Jump to content

Western Ghats

Coordinates:10°10′11″N77°03′40″E/ 10.16972°N 77.06111°E/10.16972; 77.06111
This is a good article. Click here for more information.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromSahyadri)

Western Ghats
Sahyadri
Anamudi,the highest peak in the Western Ghats
Highest point
PeakAnamudi,Eravikulam National ParkandDoddabetta
Elevation2,695 m (8,842 ft)
Coordinates10°10′11″N77°03′40″E/ 10.16972°N 77.06111°E/10.16972; 77.06111
Dimensions
Length1,600 km (990 mi) N–S
Width100 km (62 mi) E–W
Area160,000 km2(62,000 sq mi)
Geography
Satellite imagery showing the Western Ghats running parallel to the west coast of India
CountryIndia
RegionWesternandSouthern India
StatesGujarat,Maharashtra,Goa,Karnataka,KeralaandTamil Nadu
BiomeTropical rainforestsandMarsh
Geology
Age of rockCenozoic
Type of rockBasalt,LateriteandLimestone
CriteriaNatural: ix, x
Reference1342
Inscription2012 (36thSession)
Area795,315 ha

TheWestern Ghats,also known as theSahyadri,is a mountain range that stretches 1,600 km (990 mi) along thewestern coastof theIndian peninsula.Covering an area of 160,000 km2(62,000 sq mi), it traverses thestatesofGujarat,Maharashtra,Goa,Karnataka,Kerala,andTamil Nadu.The range forms an almost continuous chain of mountains along the western edge of theDeccan Plateau,from theTapti RivertoSwamithoppeinKanyakumari districtat the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The Western Ghats meet with theEastern GhatsatNilgirisbefore continuing south.

Geologic evidence indicates that the mountains were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent ofGondwana.The mountains came along the west coast of India somewhere in thelate Jurassicandearly Cretaceousperiods when India separated from theAfricancontinent. The mountains can be roughly divided into three parts: the northern section with an elevation ranging from 900–1,500 m (3,000–4,900 ft), the middle section starting from the south of Goa with a lower elevation of less than 900 m (3,000 ft), and the southern section where the altitude rises again. The Western Ghats have several peaks that rise above 2,000 m (6,600 ft), withAnamudi(2,695 m (8,842 ft)) being the highest peak. The average elevation is around 1,200 m (3,900 ft).

The Western Ghats form one of the majorwatershedsof India, feeding many perennial river systems that drain almost 40% of the land area of the country. Because of the higher elevation of the Deccan plateau on the west, most rivers flow from eastwards towards theBay of Bengal,resulting in chiselled eastern slopes and steeper western slopes facing theArabian Sea.The Western Ghats play an important role in determining the climate and seasons in India. It blocks the rain-bearingmonsoonwinds flowing eastward from the Arabian Sea, resulting in rainfall along the western coast. By the time the air rises above the mountains, it becomes dry, forming arain shadowregion with very little rainfall on theleewardside towards the interior of the Deccan plateau.

The Western Ghats region is abiodiversity hotspot.It contains a large number of different species of flora and fauna, most of which are endemic to this region. At least 325 globallythreatened speciesoccur in the Western Ghats. The region was declared as aUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitein 2012.

Etymology[edit]

The name Western Ghats is a portmanteau of the wordghatand the cardinal direction in which it is located with respect to the Indian mainland.Ghat,a term used in theIndian subcontinent,depending on the context, could either refer to arange of stepped hillssuch as theEastern Ghatsand Western Ghats, or a series of steps leading down to a body of water orwharf.[1][2]As per linguistThomas Burrow,the wordGhatwas derived from similar words used in variousDravidianlanguages such askattu(mountain side, ridge, or dam) inTamil,katte(dam),gatta(mountain), andgattu(bank or shore) inKannada,andkatta(dam), andgatte(shore or embankment) inTelugu.[3]The ancient name for the mountain range isSahyadri,derived fromSanskrit,meaning benevolent or tolerant mountain.[4]

Geology[edit]

