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Rwanda

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Coordinates:2°S30°E/ 2°S 30°E/-2; 30
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Republic of Rwanda
Repubulika y'u Rwanda(Kinyarwanda)
République du Rwanda(French)
Jamhuri ya Rwanda(Swahili)
Motto:"Ubumwe, Umurimo, Gukunda Igihugu"
(English: "Unity, Work, Patriotism" )
(French: "Unité, Travail, Patriotisme" )
(Swahili: "Umoja, Kazi, Uzalendo" )
Anthem:"Rwanda Nziza"
(English:"Beautiful Rwanda")
Location of Rwanda (dark blue) in Africa (light blue)
Location of Rwanda (dark blue)

inAfrica(light blue)

Capital
and largest city
Kigali
1°56′38″S30°3′34″E/ 1.94389°S 30.05944°E/-1.94389; 30.05944
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(1994)
Religion
Demonym(s)
  • Rwandan
  • Rwandese
GovernmentUnitarypresidential republicunder anauthoritariandictatorship[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Paul Kagame
Édouard Ngirente
LegislatureParliament
•Upper house
Senate
•Lower house
Chamber of Deputies
Formation
15th century
1897–1916
• Part ofRuanda-Urundi
1916–1962
1959–1961
1 July 1961
• Independence fromBelgium
1 July 1962
• Admitted to theUN
18 September 1962
26 May 2003
Area
• Total
26,338 km2(10,169 sq mi) (144th)
• Water (%)
5.3
Population
• 2024 estimate
13,623,302[9](76th)
• Density
517/km2(1,339.0/sq mi) (22nd)
GDP(PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase$42.346 billion[10](139th)
• Per capita
Increase$3,136[10](165th)
GDP(nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase$13.927 billion[10](129th)
• Per capita
Increase$1,031[10](167th)
Gini(2016)43.7[11]
medium inequality
HDI(2022)Increase0.548[12]
low(161st)
CurrencyRwandan franc(RWF)
Time zoneUTC+2(CAT)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Drives onright
Calling code+250
ISO 3166 codeRW
Internet TLD.rw

Rwanda,[a]officially theRepublic of Rwanda,is alandlocked countryin theGreat Rift ValleyofEast Africa,where theAfrican Great Lakesregion andSoutheast Africaconverge. Located a few degrees south of theEquator,Rwanda is bordered byUganda,Tanzania,Burundi,and theDemocratic Republic of the Congo.It is highly elevated, giving it thesobriquet"land of a thousand hills" (French:pays des mille collines), with its geography dominated by mountains in the west andsavannato the southeast, with numerous lakes throughout the country. The climate is temperate to subtropical, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons each year. It is the most densely populated mainland African country; among countries larger than 10,000 km2,it is the fifth-most densely populated country in the world. Itscapitaland largest city isKigali.

Hunter-gathererssettled the territory in theStoneandIron Ages,followed later byBantu peoples.The population coalesced first intoclans,and then into kingdoms. In the 15th century, one kingdom, under King Gihanga, managed to incorporate several of its close neighbor territories establishing theKingdom of Rwanda.The Kingdom of Rwanda dominated from the mid-eighteenth century, with the Tutsi kings conquering others militarily, centralising power, and enacting unifying policies. In 1897,Germanycolonized Rwanda as part ofGerman East Africa,followed byBelgium,which took control in 1916 duringWorld War I.Both European nations ruled through the Rwandan king and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi policy. The Hutu populationrevoltedin 1959. They massacred numerous Tutsi and ultimately established an independent, Hutu-dominated republic in 1962 led by PresidentGrégoire Kayibanda.A1973 military coupoverthrew Kayibanda and broughtJuvénal Habyarimanato power, who retained the pro-Hutu policy. The Tutsi-ledRwandan Patriotic Front(RPF) launched acivil warin 1990. Habyarimana wasassassinatedin April 1994. Social tensions erupted in theRwandan genocidethat spanned one hundred days. The RPF ended the genocide with a military victory in July 1994.

Rwanda has been governed by the RPF as ade factoone-party statesince 1994 with former commanderPaul Kagameas President since 2000. The country has been governed by a series of centralizedauthoritarian governmentssince precolonial times. Although Rwanda has low levels of corruption compared with neighbouring countries, it ranks among the lowest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties and quality of life. The population isyoungand predominantly rural; Rwanda has one of the youngest populations in the world. Rwandans are drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, theBanyarwanda.However, within this group there are three subgroups: theHutu,TutsiandTwa.The Twa are a forest-dwellingpygmy peopleand are often considered descendants of Rwanda's earliest inhabitants. Christianity is the largest religion in the country; the principal and national language isKinyarwanda,spoken by native Rwandans, with English, French and Swahili serving as additional official foreign languages.

Rwanda's economy is based mostly onsubsistence agriculture.Coffeeandteaare the majorcash cropsthat it exports.Tourismis a fast-growing sector and is now the country's leading foreign exchange earner. As of the most recent survey in 2019/20, 48.8% of the population is affected bymultidimensional povertyand an additional 22.7% vulnerable to it. The country is a member of theAfrican Union,theUnited Nations,theCommonwealth of Nations(one of few member states that does not have any historical links with theBritish Empire),COMESA,OIFand theEast African Community.

History

Main articles:History of Rwanda,German East Africa,andRuanda-Urundi

Modern human settlement of what is now Rwanda dates from, at the latest, thelast glacial period,either in theNeolithicperiod around 8000 BC, or in thelong humid periodwhich followed, up to around 3000 BC.[15]Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement byhunter-gatherersin the lateStone Age,followed by a larger population of earlyIron Agesettlers, who produced dimpledpotteryand iron tools.[16][17]These early inhabitants were the ancestors of theTwa,aboriginalpygmyhunter-gatherers who remain in Rwanda today.[18]Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number ofBantugroups migrated into Rwanda, clearing forest land for agriculture.[18][19]The forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and moved to the mountain slopes.[20]Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations; one theory is that the first settlers wereHutu,while theTutsimigrated later to form a distinct racial group, possibly of Nilo-hamitic origin.[21]An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into rather than conquering the existing society.[18][22]Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was a class distinction rather than a racial one.[23][24]

A reconstruction of the ancient King's Palace atNyanza

The earliest form of social organisation in the area was theclan(ubwoko).[25]The clans were not limited to genealogical lineages or geographical area, and most included Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.[26]From the 15th century, the clans began to merge into kingdoms.[27]One kingdom, under King Gihanga, managed to incorporate several of its close neighbor territories establishing theKingdom of Rwanda.By 1700, around eight kingdoms had existed in the present-day Rwanda.[28]One of these, theKingdom of Rwandaruled by the TutsiNyiginyaclan, became increasingly dominant from the mid-eighteenth century.[29]The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the nineteenth century under the reign of KingKigeli Rwabugiri.Rwabugiri conquered several smaller states, expanded the kingdom west and north,[29][30]and initiated administrative reforms; these includedubuhake,in which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service,[31]anduburetwa,acorvéesystem in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs.[30]Rwabugiri's changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.[30]The Twa were better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal court,[20]but their numbers continued to decline.[32]

