberalism(includingeconomic liberalism) and have historically advocated for paternalist class harmony involving an organic-hierarchical society where workers are protected while class hierarchy remains.[29]

In the nineteenth century, the Right had shifted to support the newly rich in some European countries (particularly Britain) and instead of favouring the nobility over industrialists, favoured capitalists over the working class. Other right-wing movements—such asCarlismin Spain and nationalist movements in France, Germany, and Russia—remained hostile to capitalism and industrialism. Nevertheless, a few right-wing movements—notably the FrenchNouvelle Droite,CasaPound,and Americanpaleoconservatism—are often in opposition to capitalist ethics and the effects they have on society. These forces see capitalism and industrialism as infringing upon or causing the decay of social traditions or hierarchies that are essential for social order.[30]

In modern times, "right-wing" is sometimes used to describelaissez-fairecapitalism.In Europe, capitalists formed alliances with the Right during their conflicts with workers after 1848. In France, the Right's support of capitalism can be traced to the late nineteenth century.[31]The so-calledneoliberalRight, popularised byUS PresidentRonald ReaganandUK Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher,combines support forfree markets,privatisation,andderegulationwith traditional right-wing support for social conformity.[9]Right-wing libertarianism(sometimes known aslibertarian conservatismorconservative libertarianism) supports a decentralised economy based oneconomic freedomand holdsproperty rights,free markets,andfree tradeto be the most important kinds of freedom. Political theorist Russell Kirk believed that freedom and property rights were interlinked.[32]

Nationalism[edit]

Main articles:NationalismandNeo-nationalism

In France,nationalismwas originally a left-wing and republican ideology.[33]Afterthe period ofboulangismeand theDreyfus Affair,nationalism became a trait of the right-wing.[34]Right-wing nationalists sought to define and defend a "true" national identity from elements which they believed were corrupting that identity.[31]Some weresupremacists,who in accordance withscientific racismandsocial Darwinismapplied the concept of "survival of the fittest"tonationsandraces.[35]Right-wing nationalism was influenced byRomantic nationalism,in which the state derives its political legitimacy from the organic unity of those who it governs. This generally includes the language, race, culture, religion, and customs of the nation, all of which were "born" within its culture. Linked with right-wing nationalism iscultural conservatism,which supports the preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture and often sees deviations from cultural norms as an existential threat.[36][page needed]

In the 21st centuryNeo-nationalismcame to prominence in the post-cold warwestern world.Thisideologyis typically associated with cultural conservatism,populism,anti-globalization,andnativismand isopposed to immigration.Neo-nationalism takes historical association in determining membership in anation,rather thanracial concepts.[37][38]

Natural law and traditionalism[edit]

Right-wing politics typically justifies a hierarchical society based onnatural lawortradition.[6][7][8][9][10][39]

Traditionalism was advocated by a group of United States university professors (labelled the "New Conservatives" by the popular press) who rejected the concepts ofindividualism,liberalism,modernity,andsocial progress,seeking instead to promote what they identified as cultural and educational renewal[40]and a revived interest in concepts perceived by traditionalists as truths that endure from age to age alongside basic institutions of western society such as the church, the family, the state, and business.

Populism[edit]

Main article:Right-wing populism
Tea Party protesters walk towards theUnited States Capitolduring theTaxpayer March on Washington,12 September 2009.

Right-wing populismis a combination ofcivic-nationalism,cultural-nationalismand sometimesethno-nationalism,localism,along withanti-elitism,using populist rhetoric to provide a critique of existing political institutions.[41]According to Margaret Canovan, a right-wing populist is "a charismatic leader, using the tactics of politicians' populism to go past the politicians and intellectual elite and appeal to the reactionary sentiments of the populace, often buttressing his claim to speak for the people by the use of referendums".[42][page needed]

In Europe, right-wing populism often takes the form of distrust of theEuropean Union,and of politicians in general, combined withanti-immigrantrhetoric and a call for a return to traditional, national values.[43]Daniel Stockemer states, the radical right is, "Targeting immigrants as a threat to employment, security and cultural cohesion."[44]

In the United States, theTea Party movementstated that the core beliefs for membership were the primacy of individual liberties as defined by the Constitution of the United States, preference for a small federal government, and respect for the rule of law. Some policy positions included opposition to illegal immigration and support for a strong national military force, the right to individual gun ownership, cutting taxes, reducing government spending, and balancing the budget.[45]

Religion[edit]

MaharajadhirajaPrithvi Narayan Shah(1723–1775),King of Nepal,propagated the ideals of theHindu texttheDharmasastraas his kingdom's ruling ideology.