The Western Ghats are the mountainousfaulted,anderodededge of theDeccan Plateau.Geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the super-continent ofGondwana.After the break-up, the Deccan plateau was formed bybasaltrocks, which caused the western side to rise at an elevation.[5]

Geophysicalevidence indicates that the mountains came along the west coast of India somewhere in thelate Jurassicandearly Cretaceousperiods when India separated from theAfricancontinent.[6]Several faults triggered the formation of Western Ghats, then interspersed with valleys and river gorges. Because of the elevation of the Deccan plateau on the west, most rivers flow from west to east, resulting in chiselled eastern slopes and steeper western slopes facing the sea.[6]

Geography[edit]

Western Ghats form a continuous chain of mountains

The Western Ghats extend from theSatpura Rangesouth of theTapti Riverin the north and runs approximately 1,600 km (990 mi) to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, where it ends at theMarunthuvazh MalaiatSwamithoppeinKanyakumari district.[7][8]It covers an area of 160,000 km2(62,000 sq mi), traversing across theIndian statesofGujarat,Maharashtra,Goa,Karnataka,Kerala,andTamil Nadu.[9]

Topography[edit]

Topography: Western Ghats (southern part)
Further information:List of peaks in the Western Ghats

The Western Ghats form an almost continuous chain of mountains running parallel to the western coast of India along theArabian Sea.[10]The average elevation is around 1,200 m (3,900 ft).[11]There are three gaps in the mountain range: the northernmostGoa Gap,formed 65–80 million years ago (Mya), the oldest and widestPalghat Gap,formed 500 Mya, and the southernmost, narrowestShencottah Gap.[12]The narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as theWestern Coastal Plains.[13]

The mountains can be roughly divided into three parts: the northern section with an elevation ranging from 900–1,500 m (3,000–4,900 ft), the middle section starting from the south of Goa with a lower elevation of less than 900 m (3,000 ft), and the southern section where the altitude rises again.[10]The Western Ghats meet with theEastern GhatsatNilgirisbefore continuing south.[14]The Western Ghats have many peaks that rise above 2,000 m (6,600 ft), withAnamudi(2,695 m (8,842 ft)) being the highest peak.[15]

Hydrography[edit]

The Western Ghats form one of the majorwatershedsof India, feeding many perennial rivers. These major river systems drain almost 40% of the land area of the country.[16]The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats are theGodavari,Kaveri,andKrishna.[10][17]Most rivers flow eastwards towards theBay of Bengalowing to the steeper gradient moving from east to west, and many smaller streams drain the region, often carrying a large volume of water during the monsoon months.[16]The streams and rivers give rise to numerous waterfalls in the region.[18]The rivers have been dammed forhydroelectricandirrigationpurposes, with major reservoirs spread across the region.[19][20]

Climate[edit]

Annual rainfall

The Western Ghats play an important role in determining the climate and seasons in India. During the dry summer months of April – May, heat builds up on the land, which draws air from the sea. The air, which picks up moisture along the way and flows eastward from the Arabian Sea, is blocked by the Western Ghats.[21]The rising air cools and brings aboutorographic precipitationalong the western coast.[22]This signifies the onset of themonsoonseason in June. By the time the air rises above the mountains, it becomes dry, resulting in arain shadowregion with very little rainfall on theleewardside towards the interior of the Deccan plateau. The monsoon winds rounding up the peninsula and moving from the east from theBay of Bengalpass over the Eastern Ghats and bring the majority of the rainfall to the plains up north.[23]

Climate in the mountains shows variations with altitude across the range. Due to its physical proximity to theequatorand the Arabian Sea, the region experiences a warm and humidtropical climatethroughout the year. Mean temperatures range from 20 °C (68 °F) in the south to 24 °C (75 °F) in the north. Subtropical or temperate climates, and occasional near-zero temperatures during winter are experienced in regions with higher elevations. The coldest period in the region are the wettest monsoon period in the southern part of the mountain range.[24]Annual rainfall in this region averages 100 cm (39 in) to 900 cm (350 in), with an average rainfall of 250 cm (98 in). The total amount of rain does not depend on the spread of the area; areas in northern Maharashtra receive heavy rainfall followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to the equator receive lower annual rainfall and have rain spells lasting several months in a year.[24]