TheBerlin Conferenceof 1884 assigned the territory to theGerman Empire,who declared it to be part ofGerman East Africa.In 1894, explorerGustav Adolf von Götzenwas the first European to cross the entire territory of Rwanda; he crossed from the south-east to Lake Kivu and met the king.[33][34]In 1897, Germany established a presence in Rwanda with the formation of an alliance with the king, beginning the colonial era.[35]The Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted influence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy, and delegating power to local chiefs.[36][37]Belgianforces invaded Rwanda andBurundiin 1916, duringWorld War I,and later, in 1922, they started to rule both Rwanda and Burundi as aLeague of Nations mandatecalledRuanda-Urundiand started a period of more direct colonial rule.[38]The Belgians simplified and centralised the power structure,[39]introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works, and agricultural supervision, including new crops and improved agricultural techniques to try to reduce the incidence of famine.[40]Both the Germans and the Belgians, in the wake ofNew Imperialism,promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and Tutsi differentraces.[41]In 1935, Belgium introduced an identity card system, which labelled each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had been previously possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the classes.[42]

Photograph of President Juvénal Habyarimana arriving with entourage at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, USA on 25 September 1980.
Juvénal Habyarimana,president from 1973 to 1994

Belgium continued to ruleRuanda-Urundi(of which Rwanda formed the northern part) as aUN trust territoryafter theSecond World War,with a mandate to oversee eventualindependence.[43][44]Tensions escalated between the Tutsi, who favoured early independence, and the Hutu emancipation movement, culminating in the 1959Rwandan Revolution:Hutu activists began killing Tutsi and destroying their houses,[45]forcing more than 100,000 people to seek refuge in neighbouring countries.[46][47]In 1961, the suddenly pro-Hutu Belgians helda referendumin which the country voted to abolish the monarchy. Rwanda was separated from Burundi and gained independence on 1 July 1962,[48]which is commemorated as Independence Day, a national holiday.[49]Cycles of violence followed, with exiled Tutsi attacking from neighbouring countries and the Hutu retaliating with large-scale slaughter and repression of the Tutsi.[50]In 1973,Juvénal Habyarimanatook power ina military coup.Pro-Hutu discrimination continued, but there was greater economic prosperity and a reduced amount of violence against Tutsi.[51]The Twa remained marginalised, and by 1990 were almost entirely forced out of the forests by the government; many became beggars.[52]Rwanda's population had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to 7.1 million in 1989, leading to competition for land.[53]

Human skulls at theNyamataGenocide Memorial

In 1990, theRwandan Patriotic Front(RPF), a rebel group composed of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda from their base in Uganda, initiating theRwandan Civil War.[54]The group condemned the Hutu-dominated government for failing to democratize and confront the problems facing these refugees. Neither side was able to gain a decisive advantage in the war,[55]but by 1992 it had weakened Habyarimana's authority; mass demonstrations forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and eventually to sign the 1993Arusha Accordswith the RPF.[56]The cease-fire ended on 6 April 1994 whenHabyarimana's plane was shot downnear Kigali Airport, killing him.[57]The shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for theRwandan genocide,which began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000[58]Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well-planned attacks on the orders of the interim government.[59]Many Twa were also killed, despite not being directly targeted.[52]

The Tutsi RPF restarted their offensive, and took control of the country methodically, gaining control of the whole country by mid-July.[60]The international response to the genocide was limited, with major powers reluctant to strengthen the already overstretchedUN peacekeeping force.[61]When the RPF took over, approximately two million Hutufled to neighbouring countries,in particularZaïre,fearing reprisals;[62]additionally, the RPF-led army was a key belligerent in theFirstandSecond Congo Wars.[63]Within Rwanda, a period of reconciliation and justice began, with the establishment of theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda(ICTR) and the reintroduction ofGacaca,a traditional village court system.[64]Since 2000 Rwanda's economy,[65]tourist numbers,[66]andHuman Development Indexhave grown rapidly;[67]between 2006 and 2011 the poverty rate reduced from 57% to 45%,[68]whilelife expectancyrose from 46.6 years in 2000[69]to 65.4 years in 2021.[70]

In 2009, Rwanda joined theCommonwealth of Nationsalthough the country was never part of theBritish Empire.

Politics and government

Main articles:Politics of Rwanda,Foreign relations of Rwanda,andRwanda Defence Force
Photograph of Paul Kagame, taken in Busan, South Korea, in 2014
Rwandan PresidentPaul Kagame

Rwanda is ade factoone-party state[3][4][5][6][7][8]ruled by theRwandan Patriotic Front(RPF) and its leaderPaul Kagamecontinuously since the end of the civil war in 1994.[71][72]Although Rwanda is nominally democratic, elections are manipulated in various ways, which include banning opposition parties, arresting or assassinating critics, andelectoral fraud.[73]The RPF is a Tutsi-dominated party but receives support from other communities as well.[74]

The constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional constitution which had been in place since 1994.[75]The constitution mandates a multi-party system of government, with politics based on democracy and elections.[76]However, the constitution places conditions on how political parties may operate. Article 54 states that "political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex, religion or any other division which may give rise to discrimination".[77]Thepresident of Rwandais thehead of state,[78]and has broad powers including creating policy in conjunction with theCabinet of Rwanda,[79]commanding thearmed forces,[80]negotiating and ratifying treaties,[81]signing presidential orders,[82]and declaring war or a state of emergency.[80]The president is electedevery seven years,[83]and appoints theprime ministerand all other members of the Cabinet.[84]TheParliamentconsists of twochambers.It makes legislation and is empowered by the constitution to oversee the activities of the president and the Cabinet.[85]The lower chamber is theChamber of Deputies,which has 80 members serving five-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats are reserved for women, elected through a joint assembly of local government officials; another three seats are reserved for youth and disabled members; the remaining 53 are elected byuniversal suffrageunder aproportional representationsystem.[86]

Photograph of the Chamber of Deputies with highway in the foreground
Chamber of Deputies building

Rwanda's legal system is largely based onGermanandBelgiancivil lawsystems andcustomary law.[70]The judiciary is independent of the executive branch,[87]although the president and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court judges.[88]Human Rights Watch has praised the Rwandan government for progress made in the delivery of justice including the abolition of the death penalty,[89]but also alleges interference in the judicial system by members of the government, such as the politically motivated appointment of judges, misuse of prosecutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.[90]The constitution provides for two types of courts: ordinary and specialised.[91]Ordinary courts are theSupreme Court,theHigh Court,and regional courts, while specialised courts are military courts[91]and a system of commercial courts created in 2011 to expedite commercial litigations.[92]Between 2004 and 2012, a system ofGacacacourtswas in operation.[93]Gacaca,a Rwandan traditional court operated by villages and communities, was revived to expedite the trials of genocide suspects.[94]The court succeeded in clearing the backlog of genocide cases, but was criticised by human rights groups as not meeting legal fair standard.[95]

