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Sakhalin

Coordinates:51°N143°E/ 51°N 143°E/51; 143
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(Redirected fromSakhalin Island)
This article is about the Russian geographical island. For the federal subject the island is part of, seeSakhalin Oblast.
Not to be confused withSacalin Island.
"Sakhalin Island" redirects here. For the book, seeSakhalin Island(book).For the film, seeSakhalin Island(film).
"Sakhalien" and "Saghalien" redirect here. For cities in China sometimes historically referred to this in Manchu, seeHeiheandHeilongjiang.

Sakhalin
Sakhalin is located in Russia
Sakhalin
Sakhalin
Geography
LocationRussian Far East,[1]Northern Pacific Ocean
Coordinates51°N143°E/ 51°N 143°E/51; 143
Area72,492 km2(27,989 sq mi)[2]
Area rank23rd
Highest elevation1,609 m (5279 ft)
Highest pointMount Lopatin
Administration
Russia[1]
Federal subjectSakhalin Oblast
Largest settlementYuzhno-Sakhalinsk(pop. 174,203)
Demographics
Population489,638 (2019)
Pop. density6/km2(16/sq mi)
Ethnic groupsmajorityRussians,someNivkh,Orok,Ainu,Japanese&Sakhalin Koreans
Additional information
Time zone

Sakhalin(Russian:Сахали́н,IPA:[səxɐˈlʲin]) is an island inNortheast Asia.Its north coast lies 6.5 km (4.0 mi) off the southeastern coast ofKhabarovsk KraiinRussia,while its southern tip lies 40 kilometres (25 mi) north ofJapan'sHokkaido.An island of theWest Pacific,Sakhalin divides theSea of Okhotskto its east from theSea of Japanto its southwest. It is administered as part ofSakhalin Oblastand is the largestisland of Russia,[3]with an area of 72,492 square kilometres (27,989 sq mi). The island has a population of roughly 500,000, the majority of whom areRussians.Theindigenous peoplesof the island are theAinu,Oroks,andNivkhs,who are now present in very small numbers.[4]

The island's name is derived from theManchuwordSahaliyan(ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ). The Ainu people of Sakhalin paid tribute to theYuan,Ming,andQingdynasties and accepted official appointments from them. Sometimes the relationship was forced but control from dynasties inChinawas loose for the most part.[5][6]Sakhalin was later claimed by both Russia and Japan over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. These disputes sometimes involved military conflicts and divisions of the island between the two powers. In 1875, Japan ceded its claims to Russia in exchange for the northernKuril Islands.In 1897 more than half of the population were Russians and other European and Asian minorities.[7]In 1905, following theRusso-Japanese War,the island was divided, withSouthern Sakhalingoing to Japan. After theSiberian intervention,Japan invaded the northern parts of Sakhalin, and ruled the entire island from 1918 to 1925. Russia has held all of the island sinceseizingthe Japanese portion in the final days ofWorld War IIin 1945, as well as all of the Kurils. Japan no longer claims any of Sakhalin, although it does stillclaim the southern Kuril Islands.Most Ainu on Sakhalin moved to Hokkaido, 43 kilometres (27 mi) to the south across theLa Pérouse Strait,when Japanese civilians were displaced from the island in 1949.[8]

Etymology

[edit]
This article containsManchutext.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofManchu alphabet.

Sakhalin has several names includingKarafuto(Japanese:Hoa thái),Kuye(simplified Chinese:Khố hiệt đảo;traditional Chinese:Khố hiệt đảo;pinyin:Kùyèdǎo),Sahaliyan(Manchu:ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ),Bugata nā(Orok:Бугата на̄),Yh-mif(Nivkh:Ых-миф).

TheManchuscalled itSahaliyan ula angga hadaᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ
ᡠᠯᠠ ᠠᠩᡤᠠ
ᡥᠠᡩᠠ'Island at the Mouth of the Black River'.[9]Sahaliyan,the word that has been borrowed in the form of "Sakhalin", means "black" in Manchu,ulameans "river" andsahaliyan ulaᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ
ᡠᠯᠠ'Black River'is the proper Manchu name of theAmur River.[citation needed]

The Qing dynasty called Sakhalin ‘Kuyedao’ (‘the island of Ainu’) and the indigenous people paid tribute to the Chinese empire. However, there was no formalized border around the island. The Qing dynasty was a pre- modern or ‘world empire’ which did not place emphasis on demarcating borders in the manner of the modern ‘national empires’ of the nineteenth and early twentieth century (Yamamuro 2003: 90–97).[10]