Bio-diversity[edit]

The Western Ghats region is abiodiversity hotspot.[25][26]It consists of nearly 30% of all the species of flora and fauna found in India, most of which are endemic to this region.[27][28]At least 325 globallythreatened speciesoccur in the Western Ghats.[9]

Flora[edit]

The Western Ghats consist of fourtropical and subtropical moist broadleafterrestrialecoregionsof theIndomalayanrealm,with the northern portion of the range generally drier than the southern portion.[29]These include the following:

Sholas,a unique type of stunted tropical montane forest found in the valleys between the mountains
Terrestrial ecoregions of Western Ghats
Region Area Areas covered
North Western Ghats montane rain forests[30] 11,900 sq mi (31,000 km2) Karnataka,Kerala,Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu
South Western Ghats montane rain forests[31] 8,700 sq mi (23,000 km2) Kerala,Tamil Nadu
North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests[32] 4,831 sq mi (12,510 km2) Karnataka,Maharashtra
South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests[33] 2,382 sq mi (6,170 km2) Karnataka,Kerala,Tamil Nadu

Other types of ecosystems includedry deciduous forestson the leeward rain shadow region,scrub forestsat the foothills,peat bogs,andswamps.[34]Montanegrasslandsare found in high altitude locations in the south Western Ghats interspersed withsholas,a unique type of stunted tropical montane forest found in the valleys between the mountains.[35]

Earlier sources indicated about four to five thousand vascular plant species of which nearly one-third was endemic to the region.[36]Later studies and publications have recorded 7,402 species offlowering plantsoccurring in the Western Ghats of which 5,588 were described as indigenous, 376 are naturalized exotics, and 1,438 species are cultivated or planted.[37]Among the indigenous species, 2,253 species are endemic to India and of them, 1,273 species are exclusively confined to the Western Ghats. 645 tree species were recorded with a high endemic ratio of 56%. There are 850 – 1000 species ofbryophytesincluding 682 species ofmosses(28% endemic) and 280 species ofliverworts(43% endemic), 277 species ofpteridophytesand 949 species oflichens(26.7% endemic).[38]

Fauna[edit]

The Western Ghats are home to thousands of species of fauna, including at least 325 globallythreatened species.[39]As per a 2010 report, following is the distribution of faunal species in the Western Ghats apart from more than 6,000insectspecies.[34][40]

Agaurherd
Fauna of Western Ghats (2010)
Taxonomic group Species Endemic % Endemic Endangered
Mammals 120 14 12% 31
Birds 508 19 4% 15
Amphibians 121 94 78% 43
Reptiles 156 97 62% 5
Fishes 218 116 53% 1

The Western Ghats region has one of the highesttigerpopulation, estimated at 985 in 2022.[41]The Western Ghats ecoregion has the largestIndian elephantpopulation in the wild, with an estimated 11,000 individuals across eight distinct populations.[42][43]Other mammals include endangered and vulnerable species such as thelion-tailed macaque,Nilgiri tahr,leopard,Nilgiri langur,dhole,andgaur.[44][45][46]The endemic Nilgiri tahr, which was on the brink of extinction, has recovered and had an estimated 3,122 individuals in 2015.[47][48]Smaller endemic species include theMalabar large-spotted civet,Nilgiri marten,brown palm civet,stripe-necked mongoose,Indian brown mongoose,small Indian civet,andleopard cat.[49][50]

Bicolored frog,rare frog species endemic to the region

As per a 2014 report, at least 227 species ofreptilesare found in the Western Ghats.[51]The major population of the snake familyUropeltidaeis restricted to the region.[52]Several endemic reptile genera and species occur here, with the region having a significant population ofmugger crocodiles.[53]Theamphibiansof the Western Ghats are diverse and unique, with a high proportion of species being endemic to thetropical rainforests of India.[54]Newfrogspecies have continued to be discovered in the 21st century.[55]Frogs of the generaMicrixalus,Indirana,andNyctibatrachus,toadslikePedostibes,Ghatophryne,andXanthophryne,arboreal frogslikeGhatixalus,Mercurana,andBeddomixalus,andmicrohylidslikeMelanobatrachusare endemic to this region.[56]