Rwanda has low corruption levels relative to most other African countries; in 2014,Transparency Internationalranked Rwanda as the fifth-cleanest out of 47 countries inSub-Saharan Africaand 55th-cleanest out of 175 in the world.[96][97]The constitution provides for anombudsman,whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption.[98][99]Public officials (including the president) are required by the constitution to declare their wealth to the ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comply are suspended from office.[100]Despite this, Human Rights Watch notes extensive political repression throughout the country, including illegal and arbitrary detention, threats or other forms of intimidation, disappearances, politically motivated trials, and the massacre of peacefully protesting civilians.[101]

Rwanda is a member of theUnited Nations,[102]African Union,Francophonie,[103]East African Community,[104]and theCommonwealth of Nations.[105]For many years during the Habyarimana regime, the country maintained close ties with France, as well as Belgium, the former colonial power.[106]Under the RPF government, however, Rwanda has sought closer ties with neighbouring countries in the East African Community and with the English-speaking world. Diplomatic relations with France were suspended in 2006 following the indictment of Rwandan officials by a French judge,[107]and despite their restoration in 2010, as of 2015relations between the countries remain strained.[108]Relations with theDemocratic Republic of the Congowere tense following Rwanda's involvement in theFirstandSecond Congo Wars;[63]the Congolese army alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blamed the Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels inNorthandSouth Kivuprovinces.[109][110]In 2010, the United Nations released a report accusing the Rwandan army of committing wide scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during theFirstandSecond Congo Wars,charges denied by the Rwandan government.[111]Relations soured further in 2012, as Kinshasa accused Rwanda of supporting theM23 rebellion,an insurgency in the eastern Congo.[112]As of 2015,peace has been restored and relations are improving.[113]

Rwanda's relationship withUgandawas also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the two countries' armies as they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo War,[114]but improved significantly in the early 2010s.[115][116]In 2019, relations between the two countries deteriorated, with Rwanda closing its borders with Uganda.[117][118]

Administrative divisions

Further information:Decentralization in Rwanda
Main article:Provinces of Rwanda
Map of Rwanda showing the five provinces in various colours, as well as major cities, lakes, rivers, and areas of neighbouring countries
Provinces of Rwanda

Before western colonization, the Rwandan government system had a quasi-system of political pluralism and power sharing.[119]Despite there being a strict hierarchy, the pre-colonial system achieved an established, combined system of "centralized power and decentralized autonomous units." Under the monarch, the elected Chief governed a province that was divided into multiple districts. Two other officials appointed by head Chief governed the districts; one official was allocated power over the land while the other oversaw cattle. Theking(mwami) exercised control through a system of provinces, districts, hills, and neighbourhoods.[120] As of 2003, the constitutiondividedRwanda intoprovinces(intara),districts(uturere), cities, municipalities, towns,sectors(imirenge), cells (utugari), and villages (imidugudu); the larger divisions, and their borders, are established by Parliament.[121]In January 2006, Rwanda was reorganized such that twelve provinces were merged to create five, and 106 districts were merged into thirty.[122]The present borders drawn in 2006 aimed at decentralising power and removing associations with the old system and the genocide. The previous structure of twelve provinces associated with the largest cities was replaced with five provinces based primarily on geography.[123]These areNorthern Province,Southern Province,Eastern Province,Western Province,and the Municipality of Kigali in the centre.

The five provinces act as intermediaries between the national government and their constituent districts to ensure that national policies are implemented at the district level. The Rwanda Decentralisation Strategic Framework developed by the Ministry of Local Government assigns to provinces the responsibility for "coordinating governance issues in the Province, as well as monitoring and evaluation".[124]Each province is headed by a governor, appointed by the president and approved by the Senate.[125]The districts are responsible for coordinating public service delivery and economic development. They are divided into sectors, which are responsible for the delivery of public services as mandated by the districts.[126]Districts and sectors have directly elected councils, and are run by an executive committee selected by that council.[127]The cells and villages are the smallest political units, providing a link between the people and the sectors.[126]All adult resident citizens are members of their local cell council, from which an executive committee is elected.[127]The city ofKigaliis a provincial-level authority, which coordinates urban planning within the city.[124]

Geography

Main article:Geography of Rwanda
Topography of Rwanda

At 26,338 square kilometres (10,169 sq mi), Rwanda is the world's 149th-largest country,[128]and the fourth smallest on the African mainland afterGambia,Eswatini,andDjibouti.[128]It is comparable in size toBurundi,HaitiandAlbania.[70][129]The entire country is at a high altitude: thelowest pointis theRusizi Riverat 950 metres (3,117 ft) above sea level.[70]Rwanda is located in Central/Eastern Africa, and is bordered by theDemocratic Republic of the Congoto the west,Ugandato the north,Tanzaniato the east, andBurundito the south.[70]It lies a few degrees south of theequatorand islandlocked.[130]The capital, Kigali, is located near the centre of Rwanda.[131]

Thewatershedbetween the majorCongoandNiledrainage basinsruns from north to south through Rwanda, with around 80% of the country's area draining into the Nile and 20% into the Congo via theRusizi RiverandLake Tanganyika.[132]The country's longest river is theNyabarongo,which rises in the south-west, flows north, east, and southeast before merging with theRuvubuto form theKagera;the Kagera then flows due north along the eastern border with Tanzania. The Nyabarongo-Kagera eventually drains intoLake Victoria,and its source in Nyungwe Forest is a contender for the as-yet undetermined overallsourceof theNile.[133]Rwanda has many lakes, the largest beingLake Kivu.This lake occupies the floor of theAlbertine Riftalong most of the length of Rwanda's western border, and with a maximum depth of 480 metres (1,575 ft),[134]it is one of the twentydeepest lakes in the world.[135]Other sizeable lakes includeBurera,Ruhondo,Muhazi,Rweru,andIhema,the last being the largest of a string of lakes in the eastern plains ofAkagera National Park.[136]

Mountains dominate central and western Rwanda and the country is sometimes called "Pays des mille collines"in French (" Land of a thousand hills ").[137]They are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the Albertine branch of theEast African Rift,which runs from north to south along Rwanda's western border.[138]The highest peaks are found in theVirungavolcano chain in the northwest; this includesMount Karisimbi,Rwanda's highest point, at 4,507 metres (14,787 ft).[139]This western section of the country lies within theAlbertine Rift montane forestsecoregion.[138]It has an elevation of 1,500 to 2,500 metres (4,921 to 8,202 ft).[140]The centre of the country is predominantly rolling hills, while the eastern border region consists ofsavanna,plains and swamps.[141]