— T. Nakayama

The island was also called "Kuye Fiyaka".[11]The word "Kuye" used by the Qing is "most probably related tokuyi,the name given to the Sakhalin Ainu by their Nivkh and Nanai neighbors. "[12]When the Ainu migrated onto the mainland, the Chinese described a "strong Kui (or Kuwei, Kuwu, Kuye, Kugi,i.e.Ainu) presence in the area otherwise dominated by the Gilemi or Jilimi (Nivkh and other Amur peoples). "[13]Related names were in widespread use in the region, for example the Kuril Ainu called themselveskoushi.[12]

The origins of the traditional Japanese name,Karafuto(Japanese:Hoa thái), are unclear and multiple competing explanations have been proposed. These include:[14]

  • A borrowing of Mongoliankarahoton,meaning "distant fortress".
  • A modification ofJapanese:Đường nhânKarahito,meaning "Chinese person", from the presence of Chinese traders on the island.
  • A derivation from dialect words meaning "prawns" or "many herring".
  • An aphetic form ofAinu:カモイ・カラ・ブト(kamoi kara buto) "strait made by gods".

The Japanese form hoa thái equates toKorean:화태Hwangt'ae,an earlier name for the island now superseded by the transcription 사할린Sahallin.

History

[edit]

Early history

[edit]
Historical extent of theAinu people

Humans lived on Sakhalin in theNeolithicStone Age. Flint implements such as those found inSiberiahave been found at Dui andKusunaiin great numbers, as well as polished stone hatchets similar to European examples, primitive pottery with decorations like those of theOlonets,and stone weights used with fishing nets. A later population familiar with bronze left traces in earthen walls and kitchen-middensonAniva Bay.

De Vries(1643) mapped Sakhalin's eastern promontories without realising that he had visited an island (map from 1682).

Indigenous peopleof Sakhalin include theAinuin the southern half, theOroksin the central region, and theNivkhsin the north.[15][page needed]

Yuan and Ming tributaries

[edit]
Main article:Mongol invasions of Sakhalin

After theMongolsconquered the Jin dynasty (1234),they suffered raids by theNivkhandUdege peoples.In response, the Mongols established an administration post at Nurgan (present-dayTyr, Russia) at the junction of theAmurandAmgunrivers in 1263, and forced the submission of the two peoples.[16]

From the Nivkh perspective, their surrender to the Mongols essentially established a military alliance against the Ainu who had invaded their lands.[17]According to theHistory of Yuan,a group of people known as theGuwei(Cốt ngôi;Gǔwéi,the Nivkh name for Ainu) from Sakhalin invaded and fought with the Jilimi (Nivkh people) every year. On 30 November 1264, the Mongols attacked the Ainu.[18]The Ainu resisted the Mongol invasions but by 1308 had been subdued. They paid tribute to the MongolYuan dynastyat posts in Wuliehe, Nanghar, and Boluohe.[19]

The ChineseMing dynasty(1368–1644) placed Sakhalin under its "system for subjugated peoples" (ximin tizhi). From 1409 to 1411 the Ming established an outpost called theNurgan Regional Military Commissionnear the ruins ofTyron the Siberian mainland, which continued operating until the mid-1430s. There is some evidence that the Ming eunuch AdmiralYishihareached Sakhalin in 1413 during one of his expeditions to the lower Amur, and granted Ming titles to a local chieftain.[20]

The Ming recruited headmen from Sakhalin for administrative posts such as commander (Chỉ huy sử;zhǐhuīshǐ), assistant commander (Chỉ huy thiêm sự;zhǐhuī qiānshì), and "official charged with subjugation" (Vệ trấn phủ;wèizhènfǔ). In 1431, one such assistant commander, Alige, broughtmartenpelts as tribute to the Wuliehe post. In 1437, four other assistant commanders (Zhaluha, Sanchiha, Tuolingha, and Alingge) also presented tribute. According to theMing Veritable Records,these posts, like the position of headman, were hereditary and passed down the patrilineal line. During these tributary missions, the headmen would bring their sons, who later inherited their titles. In return for tribute, the Ming awarded them with silk uniforms.[19]

Nivkhwomen in Sakhalin married Han Chinese Ming officials when the Ming took tribute from Sakhalin and the Amur river region.[21][22]

Qing tributary

[edit]
French map from 1821 showing Sakhalin as part of Qing Empire

The ManchuQing dynasty,which came to power in China in 1644, called Sakhalin "Kuyedao" (Chinese:Khố hiệt đảo;pinyin:Kùyè dǎo;lit.'island of the Ainu')[23][24][10]or "Kuye Fiyaka" (ᡴᡠᠶᡝ
ᡶᡳᠶᠠᡴᠠ).[11]TheManchuscalled it "Sagaliyan ula angga hada" (Island at the Mouth of the Black River).[9]The Qing first asserted influence over Sakhalin after the 1689Treaty of Nerchinsk,which defined theStanovoy Mountainsas the border between the Qing and theRussian Empires.In the following year the Qing sent forces to theAmurestuary and demanded that the residents, including the Sakhalin Ainu, pay tribute. This was followed by several further visits to the island as part of the Qing effort to map the area. To enforce its influence, the Qing sent soldiers and mandarins across Sakhalin, reaching most parts of the island except the southern tip. The Qing imposed a fur-tribute system on the region's inhabitants.[25][26][22]