There are at least 19 species ofbirdsendemic to the Western Ghats including the endangeredrufous-breasted laughingthrush,the vulnerableNilgiri wood-pigeon,white-bellied shortwing,andbroad-tailed grassbird,thenear threatenedgrey-breasted laughingthrush,black-and-rufous flycatcher,Nilgiri flycatcher,andNilgiri pipit,and theleast concernMalabar (blue-winged) parakeet,Malabar grey hornbill,white-bellied treepie,grey-headed bulbul,rufous babbler,Wayanad laughingthrush,white-bellied blue-flycatcher,and thecrimson-backed sunbird.[57]

Fishes and molluscs
Denison Barbis endemic to the region

There is a higher fish species richness in the southern part of the Western Ghats. There are 13 genera entirely restricted to the Western Ghats (Betadevario,Dayella,Haludaria,Horabagrus,Horalabiosa,Hypselobarbus,Indoreonectes,Lepidopygopsis,Longischistura,Mesonoemacheilus,Parapsilorhynchus,Rohtee,andTravancoria).[58]The most species-rich families are theCyprinids(72 species),hillstream loaches(34 species; includingstone loaches,now regarded a separate family),Bagrid catfishes(19 species), andSisorid catfishes(12 species).[59]The region is home to severalornamental fisheslike theDenison (or red line torpedo) barb,[60]melon barb,several species ofDawkinsiabarbs,zebra loach,Horabagruscatfish,dwarf pufferfishanddwarf Malabar pufferfish.[61]The rivers are also home toOsteobrama bakeri,and larger species such as theMalabar snakehead,andMalabar mahseer.[62]A few are adapted to an underground life, including someRakthamichthysswamp eels,[63]and the catfishHoraglanisandKryptoglanis.[64]97 freshwater fish species were consideredthreatenedin 2011, including 12 critically endangered, 54 endangered, and 31 vulnerable.[58]The reservoirs in the region are important for their commercial and sport fisheries ofrainbow trout,mahseer,andcommon carp.[65]There are more than 200 freshwater fish species including 35 also known frombrackishor marine water.[66]Several new species have been described from the region since the last decade (e.g.,Dario uropsandS. sharavathiensis).[67][68]

Tamil lacewing,an endemic butterfly

Seasonal rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats necessitate a period ofdormancyfor itsland snails,resulting in their high abundance and diversity, including at least 258 species ofgastropodsfrom 57 genera and 24 families.[69]A total of 77 species offreshwater molluscs(52 gastropods and 25bivalves) have been recorded from the Western Ghats, but the actual number is likely higher.[58]This includes 28 endemics. Among the threatened freshwatermolluscsare themusselspeciesPseudomulleria dalyi,which is aGondwananrelict, and the snailCremnoconchus,which is restricted to the spray zone of waterfalls.[58]According to the IUCN, four species of freshwater molluscs are considered endangered and three are vulnerable. An additional 19 species are considered data deficient.[58]

Insects

There are roughly 6,000 insect species.[70]Of the 334Western Ghats butterflyspecies, 316 species have been reported to occur in theNilgiri Biosphere Reserve.[71]The Western Ghats are home to 174 species ofodonates(107dragonfliesand 67damselflies), including 69 endemics.[58]Most of the endemic odonate are closely associated with rivers and streams, while the non-endemics are typicallygeneralists.[58]There are several species ofleechesfound all along the Western Ghats.[72]

Threats and conservation[edit]

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve,the largest contiguousprotected areain the Western Ghats

Historically, the Western Ghats were covered in dense forests. which formed the natural habitat for wildlife along with the nativetribal people.Its inaccessibility made it difficult for people from theplainsto cultivate the land and build settlements. After the establishment ofBritish colonial rulein the region, large swathes of territory were cleared for agricultural plantations and timber. The forests in the Western Ghats were severely fragmented due toclear-fellingfor plantations.[73]The introduction of non-native species threatened the rareendemicspecies and habitat specialists, which depleted faster than other species.[74]Complex and species-rich habitats like thetropical rainforestsare much more adversely affected than other habitats.[75]The primary threats to fauna were not only fromhabitat loss,but also fromoverexploitation,illicitgrazing,mining,poaching,andintroduced species.[58][34]