Philosopher and diplomatJoseph de Maistreargued for the indirect authority of thePopeover temporal matters. According to Maistre, only governments which were founded upon Christian constitutions—which were implicit in the customs and institutions of all European societies, especially theCatholicEuropean monarchies—could avoid the disorder and bloodshed that followed the implementation ofrationalistpolitical programs, such as the chaos which occurred during theFrench Revolution.Some prelates of theChurch of England–established byHenry VIIIand headed by the current sovereign—are given seats in theHouse of Lords(asLords Spiritual), but they are considered politically neutral rather than specifically right- or left-wing.

American right-wing media outlets oppose sex outside marriage andsame-sex marriage,and they sometimes reject scientific positions onevolutionand other matters where science tends to disagree with theBible.[46][47]

The termfamily valueshas been used by right-wing parties—such as theRepublican Partyin the United States, theFamily First Partyin Australia, theConservative Partyin the United Kingdom, and theBharatiya Janata Partyin India—to signify support for traditional families and opposition to the changes the modern world has made in how families live. Supporters of "family values" may opposeabortion,euthanasia,andbirth control.[48][49]

Outside the West, theHindu nationalist movementhas attracted privileged groups which fear encroachment on their dominant positions, as well as "plebeian" and impoverished groups which seek recognition around a majoritarian rhetoric of cultural pride, order, and national strength.[50]

In Israel,Meir Kahaneadvocated that Israel should be atheocratic state,where non-Jewshave no voting rights,[51]and the far-rightLehavastrictly opposes Jewish assimilation and the Christian presence in Israel.[52]TheJewish Defence League(JDL) in the United States was classified as "a right wing terrorist group" by the FBI in 2001.[53]

ManyIslamistgroups have been called right-wing, including theGreat Union Party,[54]theCombatant Clergy Association/Association of Militant Clergy,[55][56]and theIslamic Society of Engineersof Iran.[57][58]

Social stratification[edit]

Russell Kirk, 1963

Right-wing politics involves, in varying degrees, the rejection of someegalitarianobjectives ofleft-wing politics,claiming either thatsocialoreconomic inequalityis natural and inevitable or that it is beneficial to society.[39]Right-wing ideologies and movements supportsocial order.The original French right-wing was called "the party of order" and held that France needed a strong political leader to keep order.[31]

Conservative British scholar R. J. White, who rejects egalitarianism, wrote: "Men are equal before God and the laws, but unequal in all else; hierarchy is the order of nature, and privilege is the reward of honourable service".[59]American conservativeRussell Kirkalso rejected egalitarianism as imposing sameness, stating: "Men are created different; and a government that ignores this law becomes an unjust government for it sacrifices nobility to mediocrity".[59]Kirk took as one of the "canons" of conservatism the principle that "civilized society requires orders and classes".[32]Italian scholarNorberto Bobbioargued that the right-wing is inegalitarian compared to the left-wing, as he argued that equality is a relative, not absolute, concept.[60]

Right libertariansreject collective or state-imposed equality as undermining reward for personal merit, initiative, and enterprise.[59]In their view, such imposed equality is unjust, limits personal freedom, and leads to social uniformity and mediocrity.[59]

In the view of philosopherJason StanleyinHow Fascism Works,the "politics of hierarchy" is one of the hallmarks offascism,which refers to a "glorious past" in which members of the rightfully dominant group sat atop the hierarchy, and attempt to recreate this state of being.[61]

History[edit]

According toThe Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought,the Right has gone through five distinct historical stages:[62]

  1. The reactionary right sought a return toaristocracyandestablished religion.
  2. The moderate right distrusted intellectuals and sought limited government.
  3. The radical right favored aromanticand aggressive form ofnationalism.
  4. The extreme right proposedanti-immigrationpolicies and implicitracism.
  5. Theneo-liberalright sought to combine a market economy and economic deregulation with the traditional right-wing beliefs inpatriotism,elitism and law and order.[10][page needed]