Climate

Photograph of a lake with one of the Virunga mountains behind, partially in cloud
Lake and volcano in theVirunga Mountains

Rwanda has atemperatetropical highlandclimate, with lower temperatures than are typical for equatorial countries because of its high elevation.[130]Kigali, in the centre of the country, has a typical daily temperature range between 15 and 28 °C (59 and 82 °F), with little variation through the year.[142]There are some temperature variations across the country; the mountainous west and north are generally cooler than the lower-lying east.[143]There are two rainy seasons in the year; the first runs from February to June and the second from September to December. These are separated by twodry seasons:the major one from June to September, during which there is often no rain at all, and a shorter and less severe one from December to February.[144]Rainfall varies geographically, with the west and northwest of the country receiving more precipitation annually than the east and southeast.[145]Global warminghas caused a change in the pattern of the rainy seasons. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group, change in climate has reduced the number of rainy days experienced during a year, but has also caused an increase in frequency of torrential rains.[146]Both changes have caused difficulty for farmers, decreasing their productivity.[147]Strategic Foresight also characterise Rwanda as a fast warming country, with an increase in average temperature of between 0.7 °C to 0.9 °C over fifty years.[146]

Biodiversity

Main article:Wildlife of Rwanda
Volcanoes National Parkis the home of the largest population ofmountain gorillasin the world.

In prehistoric timesmontane forestoccupied one-third of the territory of present-day Rwanda. Naturally occurring vegetation is now mostly restricted to thethree national parks,withterraced agriculturedominating the rest of the country.[148]Nyungwe,the largest remaining tract of forest, contains 200 species of tree as well asorchidsandbegonias.[149]Vegetation in theVolcanoes National Parkis mostlybambooand moorland, with small areas of forest.[148]By contrast, Akagera has asavannaecosystem in whichacaciadominates the flora. There are several rare or endangered plant species in Akagera, includingMarkhamia luteaandEulophia guineensis.[150][151]

The greatest diversity of large mammals is found in the three national parks, which are designated conservation areas.[152]Akagera contains typical savanna animals such as giraffes and elephants,[153]while Volcanoes is home to an estimated one-third of the worldwidemountain gorillapopulation.[154]Nyungwe Forest boasts thirteen primate species includingcommon chimpanzeesandRuwenzori colobusarboreal monkeys; the Ruwenzori colobus move in groups of up to 400 individuals, the largest troop size of any primate in Africa.[155]

Giraffe in Akagera National Park

Rwanda's population oflionswas destroyed in the aftermath of the genocide of 1994, as national parks were turned into camps for displaced people and the remaining animals were poisoned by cattle herders. In June 2015, two South African parks donated seven lions toAkagera National Park,reestablishing a lion population in Rwanda.[156]The lions were held initially in a fenced-off area of the park, and then collared and released into the wild a month later.[157]

Eighteen endangered black rhinos were brought to Rwanda in 2017 from South Africa.[158]After positive results, five more black rhinos were delivered to Akagera National Park from zoos all over Europe in 2019.[159]

Similarly, the white rhino population is growing in Rwanda. In 2021, Rwanda received 30 white rhinos from South Africa with the goal of Akagera being a safe breeding ground for the near-threatened species.[160][161]

There are 670bird species in Rwanda,with variation between the east and the west.[162]Nyungwe Forest, in the west, has 280 recorded species, of which 26 are endemic to the Albertine Rift;[162]endemic species include theRwenzori turacoandhandsome spurfowl.[163]Eastern Rwanda, by contrast, features savanna birds such as theblack-headed gonolekand those associated with swamps and lakes, includingstorksandcranes.[162]

Recent entomological work in the country has revealed a rich diversity ofpraying mantises,[164]including a new speciesDystacta tigrifrutex,dubbed the "bush tiger mantis".[165]

Rwanda contains three terrestrial ecoregions:Albertine Rift montane forests,Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic,andRuwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands.[166]The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 3.85/10, ranking it 139th globally out of 172 countries.[167]

Economy

Main article:Economy of Rwanda

Rwanda's economy suffered heavily during the 1994 genocide, with widespread loss of life, failure to maintain infrastructure, looting, and neglect of important cash crops. This caused a large drop in GDP and destroyed the country's ability to attract private and external investment.[70]The economy has since strengthened, with per-capitanominal GDPestimated at$909.9 in 2022,[168]compared with $127 in 1994.[169]As of the most recent survey in 2019/20, 48.8% of the population continues to be affected bymultidimensional povertyand an additional 22.7% vulnerable to it.[170]Major export markets include China, Germany, and the United States.[70]The economy is managed by the centralNational Bank of Rwandaand the currency is theRwandan franc;in December 2023, the exchange rate was 1250 francs to one United States dollar.[171]Rwanda joined theEast African Communityin 2007, and has ratified a plan formonetary unionamongst the seven member nations,[172]which could eventually lead to a commonEast African shilling.[173]

Rwanda is a country of few natural resources,[130]and the economy is based mostly onsubsistence agricultureby local farmers using simple tools.[174]An estimated 90% of the working population farms, and agriculture constituted an estimated 32.5% of GDP in 2014.[70]Farming techniques are basic, with small plots of land and steep slopes.[175]Since the mid-1980s, farm sizes and food production have been decreasing, due in part to the resettlement of displaced people.[176][130]Despite Rwanda's fertile ecosystem, food production often does not keep pace with population growth, and food imports are required.[70]However, in recent years with the growth of agriculture, the situation has improved.[177]

Rwanda produced 2.6 million tonnes of banana in 2019, its largest cash crop.[178]

Subsistence crops grown in the country includematoke(green bananas), which occupy more than a third of the country's farmland,[175]potatoes,beans,sweet potatoes,cassava,wheatandmaize.[175]Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export, with the high altitudes, steep slopes and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions.[175]Reports have established that more than 400,000 Rwandans make their living from coffee plantation.[179]Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to shifts in their prices.[180]Animals raised in Rwanda include cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken, and rabbits, with geographical variation in the numbers of each.[181]Production systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms around Kigali.[181]Shortages of land and water, insufficient and poor-quality feed, and regular disease epidemics with insufficient veterinary services are major constraints that restrict output. Fishing takes place on the country's lakes, but stocks are very depleted, and live fish are being imported in an attempt to revive the industry.[182]

The industrial sector is small, contributing 14.8% of GDP in 2014.[70]Products manufactured include cement, agricultural products, small-scale beverages, soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods, textiles and cigarettes.[70]Rwanda's mining industry is an important contributor, generating US$93 million in 2008.[183]Minerals mined includecassiterite,wolframite,gold, andcoltan,which is used in the manufacture of electronic and communication devices such as mobile phones.[183][184]