TheGovernment of Indiahas established manyprotected areas,including twobiosphere reserves,13national parksto restrict human access, severalwildlife sanctuariesto protect specific endangered species, and manyreserve forests.[76]TheNilgiri Biosphere Reserve,comprising 5,500 km2(2,100 sq mi) of the forests, forms the largest contiguous protected area in the Western Ghats.[77]In August 2011, the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP), appointed by the UnionMinistry of Environment and Foreststo assess the biodiversity and environmental issues of the Western Ghats, designated the entire region as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) and assigned three levels of Ecological Sensitivity to its different regions.[78][79]Subsequent committees formed have recommended various suggestions to protect the region.[80]In 2006, India applied to theUNESCOMan and the Biosphere Programme(MAB) for the Western Ghats to be listed as a protectedWorld Heritage Site.[81]In 2012, 39 sites divided into seven clusters across the Western Ghats, were declared as World Heritage Sites.[82][83]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Sunithi L. Narayan; Revathy Nagaswami (1992).Discover Sublime India.University of Michigan.p. 5.
  2. ^"Ghat definition".Cambridge dictionary.Archivedfrom the original on 30 January 2019.Retrieved30 January2019.
  3. ^Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2003).Jainism and Early Buddhism.Jain Publishing Company. p. 528.ISBN978-0-8958-1956-7.
  4. ^Subhash C. Biswas (2014).India the Land of Gods.Author Solutions. p. 76.ISBN978-1-4828-3655-4.
  5. ^Barron, E.J.; Harrison, C.G.A.; Sloan, J.L. II; Hay, W.W. (1981). "Paleogeography, 180 million years ago to the present".Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae.74(2): 443–470.
  6. ^ab"Formation of Western Ghats".Indian Institute of Science.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  7. ^"Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot".World Atlas.Retrieved2 July2024.
  8. ^"Western Ghats topographic map".topographic-map.com.Retrieved2 July2024.
  9. ^ab"Western Ghats – UNESCO World Heritage Centre".Archivedfrom the original on 4 July 2018.Retrieved15 January2019.
  10. ^abc"Western Ghats".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  11. ^"The Peninsula".Asia-Pacific Mountain Network.Archived fromthe originalon 12 August 2007.Retrieved19 March2007.
  12. ^V. V. Robin; Anindya Sinha; Uma Ramakrishnan (2010)."Ancient Geographical Gaps and Paleo-Climate Shape the Phylogeography of an Endemic Bird in the Sky Islands of Southern India".PLOS.5(10): e13321.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0194158.PMC2954160.PMID20967202.
  13. ^Population of India.Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, United Nations. 1982. p. 2.
  14. ^Imperial Gazetteer of India: Provincial Series.Vol. 17. Superintendent of Government Print. 1908. p. 144.
  15. ^"7 major mountain ranges in India: Some of the highest mountains in the world".India Today.3 April 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 23 August 2020.Retrieved5 September2020.
  16. ^abShanavas P H; Sumesh A K; Haris P M (2016).Western Ghats - From Ecology To Economics.Educreation Publishing. p. 27-29.ISBN978-9-3852-4758-3.
  17. ^Dhruv Sen Singh (2017).The Indian Rivers: Scientific and Socio-economic Aspects.Springer Nature. p. 309.ISBN978-9-8110-2984-4.
  18. ^Patricia Corrigan (2019).Waterfalls.Infobase Publishing. p. 131.ISBN978-1-4381-8252-0.
  19. ^"Indian Dams by River and State".Rain water harvesting.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2007.Retrieved19 March2007.
  20. ^Samani, R.L.; Ayhad, A.P. (2002). "Siltation of Reservoirs-Koyna Hydroelectric Project-A Case Study". In S. P. Kaushish; B. S. K. Naidu (eds.).Silting Problems in Hydropower Plants.Bangkok: Central Board of Irrigation and Power.ISBN978-90-5809-238-0.
  21. ^"Indian monsoon".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2016.Retrieved1 December2023.