The political termsLeftandRightwere first used in the 18th century, during theFrench Revolution,referencing the seating arrangement of theFrench parliament.Those who sat to the right of the chair of the presiding officer (le président) were generally supportive of the institutions of themonarchistOld Regime.[27][63][64][31]The original "Right" in France was formed in reaction to the "Left" and comprised those supporting hierarchy, tradition, andclericalism.[5]: 693 The expressionla droite( "the right" ) increased in use after therestoration of the monarchy in 1815,when it was applied to theultra-royalists.[65]

From the 1830s to the 1880s, theWestern world'ssocial classstructure and economy shifted fromnobilityandaristocracytowardscapitalism.[66]This shift affectedcentre-rightmovements such as theBritish Conservative Party,which responded supporting capitalism.[67]

The people ofEnglish-speaking countriesdid not apply the termsrightandleftto their politics until the 20th century.[68]The termright-wingwas originally applied totraditional conservatives,monarchists,and reactionaries; a revision of this which occurred sometime between the 1920s and 1950s considers thefar-righttodenotefascism,Nazism,andracial supremacy.[69]

Rightist regimes were common in Europe in theInterwar period,1919–1938.[citation needed]

China[edit]

Republic of China (1912–1949)[edit]

AmongKuomintang(KMT)'s conservatives during theRepublic of China,Dai Jitao Thoughtsupporters formed theWestern Hills Groupin the1920s.

Chiang Kai-shekinitially claimed himself as a 'centrist' in the KMT left-right conflict, but became an anti-communist right-wing afterShanghai massacre.Chiangism(or 'Chiang Kai-shek Thought') was related toConfucianism,state capitalism,paternalistic conservatism,andChinese nationalism(which includedfascisticelements).

People's Republic of China[edit]

See also:Neoauthoritarianism (China)

TheChinese Communist Party(CCP) describes itself asMarxist,and has not officially abandoned leftist ideology,Marxism–Leninism,orsocialism with Chinese characteristics.Christer Pursiainen has characterized the CCP as a right-wing political party,[70]pointing to an ideological change within the party underJiang Zemin's leadership during the 1990s.[70]

France[edit]

See also:Left–right politics

The political termright-wingwas first used during theFrench Revolution,whenliberaldeputies of theThird Estategenerally sat to the left of the presiding officer's chair, a custom that began in theEstates Generalof 1789. The nobility, members of theSecond Estate,generally sat to the right. In the successivelegislative assemblies,monarchistswho supported theOld Regimewere commonly referred to as rightists because they sat on the right side. A major figure on the right wasJoseph de Maistre,who argued for anauthoritarianform ofconservatism.

ThroughoutFrance in the 19th century,the main line dividing the left and right was between supporters of the republic and those of the monarchy, who were often secularist and Catholic respectively.[31]On the right, theLegitimistsandUltra-royalistsheldcounter-revolutionaryviews, while theOrléanistshoped to create aconstitutional monarchyunder their preferred branch of the royal family, which briefly became a reality after the 1830July Revolution.

The centre-right Gaullists in post-World War II France advocated considerable social spending on education and infrastructure development as well as extensive economic regulation, but limited the wealth redistribution measures characteristic ofsocial democracy.[citation needed]

Hungary[edit]

The dominance of the political right ofinter-war Hungary,after the collapse of a short-lived Communist regime, was described by historianIstván Deák:

Between 1919 and 1944 Hungary was a rightist country. Forged out of a counter-revolutionary heritage, its governments advocated a "nationalist Christian" policy; they extolled heroism, faith, and unity; they despised the French Revolution, and they spurned the liberal and socialist ideologies of the 19th century. The governments saw Hungary as a bulwark againstbolshevismand bolshevism's instruments:socialism,cosmopolitanism,andFreemasonry.They perpetrated the rule of a small clique of aristocrats, civil servants, and army officers, and surrounded with adulation the head of the state, the counterrevolutionaryAdmiral Horthy.[71]

India[edit]

Althoughfreedom fightersare favoured, the right-wing tendency to elect or appoint politicians and government officials based on aristocratic and religious ties is common to almost all the states of India.[72][73][74][75]Multiple political parties however identify with terms and beliefs which are, by political consensus, right or left wing. Certain political parties such as theBharatiya Janata Party,identify with conservative[76]and nationalist elements. Some, such as theIndian National Congress,take a liberal stance. TheCommunist Party of India,Communist Party of India (Marxist),and others, identify with left-wing socialist and communist concepts. Other political parties take differing stands, and hence cannot be clearly grouped as the left- and the right-wing.[77]