The Qing dynasty ruled these regions by imposing upon them a fur tribute system, just as had the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Residents who were required to pay tributes had to register according to theirhala(ᡥᠠᠯᠠ,the clan of the father's side) andgashan(ᡤᠠᡧᠠᠨ,village), and a designated chief of each unit was put in charge of district security as well as the annual collection and delivery of fur. By 1750, fifty-sixhalaand 2,398 households were registered as fur tribute payers, – those who paid with fur were rewarded mainly with Nishiki silkbrocade,and every year the dynasty supplied the chief of each clan and village with official silk clothes (mangpao,duanpao), which were the gowns of the mandarin. Those who offered especially large fur tributes were granted the right to create a familial relationship with officials of the ManchuEight Banners(at the time equivalent to Chinese aristocrats) by marrying an official's adopted daughter. Further, the tribute payers were allowed to engage in trade with officials and merchants at the tribute location. By these policies, the Qing dynasty brought political stability to the region and established the basis for commerce and economic development.[26]

— Shiro Sasaki

The Qing dynasty established an office inNingguta,situated midway along theMudan River,to handle fur from the lower Amur and Sakhalin. Tribute was supposed to be brought to regional offices, but the lower Amur and Sakhalin were considered too remote, so the Qing sent officials directly to these regions every year to collect tribute and to present awards. By the 1730s, the Qing had appointed senior figures among the indigenous communities as "clan chief" (hala-i-da) or "village chief" (gasan-daormokun-da). In 1732, 6hala,18gasban,and 148 households were registered as tribute bearers in Sakhalin. Manchu officials gave tribute missions rice, salt, other necessities, and gifts during the duration of their mission. Tribute missions occurred during the summer months. During the reign of theQianlong Emperor(r. 1735–95), a trade post existed at Delen, upstream of Kiji (Kizi) Lake, according toRinzo Mamiya.There were 500–600 people at the market during Mamiya's stay there.[27][22]

Local native Sakhalin chiefs had their daughters taken as wives by Manchu officials as sanctioned by the Qing dynasty when the Qing exercised jurisdiction in Sakhalin and took tribute from them.[28][22]

Japanese exploration and colonization

[edit]
Mamiya Rinzōdescribed Sakhalin as an island in his map

In 1635,Matsumae Kinhiro,the second daimyō ofMatsumae Domainin Hokkaidō, sent Satō Kamoemon and Kakizaki Kuroudo on an expedition to Sakhalin. One of the Matsumae explorers, Kodō Shōzaemon, stayed in the island in the winter of 1636 and sailed along the east coast to Taraika (nowPoronaysk) in the spring of 1637.[29]

In an early colonization attempt, a Japanese settlement was established atŌtomarion Sakhalin's southern end in 1679.[30]Cartographers of theMatsumae clandrew a map of the island and called it "Kita-Ezo" (Northern Ezo,Ezobeing the old Japanese name for the islands north ofHonshu).

In the 1780s, the influence of the JapaneseTokugawa Shogunateon the Ainu of southern Sakhalin increased significantly. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Japanese economic zone extended midway up the east coast, to Taraika. With the exception of the Nayoro Ainu located on the west coast in close proximity to China, most Ainu stopped paying tribute to the Qing dynasty. TheMatsumae clanwas nominally in charge of Sakhalin, but they neither protected nor governed the Ainu there. Instead they extorted the Ainu for Chinese silk, which they sold inHonshuas Matsumae's special product. To obtain Chinese silk, the Ainu fell into debt, owing much fur to the Santan (Ulch people), who lived near the Qing office. The Ainu also sold the silk uniforms (mangpao,bufu,andchaofu) given to them by the Qing, which made up the majority of what the Japanese knew asnishikiandjittoku.As dynastic uniforms, the silk was of considerably higher quality than that traded atNagasaki,and enhanced Matsumae prestige as exotic items.[25]Eventually the Tokugawa government, realizing that they could not depend on the Matsumae, took control of Sakhalin in 1807.[31]

Mogami's interest in the Sakhalin trade intensified when he learned that Yaenkoroaino, the above-mentioned elder from Nayoro, possessed a memorandum written in Manchurian, which stated that the Ainu elder was an official of the Qing state. Later surveys on Sakhalin by shogunal officials such as Takahashi Jidayú and Nakamura Koichiró only confirmed earlier observations: Sakhalin and Sóya Ainu traded foreign goods at trading posts, and because of the pressure to meet quotas, they fell into debt. These goods, the officials confirmed, originated at Qing posts, where continental traders acquired them during tributary ceremonies. The information contained in these types of reports turned out to be a serious blow to the future of Matsumae's trade monopoly in Ezo.[32]