  22. ^"Orographic precipitation".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 5 January 2020.Retrieved1 December2023.
  23. ^"Climate of Western Ghats".Indian Institute of Science.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  24. ^abR.J. Ranjit Daniels. "Biodiversity of the Western Ghats - An Overview".Conservation of Rain forests in India.Wildlife Institute of India.Retrieved1 December2023.
  25. ^Myers, N.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Mittermeier, C.G.; Da Fonseca, G.A.B.; Kent, J. (2000). "Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities".Nature.403(6772): 853–858.Bibcode:2000Natur.403..853M.doi:10.1038/35002501.PMID10706275.S2CID4414279.
  26. ^Migon, P. (2010).Geomorphological Landscapes of the World.Springer. p. 257.ISBN978-90-481-3054-2.
  27. ^"Western Ghats".WWF.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  28. ^"A biodiversity hotspot".Archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2019.Retrieved15 January2019.
  29. ^"Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest".WWF.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  30. ^"North Western Ghats montane rain forests".WWF.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  31. ^"South Western Ghats montane rain forests".WWF.Retrieved1 December2023.
  32. ^"North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests".One Earth.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  33. ^"South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests".One Earth.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  34. ^abc"Western Ghats, data sheet".UNESCO. 22 May 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  35. ^S. M. Thomas; M. W. Palmer.The montane grasslands of the Western Ghats, India:Community ecology and conservation(Report).Oklahoma State University.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  36. ^Western Ghats, IUCN technical evaluation(Report). UNESCO.Archivedfrom the original on 17 August 2022.Retrieved1 December2023.
  37. ^Nayar, T.S.; Rasiya Beegam, A.; Sibi, M. (2014).Flowering Plants of the Western Ghats, India.Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute.ISBN978-8-1920-0989-6.
  38. ^K. N. Nair (2017).The Genus Syzygium Syzygium Cumini and Other Underutilized Species.CRC Press.ISBN978-1-3516-4506-5.
  39. ^Nameer, P.O.; Molur, Sanjay; Walker, Sally (November 2001). "Mammals of the Western Ghats: A Simplistic Overview".Zoos' Print Journal.16(11): 629–639.doi:10.11609/jott.zpj.16.11.629-39(inactive 27 April 2024).S2CID87414084.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
  40. ^Myers, N.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Mittermeier, C.G.; Fonseca, G.A.B.Da; Kent, J. (2000). "Biodiversity Hotspots for Conservation Priorities".Nature.403(6772): 853–858.Bibcode:2000Natur.403..853M.doi:10.1038/35002501.PMID10706275.S2CID4414279.
  41. ^Qureshi, Q.; Jhala, Y. V.; Yadav, S. P. & Mallick, A. (2023).Status of tigers, co-predators and prey in India 2022(PDF)(Report). National Tiger Conservation Authority & Wildlife Institute of India.Archived(PDF)from the original on 5 May 2024.Retrieved27 April2024.
  42. ^"Elephant Reserves".ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas.Archivedfrom the original on 20 May 2017.Retrieved30 January2016.
  43. ^"Census population 2005"(PDF).Note on Project Elephant.Ministry of Environment and Forests. 2007. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 12 March 2012.Retrieved30 January2016.
  44. ^Singh, M.; Kumar, A.; Kumara, H.N. (2020)."Macaca silenus".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2020:e.T12559A17951402.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12559A17951402.en.Retrieved11 November2021.
  45. ^Singh, M.; Kaumanns, W. (2005)."Behavioural studies: A necessity for wildlife management"(PDF).Current Science.89(7): 1233. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 13 January 2007.
  46. ^Malviya, M.; Srivastav, A.; Nigam, P.; Tyagi, P.C. (2011).Indian National Studbook of Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecus johnii)(PDF).Wildlife Institute of IndiaandCentral Zoo Authority.Archived(PDF)from the original on 23 September 2015.Retrieved7 February2016.