Rwanda'sservice sectorsuffered during thelate-2000s recessionas bank lending, foreign aid projects and investment were reduced.[185]The sector rebounded in 2010, becoming the country's largest sector by economic output and contributing 43.6% of the country's GDP.[70]Key tertiary contributors include banking and finance, wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, transport, storage, communication, insurance, real estate, business services and public administration including education and health.[185]

Tourismis one of the fastest-growing economic resources and became the country's leading foreign exchange earner in 2007.[186]In spite of the genocide's legacy, the country is increasingly perceived internationally as a safe destination.[187]The number of tourist arrivals in 2013 was 864,000 people, up from 504,000 in 2010.[66]Revenue from tourism was US$303 million in 2014, up from just US$62 million in 2000.[188]The largest contributor to this revenue wasmountain gorillatracking, in the Volcanoes National Park;[188]Rwanda is one of only three countries in whichmountain gorillascan be visited safely; the gorillas attract thousands of visitors per year, who are prepared to pay high prices for permits.[189]Other attractions include Nyungwe Forest, home to chimpanzees, Ruwenzori colobus and other primates, the resorts of Lake Kivu, and Akagera, a smallsavanna reservein the east of the country.[190]

Rwanda was ranked 103rd in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2023.[191]

Media and communications

Main articles:Telecommunications in RwandaandMedia of Rwanda

The largest radio and television stations are state-run, and the majority of newspapers are owned by the government.[192]Most Rwandans have access to radio; during the 1994 genocide, the radio stationRadio Télévision Libre des Mille Collinesbroadcast across the country, and helped to fuel the killings through anti-Tutsi propaganda.[192]As of 2015,the state-runRadio Rwandawas the largest station and the main source of news throughout the country.[192]Television access is limited, with most homes not having their own set.[193]The government rolled outdigital televisionin 2014, and a year later there were seven national stations operating, up from just one in the pre-2014 analogue era.[194]The press is tightly restricted, and newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.[192]Nonetheless, publications in Kinyarwanda, English, and French critical of the government are widely available in Kigali. Restrictions were increased in the run-up to the Rwandan presidential election of 2010, with two independent newspapers,UmusesoandUmuvugizi,being suspended for six months by theHigh Media Council.[195]

The country's oldest telecommunications group,Rwandatel,went into liquidation in 2011, having been 80% owned by Libyan companyLAP Green.[196]The company was acquired in 2013 byLiquid Telecom,[197]a company providing telecommunications andfibre opticnetworks across eastern and southern Africa.[198]As of 2015,Liquid Telecom provideslandlineservice to 30,968 subscribers, with mobile operatorMTN Rwandaserving an additional 15,497 fixed line subscribers.[199]Landlines are mostly used by government institutions, banks,NGOsand embassies, with private subscription levels low.[200]As of 2015,mobile phonepenetration in the country is 72.6%,[201]up from 41.6% in 2011.[202]MTN Rwanda is the leading provider, with 3,957,986 subscribers, followed byTigowith 2,887,328, andBharti Airtelwith 1,336,679.[199]Rwandatel has also previously operated a mobile phone network, but the industry regulator revoked its licence in April 2011, following the company's failure to meet agreed investment commitments.[203]Internet penetration is low but rising rapidly; in 2015 there were 12.8 internet users per 100 people,[201]up from 2.1 in 2007.[204]In 2011, a 2,300-kilometre (1,400 mi) fibre-optic telecommunications network was completed, intended to provide broadband services and facilitate electronic commerce.[205]This network is connected toSEACOM,asubmarinefibre-optic cable connecting communication carriers in southern and eastern Africa. Within Rwanda the cables run along major roads, linking towns around the country.[205]Mobile provider MTN also runs awireless internetservice accessible in most areas of Kigali via pre-paid subscription.[206]

In October 2019,Mara Corporationlaunched the first African-made smartphone in Rwanda.[207]

Infrastructure

Main articles:Transport in Rwanda,Energy in Rwanda,andWater supply and sanitation in Rwanda
Photograph depicting one adult and five children filling jerrycans at a rural metal water pump with concrete base, at the bottom of a steep rocky hillside
Rural water pump

The Rwandan government prioritised funding of water supply development during the 2000s, significantly increasing its share of the national budget.[208]This funding, along with donor support, caused a rapid increase in access to safe water; in 2015, 74% of the population had access to safe water,[209]up from about 55% in 2005;[208]the government has committed to increasing this to 100% by 2017.[209]The country's water infrastructure consists of urban and rural systems that deliver water to the public, mainly through standpipes in rural areas and private connections in urban areas. In areas not served by these systems, hand pumps and managed springs are used.[210]Despite rainfall exceeding 750 millimetres (30 in) annually in most of the country,[211]little use is made ofrainwater harvesting,and residents are forced to use water very sparingly, relative to usage in other African countries.[209]Access tosanitationremains low; the United Nations estimates that in 2006, 34% of urban and 20% of rural dwellers had access toimproved sanitation,[212]with this statistic increasing to 92% for the total population (95% urban and 91% urban) in 2022.[213]Kigali is one of the cleanest cities in Africa.[214]Government policy measures to improve sanitation are limited, focusing only on urban areas.[212]The majority of the population, both urban and rural, use public sharedpit latrines.[212]

Rwanda's electricity supply was, until the early 2000s, generated almost entirely fromhydroelectricsources; power stations on LakesBureraandRuhondoprovided 90% of the country's electricity.[215]A combination of below average rainfall and human activity, including the draining of theRugezi wetlandsfor cultivation and grazing, caused the two lakes' water levels to fall from 1990 onwards; by 2004 levels were reduced by 50%, leading to a sharp drop in output from the power stations.[216]This, coupled with increased demand as the economy grew, precipitated a shortfall in 2004 and widespreadloadshedding.[216]As an emergency measure, the government installeddiesel generatorsnorth of Kigali; by 2006 these were providing 56% of the country's electricity, but were very costly.[216]The government enacted a number of measures to alleviate this problem, including rehabilitating the Rugezi wetlands, which supply water to Burera and Ruhondo and investing in a scheme to extract methane gas from Lake Kivu, expected in its first phase to increase the country's power generation by 40%.[217]Only 18% of the population had access to electricity in 2012, though this had risen from 10.8% in 2009.[218]The government's Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy for 2013–18 aims to increase access to electricity to 70% of households by 2017.[219]