United Kingdom[edit]

1909Conservative Partyposter

In British politics, the termsrightandleftcame into common use for the first time in the late 1930s during debates over theSpanish Civil War.[78]

United States[edit]

Americananti-communistpropagandaof the 1950s, specifically addressing the entertainment industry

In the United States, following theSecond World War,social conservatives joined with right-wing elements of theRepublican Partyto gain support in traditionallyDemocraticvoting populations like white southerners andCatholics.Ronald Reagan'selection to the presidency in 1980 cemented the alliance between thereligious right in the United Statesand social conservatives.[79]

In 2019, the United States populace leanedcenter-right,with 37% of Americans self-identifying asconservative,compared to 35% moderate and 24%liberal.This was continuing a decades long trend of the country leaning center-right.[80]

TheUnited States Department of Homeland Securitydefines right-wing extremism in the United States as "broadly divided into those groups, movements, and adherents that are primarily hate-oriented (based on hatred of particular religious, racial or ethnic groups), and those that are mainly anti-government, rejecting federal authority in favor of state or local authority, or rejecting government authority entirely. It may include groups and individuals that are dedicated to a single issue, such as opposition to abortion or immigration."[81]

Types[edit]

The meaning of right-wing "varies across societies, historical epochs, and political systems and ideologies."[82]According toThe Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics,in liberal democracies, the political right opposessocialismandsocial democracy.Right-wing parties includeconservatives,Christian democrats,classical liberals,andnationalists,as well asfascistson thefar-right.[83]

British academicsNoël O'SullivanandRoger Eatwelldivide the right into five types: reactionary, moderate, radical, extreme, and new.[84]Chip Berletwrote that each of these "styles of thought" are "responses to the left", including liberalism and socialism, which have arisen since the 1789 French Revolution.[85]

  1. The reactionary right looks toward the past and is "aristocratic, religious and authoritarian".[85]
  2. The moderate right, typified by the writings ofEdmund Burke,is tolerant of change, provided it is gradual and accepts some aspects of liberalism, including the rule of law and capitalism, although it sees radicallaissez-faireand individualism as harmful to society. The moderate right often promotes nationalism and social welfare policies.[86]
  3. Radical rightis a descriptive term that was developed after World War II and it was applied to groups and ideologies such asMcCarthyism,theJohn Birch Society,Thatcherism,and theRepublikaner Party.Eatwell stresses that this usage of the term has "major typological problems" because it "has also been applied to clearly democratic developments."[87]The radical right includesright-wing populismand various other subtypes.[85]
  4. Theextreme righthas four traits: "1)anti-democracy,2)ultranationalism,3)racism,and 4) the strong state. "[88]
  5. TheNew Rightconsists of theliberal conservatives,who stresssmall government,free markets,and individual initiative.[89]

Other authors make a distinction between the centre-right and the far-right.[90]