  47. ^"Nilgiri tahr population over 3,000: WWF-India".The Hindu.3 October 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 8 February 2016.Retrieved1 May2016.
  48. ^Molur, S.; Brandon-Jones, D.; Dittus, W.; Eudey, A.; Kumar, A.; Singh, M.; Feeroz, M.M.; Chalise, M.; Priya, P. & Walker, S. (2003).Status of South Asian Primates: Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (C.A.M.P.) Workshop Report, 2003.Coimbatore: Zoo Outreach Organization/CBSG-South Asia.
  49. ^Mudappa, D.; Noon, B.R.; Kumar, A. & Chellam, R. (2007)."Responses of small carnivores to rainforest fragmentation in the southern Western Ghats, India".Small Carnivore Conservation.36:18–26.
  50. ^Mudappa, D.; Helgen, K.; Nandini, R. (2016)."Viverra civettina".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2016:e.T23036A45202281.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T23036A45202281.en.Retrieved11 November2021.
  51. ^Srinivasulu C;Srinivasulu B;Molur S(2014).The Status and Distribution of Reptiles in the Western Ghats, India: Conservation and Management Plan.Coimbatore:Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society. p. 160.ISBN978-81-88722-40-2.
  52. ^Greene, H. W. & R. W. Mcdiarmid (2005).Wallace and Savage: heroes, theories and venomous snake mimicry, Ecology and Evolution in the Tropics, a Herpetological Perspective.University of Chicago.pp. 190–208.
  53. ^Harry V., Andrews."Status and Distribution of the Mugger Crocodile in Tamil Nadu".WII. Archived fromthe originalon 20 December 2004.
  54. ^Karthikeyan, V.A Report on the Survey of Rainforest Fragments in the Western Ghats for Amphibian Diversity(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 15 December 2005.
  55. ^Radhakrishnan, C.; Gopi, K.C. & Dinesh, K.P. (2007)."Zoogeography ofNasikabatrachus sahyadrensisBiju and Bossuyt (Amphibia: Anura; Nasikabatrachidae) in the Western Ghats, India ".Records of the Zoological Survey of India.107(4): 115–121.doi:10.26515/rzsi/v107/i4/2007/159116.S2CID251728922.
  56. ^An evaluation of the endemism of the amphibian assemblages from the Western Ghats using molecular techniques(PDF)(Report). Dehra Dun: WII. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 December 2008.
  57. ^"Restricted-range species".BirdLife EBA Factsheet 12: Western Ghats.BirdLife International.1998.Archivedfrom the original on 2 January 2009.Retrieved3 December2009.
  58. ^abcdefghMolur, M.; Smith, K.G.; Daniel, B.A. & Darwall, W.R.T. (2011).The status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in the Western Ghats, India(PDF).IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Regional Assessment.ISBN978-2-8317-1381-6.Archived(PDF)from the original on 3 April 2015.
  59. ^Raghavan; Prasad; Ali; Pereira (2008). "Fish fauna of Chalakudy River, part of Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot, Kerala, India: patterns of distribution, threats and conservation needs".Biodiversity and Conservation.17(13): 3119–3131.Bibcode:2008BiCon..17.3119R.doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9293-0.S2CID7563806.
  60. ^Raghavan, R.; Philip, S.; Ali, A. & Dahanukar, N. (2013)."Sahyadria,a new genus of barbs (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) from Western Ghats of India ".Journal of Threatened Taxa.5(15): 4932–4938.doi:10.11609/JoTT.o3673.4932-8.
  61. ^"Zoologica"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 16 July 2004.Retrieved18 December2006.
  62. ^Benziger, A.; Philip, S.; Raghavan, R.; Ali, P.H.A.; Sukumaran, M.; Tharian,J.C.; Dahanukar,N.; Baby, F.; Peter, R.; Devi, K.R.; Radhakrishnan, K.V.; Haniffa, M.A.; Britz,R.; Antunes, A. (2011)."Unraveling a 146 years old taxonomic puzzle: Validation of Malabar Snakehead, species-status and its relevance for channid systematics and evolution".PLOS ONE.6(6): e21272.Bibcode:2011PLoSO...621272B.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021272.PMC3123301.PMID21731689.