Rwanda electricity production by source

The government has increased investment in thetransport infrastructure of Rwandasince the 1994 genocide, with aid from the United States,European Union,Japan, and others. The transport system consists primarily of the road network, with paved roads between Kigali and most other major cities and towns in the country.[220]Rwanda is linked by road to other countries in the East African Community, namely Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi andKenya,as well as to the eastern Congolese cities ofGomaandBukavu;the country's most important trade route is the road to the port ofMombasaviaKampalaandNairobi,which is known as theNorthern Corridor.[221]The principal form of public transport in the country is theminibus,accounting for more than half of all passenger carrying capacity.[222]Some minibuses, particularly in Kigali,[223]operate an unscheduled service, under ashared taxisystem,[224]while others run to a schedule, offering express routes between the major cities. There are a smaller number of large buses,[222]which operate a scheduled service around the country. The principal private hire vehicle is themotorcycle taxi;in 2013 there were 9,609 registered motorcycle taxis in Rwanda, compared with just 579taxicabs.[222]Coachservices are available to various destinations in neighbouring countries. The country has aninternational airportat Kigali that serves several international destinations, the busiest routes being those toNairobiandEntebbe;[225]there is one domestic route, between Kigali andKamembe AirportnearCyangugu.[226]In 2017, construction began on theBugesera International Airport,to the south of Kigali, which will become the country's largest when it opens, complementing the existing Kigali airport.[227]The national carrier isRwandAir,and the country is served by seven foreign airlines.[225]As of 2015the country had no railways, but there is a project underway, in conjunction with Burundi and Tanzania, to extend the TanzanianCentral Lineinto Rwanda; the three countries have invited expressions of interest from private firms to form apublic private partnershipfor the scheme.[228]There is no public water transport between the port cities on Lake Kivu, although a limited private service exists and the government has initiated a programme to develop a full service.[229]TheMinistry of Infrastructureis also investigating the feasibility of linking Rwanda toLake Victoriavia shipping on theAkagera River.[229]

Demographics

Main articles:Demographics of RwandaandYouth in Rwanda
Largest cities or towns in Rwanda
Source:[230]
Rank Name Province Pop.
Kigali
Kigali
Gisenyi
Gisenyi 		1 Kigali Kigali 1,132,168 Butare
Butare
Gitarama
Gitarama
2 Gisenyi Western 136,830
3 Butare Southern 89,600
4 Gitarama Southern 87,163
5 Ruhengeri Northern 86,685
6 Byumba Northern 70,593
7 Cyangugu Western 63,883
8 Kibuye Western 48,024
9 Rwamagana Eastern 47,203
10 Nzega Southern 46,240

As of 2015,theNational Institute of Statistics of Rwandaestimated Rwanda's population to be 11,262,564,[231]while the projection for 2022 was 13,246,394.[232]The 2012 census recorded a population of 10,515,973.[233]The population is young: in the 2012 census, 43.3% of the population were aged 15 and under, and 53.4% were between 16 and 64.[234]According to the CIAWorld Factbook,the annual birth rate is estimated at 40.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants in 2015, and the death rate at 14.9.[70]The life expectancy is 67.67 years (69.27 years for females and 67.11 years for males), which is the 26th lowest out of 224 countries and territories.[70][235]The overall sex ratio of the country is 95.9 males per 100 females.[70]

Photograph depicting seven rural children, with a straw house and farmland in the background, taken in the Volcanoes National Park in 2005
Rural children

At 445 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,150/sq mi),[231]Rwanda's population density is amongst the highest in Africa.[236]Historians such asGérard Prunierbelieve that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to the population density.[53]The population is predominantly rural, with a few large towns; dwellings are evenly spread throughout the country.[237]The only sparsely populated area of the country is the savanna land in the former province ofUmutaraand Akagera National Park in the east.[238]Kigali is the largest city, with a population of around one million.[239]Its rapidly increasing population challenges its infrastructural development.[70][240][241]According to the 2012 census, the second largest city isGisenyi,which lies adjacent toLake Kivuand the Congolese city ofGoma,and has a population of 126,000.[242]Other major towns includeRuhengeri,Butare,andMuhanga,all with populations below 100,000.[242]The urban population rose from 6% of the population in 1990,[240]to 16.6% in 2006;[243]by 2011, however, the proportion had dropped slightly, to 14.8%.[243]

Rwanda has been a unified state since pre-colonial times,[41]and the population is drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, theBanyarwanda;[244]this contrasts with most modern African states, whose borders were drawn bycolonial powersand did not correspond to ethnic boundaries or pre-colonial kingdoms.[245]Within the Banyarwanda people, there are three separate groups, the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa.[246]The CIAWorld Factbookgives estimates that the Hutu made up 84% of the population in 2009, the Tutsi 15% and Twa 1%.[70]The Twa are a pygmy people who descend from Rwanda's earliest inhabitants, but scholars do not agree on the origins of and differences between the Hutu and Tutsi.[247]Anthropologist Jean Hiernaux contends that the Tutsi are a separate race, with a tendency towards "long and narrow heads, faces and noses";[248]others, such as Villia Jefremovas, believe there is no discernible physical difference and the categories were not historically rigid.[249]In precolonial Rwanda the Tutsi were the ruling class, from whom the kings and the majority of chiefs were derived, while the Hutu were agriculturalists.[250]The currentgovernmentdiscourages the Hutu/Tutsi/Twa distinction, and has removed such classification from identity cards.[251]The 2002 census was the first since 1933[252]which did not categorise Rwandan population into the three groups.[253]

Education

Main article:Education in Rwanda
Children in a Rwandan primary school, using laptops supplied by theOne Laptop Per Childprogramme

Prior to 2012, the Rwandan government provided free education in state-run schools for nine years: six years in primary and three years following a common secondary programme.[254]In 2012, this started to be expanded to 12 years.[255]A 2015 study suggests that while enrollment rates in primary schools are "near ubiquity", rates of completion are low and repetition rates high.[256]While schooling is fee-free, there is an expectation that parents should contribute to the cost of their children's education by providing them with school supplies, supporting teacher development and making a contribution to school construction. According to the government, these costs should not be a basis for the exclusion of children from education, however.[255]There are many private schools across the country, some church-run, which follow the same syllabus but charge fees.[257]From 1994 until 2009, secondary education was offered in either French or English; because of the country's increasing ties with theEast African Communityand theCommonwealth,only the English syllabi are now offered.[258]The country has a number of institutions of tertiary education. In 2013, the publicUniversity of Rwanda(UR) was created out of a merger of the formerNational University of Rwandaand the country's other public higher education institutions.[259][260][261]In 2013, thegross enrollment ratiofor tertiary education in Rwanda was 7.9%, from 3.6% in 2006.[262]The country'sliteracyrate, defined as those aged 15 or over who can read and write, was 78.8% in 2022, up from 71% in 2009, 58% in 1991, and 38% in 1978.[263][264]

Health

Main articles:Healthcare in RwandaandHealth in Rwanda
Photograph depicting a hospital building, with Rwandan flag, viewed from the entrance pathway
Butaro HospitalatBurera,Northern Province

The quality of healthcare in Rwanda has historically been very low, both before and immediately after the 1994 genocide.[265]In 1998, more than one in five children died before their fifth birthday,[266]often frommalaria.[267]

President Kagame has made healthcare one of the priorities for theVision 2020development programme,[268]boosting spending on health care to 6.5% of the country'sgross domestic productin 2013,[269]compared with 1.9% in 1996.[270]The government has devolved the financing and management of healthcare to local communities, through a system of health insurance providers calledmutuelles de santé.[271]Themutuelleswere piloted in 1999, and were made available nationwide by the mid-2000s, with the assistance of international development partners.[271]Premiums under the scheme were initially US$2 per annum; since 2011 the rate has varied on a sliding scale, with the poorest paying nothing, and maximum premiums rising to US$8 per adult.[272]As of 2014,more than 90% of the population was covered by the scheme.[273]The government has also set up training institutes including the Kigali Health Institute (KHI), which was established in 1997[274]and is now part of theUniversity of Rwanda.In 2005, President Kagame also launched a program known asThe Presidents' Malaria Initiative.[275]This initiative aimed to help get the most necessary materials for prevention of malaria to the most rural areas of Rwanda, such as mosquito nets and medication.