  • Parties of the centre-right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy (though they may accept government regulation to control monopolies), private property rights, and a limited welfare state (for example, government provision of education and medical care). They support conservatism and economic liberalism and oppose socialism and communism.
  • By contrast, the phrase "far-right" is used to describe those who favor an absolutist government, which uses the power of the state to support the dominant ethnic group or religion and criminalize other ethnic groups or religions.[91][92][93][94][95]Typical examples of leaders to whom the far-right label is often applied are:Francisco FrancoinSpain,Benito MussoliniinItaly,Adolf HitlerinNazi Germany,Augusto PinochetinChile,andJorge Rafael VidelainArgentina.[96][97][42][page needed][98][99][100]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Johnson, Paul (2005)."Right-wing, rightist".A Politics Glossary.Auburn University website. Archived fromthe originalon 19 August 2014.Retrieved23 October2014.
  2. ^Bobbio, Norberto; Cameron, Allan (1996).Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction.Chicago:University of Chicago Press.pp. 51, 62.ISBN978-0-226-06246-4.
  3. ^Goldthorpe, J.E. (1985).An Introduction to Sociology(Third ed.). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.p. 156.ISBN978-0-521-24545-6.
  4. ^"Right".Encyclopædia Britannica.15 April 2009.Retrieved22 May2022.
  5. ^abCarlisle, Rodney P. (2005).Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and the Right.Thousand Oaks [u.a.]:SAGE Publishing.ISBN978-1-4129-0409-4.
  6. ^abT. Alexander Smith, Raymond Tatalovich.Cultures at war: moral conflicts in western democracies.Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press, Ltd, 2003. p. 30. "That viewpoint is held by contemporary sociologists, for whom 'right-wing movements' are conceptualized as 'social movements whose stated goals are to maintain structures of order, status, honor, or traditional social differences or values' as compared to left-wing movements which seek 'greater equality or political participation.' In other words, the sociological perspective sees preservationist politics as a right-wing attempt to defend privilege within thesocial hierarchy."
  7. ^abLeft and right: the significance of a political distinction,Norberto Bobbio and Allan Cameron, p. 37,University of Chicago Press,1997.
  8. ^abSeymour Martin Lipset,cited in Fuchs, D., and Klingemann, H. 1990. The left-right schema. pp. 203–34 in Continuities in Political Action: A Longitudinal Study of Political Orientations in Three Western Democracies, ed.M.Jennings et al. Berlin:de Gruyter
  9. ^abcLukes, Steven. 'Epilogue: The Grand Dichotomy of the Twentieth Century': concluding chapter to T. Ball and R. Bellamy (eds.), The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought. pp.610–612
  10. ^abcClark, William Roberts (2003).Capitalism, Not Globalism: Capital Mobility, Central Bank Independence, and the Political Control of the Economy([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Ann Arbor [u.a.]:University of Michigan Press.ISBN978-0-472-11293-7.[page needed]
  11. ^Smith, T. Alexander and Raymond Tatalovich.Cultures at War: Moral Conflicts in Western Democracies(Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press, Ltd., 2003) p. 30. "That viewpoint is held by contemporary sociologists, for whom 'right-wing movements' are conceptualized as 'social movements whose stated goals are to maintain structures of order, status, honor, or traditional social differences or values' as compared to left-wing movements which seek 'greater equality or political participation.'
  12. ^Gidron, N; Ziblatt, D. (2019)."Center-right political parties in advanced democracies 2019"(PDF).Annual Review of Political Science.22:23.doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-090717-092750.Defining the right by its adherence to the status quo is closely associated with a definition of the right as a defense of inequality (Bobbio 1996, Jost 2009, Luna & Kaltwasser 2014). As noted by Jost (2009), within the context of Western political development, opposition to change is often synonymous with support for inequality. Notwithstanding its prominence in the literature, we are hesitant to adopt this definition of the right since it requires the researcher to interpret ideological claims according to an abstract understanding of equality. For instance, Noel & Therien (2008) argue that right-wing opposition to affirmative action speaks in the name of equality and rejects positive discrimination based on demographic factors. From this perspective, the right is not inegalitarian but is "differently egalitarian" (Noel & Therien 2008, p. 18).
  13. ^Scruton, Roger "A Dictionary of Political Thought" "Defined by contrast to (or perhaps more accurately conflict with) the left the termrightdoes not even have the respectability of a history. As now used it denotes several connected and also conflicting ideas (including) 1)conservative, and perhaps authoritarian, doctrines concerning the nature of civil society, with emphasis on custom, tradition, and allegiance as social bonds... 8) belief in free enterprise free markets and a capitalist economy as the only mode of production compatible with human freedom and suited to the temporary nature of human aspirations... "pp. 281–2, Macmillan, 1996
  14. ^Goldthorpe, J.E. (1985).An Introduction to Sociology(3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 156.ISBN978-0-521-24545-6.There are... those who accept inequality as natural, normal, and even desirable. Two main lines of thought converge on the Right or conservative side...the truly Conservative view is that there is a natural hierarchy of skills and talents in which some people are born leaders, whether by heredity or family tradition.... now... the more usual right-wing view, which may be called 'liberal-conservative', is that unequal rewards are right and desirable so long as the competition for wealth and power is a fair one.
  15. ^Gidron, N; Ziblatt, D. (2019)."Center-right political parties in advanced democracies 2019"(PDF).Annual Review of Political Science.22:24.doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-090717-092750.S2CID182421002....since different currents within the right are drawn to different visions of societal structures. For example, market liberals see social relations as stratified by natural economic inequalities.
  16. ^McClosky, Herbert; Chong, Dennis (July 1985)."Similarities and Differences Between Left-Wing and Right-Wing Radicals".British Journal of Political Science.15(3): 329–363.doi:10.1017/S0007123400004221.ISSN1469-2112.S2CID154330828.
  17. ^Leonard V. Kaplan, Rudy Koshar,The Weimar Moment: Liberalism, Political Theology, and Law(2012) p. 7–8.
  18. ^Alan S. Kahan,Mind Vs. Money: The War Between Intellectuals and Capitalism(2010), p. 184.
  19. ^Jerome L. Himmelstein,To the right: The transformation of American conservatism(1992).
  20. ^Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006).The Desk Encyclopedia of World History.New York:Oxford University Press.pp. 370, 541.ISBN978-0-7394-7809-7.
  21. ^Hendershot, Cyndy (2003).Anti-Communism and Popular Culture in Mid-Century America.Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.ISBN978-0786414406.
  22. ^Nunberg, Geoffrey (17 April 2003)."Sticks and Stones; The Defanging of a Radical Epithet".The New York Times.
  23. ^Adler, Franklin Hugh.Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism: The Political Development of the Industrial Bourgeoisie, 1906–34.p. 349.
  24. ^abcWiarda, Howard J. (1997).Corporatism and comparative politics: the other great "ism".Comparative politics series. Armonk, NY: Sharpe.ISBN978-1-56324-716-3.
  25. ^Wiarda, Howard J. (1997).Corporatism and Comparative Politics: The Other Great "Ism".M.E. Sharpe. pp. 27, 141.
  26. ^Clarke, Paul A. B; Foweraker, Joe.Encyclopedia of democratic thought.London, UK; New York, US: Routledge, 2001. Pp. 113
  27. ^abGoodsell, Charles T., "The Architecture of Parliaments: Legislative Houses and Political Culture", British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 18, No. 3 (July 1988), pp. 287–302.
  28. ^Marty, Martin E.; Appleby, R. Scott (1994).Fundamentalisms Observed(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 91.ISBN978-0-226-50878-8.Reactionary right-wing themes emphasizing authority, social hierarchy, and obedience, as well as condemnations of liberalism, the democratic ethos, the "rights of man" associated with the legacy of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, and the political and cultural ethos of modern liberal democracy are especially prominent in the writings and public statements of Archbishop Lefebvre.
  29. ^Modern Catholic Social Teaching: The Popes Confront the Industrial Age,1740–1958. Paulist Press, 2003, p. 132.
  30. ^Payne, Stanley G. (1983).Fascism: Comparison and Definition.Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 19.ISBN978-0-299-08064-8.Right radicals and conservative authoritarians almost without exception became corporatists in formal doctrines of political economy, but the fascists were less explicit and in general less schematic.
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Further reading[edit]