  63. ^Gobi, K.C. (2002)."A new synbranchid fish,Monopterus digressusfrom Kersla, Peninsular India ".Rec. Zool. Surv. India.100(1–2): 137–143.doi:10.26515/rzsi/v100/i1-2/2002/159618.S2CID87291325.
  64. ^Vincent, M.; Thomas, J. (2011). "Kryptoglanis shajii, an enigmatic subterranean-spring catfish (Siluriformes, Incertae sedis) from Kerala, India".Ichthyological Research.58(2): 161–165.Bibcode:2011IchtR..58..161V.doi:10.1007/s10228-011-0206-6.S2CID39313203.
  65. ^Sehgal, K. L."Coldwater fish and fisheries in the Western Ghats, India".FAO.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2008.Retrieved22 September2008.
  66. ^Dahanukar, N.; Raut, R.; Bhat, A. (2004). "Distribution, endemism and threat status of freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India".Journal of Biogeography.31(1): 123–136.Bibcode:2004JBiog..31..123D.doi:10.1046/j.0305-0270.2003.01016.x.S2CID83574801.
  67. ^Britz, A.; Philip (2012)."Dariourops, a new species of badid fish from the Western Ghats, southern India"(PDF).Zootaxa.3348:63–68.doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3348.1.5.S2CID87261596.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 February 2020.
  68. ^Sreekantha; Gururaja, K.V.; Remadevi, K.; Indra, T.J.; Ramachandra, T.V. (2006). "Two new species of the genusSchisturaMcClell and (Cypriniformes: Balitoridae) from Western Ghats, India ".Zoos' Print Journal.21(4): 2211–2216.doi:10.11609/jott.zpj.1386.2211-6(inactive 27 April 2024).{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
  69. ^Madhyastha N. A.; Rajendra; Mavinkurve G. & Shanbhag Sandhya P.Land Snails of Western Ghats(Report). WII. Archived fromthe originalon 17 July 2009.
  70. ^George, M. & Binoy, C.F.,An Overview of Insect Diversity of Western Ghats with Special Reference to Kerala State,Dehra Dun: WII, archived fromthe originalon 16 March 2009,retrieved24 July2007
  71. ^George, M. & Kumar, M.M.State of the Art Knowledge on the Butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve(Report). Dehra Dun: WII. Archived fromthe originalon 8 January 2009.
  72. ^Chandra, M. (1976)."On a Small Collection of leeches from Maharashtra State, India"(PDF).Records of the Zoological Survey of India.69(1–4): 325–328.doi:10.26515/rzsi/v69/i1-4/1971/161420.S2CID251700847.Archived(PDF)from the original on 6 October 2016.Retrieved5 October2016.
  73. ^"Colonisers ruined Western Ghats, says study".The Times of India.28 November 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  74. ^"Alien, Invasive and thriving: Native plants choked in Western Ghats".The Hindu.9 September 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  75. ^Kumar, Ajith.Impact of rainforest fragmentation on small mammals and herpetofauna in the Western Ghats, South India(PDF)(Report). Salim Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 December 2008.
  76. ^"Protected areas".Government of India.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2023.
  77. ^"The Nilgiri Bio-sphere Reserve".Archived fromthe originalon 28 September 2006.
  78. ^Gadgil, M. (31 August 2012)."Report of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel"(PDF).Westernghatindia.org.Part 1. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India: summary XIX.Archived(PDF)from the original on 20 September 2015.Retrieved4 May2012.
  79. ^"Vested interests in Western Ghats".Deccan Herald.Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2016.Retrieved5 May2016.
  80. ^"Report is anti environmental".The Hindu.Archivedfrom the original on 4 January 2016.Retrieved14 May2016.
  81. ^"World Heritage sites, Tentative lists, Western Ghats sub cluster".UNESCO.2007.Archivedfrom the original on 12 November 2022.Retrieved30 March2007.
  82. ^"UNESCO heritage sites".UNESCO.Archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2013.Retrieved30 March2007.
  83. ^"UN designates Western Ghats as world heritage site".Times of India.2 July 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 26 December 2018.Retrieved28 July2013.

External links[edit]

Media related toWestern Ghatsat Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_Ghats&oldid=1232146186"