Historical development of life expectancy in Rwanda

In recent years Rwanda has seen improvement on a number of key health indicators. Between 2005 and 2013, life expectancy increased from 55.2 to 64.0,[276]under-5 mortality decreased from 106.4 to 52.0 per 1,000 live births,[277]and incidence oftuberculosishas dropped from 101 to 69 per 100,000 people.[278]The country's progress in healthcare has been cited by the international media and charities.The Atlanticdevoted an article to "Rwanda's Historic Health Recovery".[279]Partners In Healthdescribed the health gains "among the most dramatic the world has seen in the last 50 years".[272]

Despite these improvements, however, the country's health profile remains dominated by communicable diseases,[280]and theUnited States Agency for International Developmenthas described "significant health challenges",[281]including the rate of maternal mortality, which it describes as "unacceptably high",[281]as well as the ongoingHIV/AIDSepidemic.[281]According to the AmericanCenters for Disease Control and Prevention,travellers to Rwanda are highly recommended to take preventive malaria medication as well as make sure they are up to date with vaccines such as yellow fever.[282]

Rwanda also has a shortage of medical professionals, with only 0.84 physicians, nurses, and midwives per 1,000 residents.[283]TheUnited Nations Development Programme(UNDP) is monitoring the country's health progress towardsMillennium Development Goals4–6, which relate to healthcare. A mid-2015 UNDP report noted that the country was not on target to meet goal 4 on infant mortality, despite it having "fallen dramatically";[284]the country is "making good progress" towards goal 5, which is to reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio,[285]while goal 6 is not yet met asHIV prevalencehas not started falling.[286]

Religion

Main article:Religion in Rwanda
Photograph depicting the Catholic parish church in Rwamagana, Eastern Province, including the main entrance, façade, the separate bell tower, and dirt forecourt
Catholic church inRwamagana

The largest faith in Rwanda isCatholicism,but there have been significant changes in the nation's religious demographics since the genocide, with many conversions toevangelicalChristianity, and, to a lesser degree,Islam.[287]According to the 2012 census, Catholic Christians represented 43.7% of the population, Protestants (excludingSeventh-day Adventists) 37.7%, Seventh-day Adventists 11.8%, and Muslims 2.0%; 0.2% claimed no religious beliefs and 1.3% did not state a religion.[288]Traditional religion, despite officially being followed by only 0.1% of the population, retains an influence. Many Rwandans view theChristian Godas synonymous with the traditional Rwandan GodImana.[289]

Languages

Main article:Languages of Rwanda

The country's principal and national language isKinyarwanda,which is virtually spoken by the entire country (98%).[290]The major European languages during the colonial era wereGerman,though it was never taught or widely used, and thenFrench,which was introduced by Belgium from 1916 and remained an official and widely spoken language after independence in 1962.[291]Dutchwas spoken as well. The return of English-speaking Rwandan refugees in the 1990s[291]added a new dimension to the country's language policy,[292]and the repositioning of Rwanda as a member of theEast African Communityhas since increased the importance of English; the medium of education was switched from French to English in 2008.[290]Kinyarwanda, English, French, and Swahili are all official languages.[293]Kinyarwanda is the national language while English is the primary medium of instruction in secondary and tertiary education.Swahili,thelingua francaof theEast African Community,[294]is also spoken by some as a second language, particularly returned refugees from Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and those who live along the border with the DRC.[295]In 2015, Swahili was introduced as a mandatory subject in secondary schools.[294]Inhabitants of Rwanda'sNkombo IslandspeakMashi,a language closely related to Kinyarwanda.[296]

French was spoken by slightly under 6% of the population according to the 2012 census and theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonie.[297] English was reported to be spoken by 15% of the population in 2009, though the same report found the proportion of French-speakers to be 68%.[290] Swahili is spoken by fewer than 1%.[298]

Human rights

See also:Human rights in RwandaandLGBT rights in Rwanda

Homosexuality is generally considered atabootopic, and there is no significant public discussion of this issue in any region of the country. Some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) Rwandans have reported being harassed and blackmailed.[299][300][301]Same-sex sexual activity is not specifically illegal in Rwanda. Some cabinet-level government officials have expressed support for the rights of LGBT people;[302]however, no special legislative protections are afforded to LGBT people,[300]who may be arrested by the police under various laws dealing with public order and morality.[301]Same-sex marriagesare not recognized by the state, as theconstitutionprovides that "[o]nly civil monogamous marriage between a man and a woman is recognized".[303]

Since 2006, Human Rights Watch has documented that Rwandan authorities round up and detainstreet children,street vendors, sex workers, homeless people, and beggars. They have also documented the use of torture in safe houses and other facilities, such as Kami military camp, Kwa Gacinya andGikondo prison.[304]

Culture

Main article:Culture of Rwanda
Photograph depicting two male dancers with straw wigs, neck garments, spears and sticks
Traditional Rwandanintoredancers

Musicand dance are an integral part of Rwandan ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings and storytelling. The most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed routine consisting of three components: theumushagiriro,or cow dance, performed by women;[305]theintore,or dance of heroes, performed by men;[305]and the drumming, also traditionally performed by men, on drums known asingoma.[306]The best-known dance group is theNational Ballet.It was established by President Habyarimana in 1974, and performs nationally and internationally.[307]Traditionally, music is transmitted orally, with styles varying between the social groups. Drums are of great importance; the royal drummers enjoyed high status within the court of the King (Mwami).[308]Drummers play together in groups of varying sizes, usually between seven and nine in number.[309]The country has a growing popular music industry, influenced by African Great Lakes, Congolese, and American music. The most popular genre iship hop,with a blend ofdancehall,rap,ragga,R&Banddance-pop.[310]

Photograph depicting a bowl shaped off-white woven basket with tall conical lid and black zigzag pattern
Rwandan wovenagasekebasket

Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the country, although most originated as functional items rather than purely for decoration. Woven baskets and bowls are especially common, notably the basket style of theagaseke.[311]Imigongo,a unique cow dung art, is produced in the southeast of Rwanda, with a history dating back to when the region was part of the independentGisakakingdom. The dung is mixed with natural soils of various colours and painted into patterned ridges to form geometric shapes.[312]Other crafts include pottery and wood carving.[313]Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials; circular or rectangular mud homes with grass-thatched roofs (known asnyakatsi) are the most common. The government has initiated a programme to replace these with more modern materials such as corrugated iron.[314][315]

Rwanda does not have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong oral tradition ranging from poetry tofolk stories.Many of the country's moral values and details of history have been passed down through the generations.[316]The most famous Rwandan literary figure wasAlexis Kagame(1912–1981), who carried out and published research into oral traditions as well as writing his own poetry.[317]The Rwandan Genocide resulted in the emergence of a literature of witness accounts, essays and fiction by a new generation of writers such asBenjamin SeheneandMfuranzima Fred.A number of films have been produced about the Rwandan Genocide, including theGolden Globe-nominatedHotel Rwanda,100 Days,Shake Hands with the Devil,Sometimes in April,andShooting Dogs,the last four having been filmed in Rwanda and having featured survivors as cast members.[318][319]

Fourteen regularnational holidaysare observed throughout the year,[320]with others occasionally inserted by the government. The week following Genocide Memorial Day on 7 April is designated an official week of mourning.[321]The victory for the RPF over the Hutu extremists is celebrated asLiberation Dayon 4 July. The last Saturday of each month isumuganda,a national morning of mandatorycommunity servicelasting from 8am to 11am, during which all able bodied people between 18 and 65 are expected to carry out community tasks such as cleaning streets or building homes for vulnerable people.[322]Most normal services close down duringumuganda,and public transportation is limited.[322]

Cuisine

Main article:Cuisine of Rwanda
A plate ofugaliandcabbage

The cuisine of Rwanda is based on localstaple foodsproduced by subsistence agriculture such as bananas, plantains (known asibitoke),pulses,sweet potatoes,beans, andcassava(manioc).[323]Many Rwandans do not eat meat more than a few times a month.[323]For those who live near lakes and have access to fish,tilapiais popular.[323]The potato, thought to have been introduced to Rwanda by German and Belgiancolonialists,is very popular.[324]Ugali,locally known asUbugari(orumutsima) is common, a paste made from cassava or maize and water to form aporridge-like consistency that is eaten throughout the African Great Lakes.[325]Isombeis made from mashed cassava leaves and can be served with dried fish, rice, ugali, potatoes etc.[324]Lunch is usually a buffet known asmélange,consisting of the above staples and sometimes meat.[326]Brochettesare the most popular food when eating out in the evening, usually made from goat but sometimestripe,beef, or fish.[326]

In rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller responsible for tending and slaughtering the goats, skewering andbarbecuingthe meat, and serving it with grilled bananas.[327]Milk, particularly in a fermented yoghurt form calledikivuguto,is a common drink throughout the country.[328]Other drinks include a traditional beer called Ikigage made from sorghum andurwagwa,made from bananas, and a soft drink called Umutobe which is banana juice; these popular drinks feature in traditional rituals and ceremonies.[324]The major drinks manufacturer in Rwanda isBralirwa,which was established in the 1950s, a Heineken partner, and is now listed on theRwandan Stock Exchange.[329]Bralirwa manufacturessoft drinkproducts fromThe Coca-Cola Company,under licence, includingCoca-Cola,Fanta,andSprite,[330]and a range of beers includingPrimus,Mützig,Amstel,andTurbo King.[331]In 2009 a new brewery,Brasseries des Mille Collines(BMC) opened, manufacturingSkolbeer and a local version known asSkol Gatanu;[332]BMC is now owned by Belgian companyUnibra.[333]East African Breweriesalso operate in the country, importingGuinness,Tusker,andBell,as well aswhiskyandspirits.[334]

Sport

Main article:Sport in Rwanda
Adrien Niyonshuti,"one of the most famous people in Rwanda",[335]competing in thecross-country mountain bikingevent at the 2012 Summer Olympics

The Rwandan government, through its Sports Development Policy, promotes sport as a strong avenue for "development and peace building",[336]and the government has made commitments to advancing the use of sport for a variety of development objectives, including education.[337]The most popular sports in Rwanda areassociation football,volleyball,basketball,athleticsandParalympic sports.[338]Crickethas been growing in popularity,[339]as a result of refugees returned from Kenya, where they had learned to play the game.[340]Cycling,traditionally seen largely as a mode of transport in Rwanda, is also growing in popularityas a sport;[341]and Team Rwanda have been the subject of a book,Land of Second Chances: The Impossible Rise of Rwanda's Cycling Teamand a film,Rising from Ashes.[342][343]

The Gahanga Cricket Stadium

Rwandans have been competing at theOlympic Gamessince 1984,[344]and theParalympic Gamessince 2004.[345]The country sent seven competitors to the2012 Summer Olympicsin London, representing it in athletics,swimming,mountain bikingandjudo,[344]and 15 competitors to theLondon Summer Paralympicsto compete in athletics,powerliftingandsitting volleyball.[345]The country has also participated in theCommonwealth Gamessince joining theCommonwealthin 2009.[346][347]The country'snational basketball teamhas been growing in prominence since the mid-2000s, with the men's team qualifying for the final stages of theAfrican Basketball Championshipfour times in a row since 2007.[348]The country bid unsuccessfully to host the2013 tournament.[349][350]Rwanda'snational football teamhas appeared in theAfrican Cup of Nationsonce, in the2004 editionof the tournament,[351]but narrowly failed to advance beyond the group stages.[352]The team have failed to qualify for the competition since, and have never qualified for theWorld Cup.[353]Rwanda's highest domestic football competition is theRwanda National Football League;[354]as of 2015,the dominant team isAPR FCof Kigali, having won 13 of the last 17 championships.[355]Rwandan clubs participate in theKagame Interclub Cupfor Central and East African teams, sponsored since 2002 by President Kagame.[356]

See also

Notes

  1. ^UK:/ruˈændə/ⓘroo-AN-də,US:/ruˈɑːndə/ⓘroo-AHN-də;[13]Kinyarwanda:u Rwanda[u.ɾɡwaː.nda]ⓘ)[14]

Citations

  1. ^"Rwanda: A Brief History of the Country".United Nations.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2023.Retrieved4 April2018.By 1994, Rwanda's population stood at more than 7 million people comprising 3 ethnic groups: the Hutu (who made up roughly 85% of the population), the Tutsi (14%), and the Twa (1%).
  2. ^"Religions in Rwanda | PEW-GRF".globalreligiousfutures.org.Archivedfrom the original on 23 May 2021.Retrieved23 May2021.
  3. ^abThomson, Susan(2018).Rwanda: From Genocide to Precarious Peace.Yale University Press. p. 185.ISBN978-0-300-23591-3.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2023.Retrieved11 November2023.
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General and cited references

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