  • Bacchetta, Paola, and Margaret Power, eds. 2002.Right-Wing Women: From Conservatives to Extremists around the World.New York: Routledge.
  • Berlet, Chip. 2006. "When Alienation turns Right." InThe Evolution of Alienation: Trauma, Promise, and the Millennium,edited by Langman, Lauren, and Kalekin-Fishman. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN0-7425-1835-3,ISBN978-0-7425-1835-3
  • Davies, Peter. 2002.The Extreme Right in France, 1789 to the Present: From De Maistre to Le Pen.New York, NY: Routledge.ISBN0-415-23982-6,ISBN978-0-415-23982-0.
  • Eatwell, Roger. 1999. "Conclusion: The 'End of Ideology'." InContemporary Political Ideologies,edited by R. Eatwell and A. Wright. Continuum International Publishing Group.ISBN0-8264-5173-X,ISBN9780826451736.
  • —— 2004. "Introduction: the new extreme right challenge." InWestern Democracies and the new Extreme Right Challenge,edited byR. EatwellandC. Muddle.London: Routledge.ISBN0-415-36971-1,ISBN978-0-415-36971-8
  • Fielitz, Maik, and Laura Lotte Laloire, eds. 2016.Trouble on the Far Right. Contemporary Right-Wing Strategies and Practices in Europe.Bielefeld: transcript.ISBN978-3-8376-3720-5
  • Gottlieb, Julie, and Clarisse Berethezéne, eds. 2017.Rethinking right-wing women: Gender and the Conservative Party, 1880s to the present.
  • Miles, Michael W. (1980).The Odyssey of the American Right.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN9780195027747.

External links[edit]

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