— Brett L. Walker

Japan proclaimed sovereignty over Sakhalin in 1807; in 1809,Mamiya Rinzōclaimed that it was an island.[33]

European exploration

[edit]
Display of Sakhalin on maps varied throughout the 18th century. This map from a 1773 atlas, based on theearlier workbyd'Anville,who in his turn made use of the information collected byJesuitsin 1709, asserts the existence of Sakhalin – but only assigns to it the northern half of the island and its northeastern coast (withCape Patience,discovered byde Vriesin 1643). Cape Aniva, also discovered by de Vries, andCape Crillon(Black Cape) are, however, thought to form part of the mainland
La Perouse charted most of the southwestern coast of Sakhalin (or "Tchoka", as he heard natives call it) in 1787

The first European known to visit Sakhalin wasMartin Gerritz de Vries,who mappedCape Patienceand Cape Aniva on the island's east coast in 1643. TheDutchcaptain, however, was unaware that it was an island, and 17th-century maps usually showed these points (and often Hokkaido as well) as part of the mainland. As part of a nationwide Sino-French cartographic program,JesuitsJean-Baptiste Régis,Pierre Jartoux, andXavier Ehrenbert Fridellijoined a Chinese team visiting the lowerAmur(known to them under itsManchuname, Sahaliyan Ula, "the Black River" ), in 1709,[34]and learned of the existence of the nearby offshore island from theNanainatives of the lower Amur.[35]

The Jesuits did not have a chance to visit the island, and the geographical information provided by the Nanai people and Manchus who had been to the island was insufficient to allow them to identify it as the land visited by de Vries in 1643. As a result, many 17th-century maps showed a rather strangely shaped Sakhalin, which included only the northern half of the island (with Cape Patience), while Cape Aniva, discovered by de Vries, and the "Black Cape" (Cape Crillon) were thought to form part of the mainland.[citation needed]

Only with the 1787 expedition ofJean-François de La Pérousedid the island began to resemble something of its true shape on European maps. Though unable to pass through itsnorthern "bottleneck"due to contrary winds, La Perouse charted most of theStrait of Tartary,and islanders he encountered near today'sNevelskoy Straittold him that the island was called "Tchoka" (or at least that is how he recorded the name in French), and "Tchoka" appears on some maps thereafter.[36]

19th century

[edit]

Russo-Japanese rivalry

[edit]
1823 Japanese map of Karafuto and the mouth of the Amur
Anton Chekhov museum inAlexandrovsk-Sakhalinsky,Russia. It is the house where he stayed in Sakhalin during 1890.
Settler's way of life. Near church at holiday. 1903

On the basis of its belief that it was an extension of Hokkaido, both geographically and culturally, Japan again proclaimed sovereignty over the whole island (as well as theKuril Islandschain) in 1845, in the face of competing claims from Russia. In 1849, however, the Russian navigatorGennady Nevelskoyrecorded the existence and navigability of the strait later given his name, and Russian settlers began establishing coal mines, administration facilities, schools, and churches on the island. In 1853–54,Nikolay Rudanovskysurveyed and mapped the island.[37]

In 1855, Russia and Japan signed theTreaty of Shimoda,which declared that nationals of both countries could inhabit the island: Russians in the north, and Japanese in the south, without a clearly defined boundary between. Russia also agreed to dismantle its military base at Ootomari. Following theSecond Opium War,Russia forced China to sign theTreaty of Aigun(1858) and theConvention of Peking(1860), under which China lost to Russia all claims to territories north ofHeilongjiang(Amur) and east ofUssuri.

In 1857, the Russians established a penal colony, orkatorga,on Sakhalin.[38]The island remained under shared sovereignty until the signing of the 1875Treaty of Saint Petersburg,in which Japan surrendered its claims in Sakhalin to Russia. In 1890 the authorAnton Chekhovvisited the penal colony on Sakhalin. He spent three months there interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census and published a memoir of his journey.[39]

Division along 50th parallel

[edit]
Sakhalin Island with Karafuto Prefecture highlighted
See also:Japanese invasion of Sakhalin,Sakhalin Oblast,andKarafuto Prefecture

Japanese forces invaded and occupied Sakhalin in the closing stages of theRusso-Japanese War.In accordance with theTreaty of Portsmouthof 1905, the southern part of the island below the50th parallel northreverted to Japan, while Russia retained the northern three-fifths. In 1920, during theSiberian Intervention,Japan again occupied the northern part of the island, returning it to the Soviet Union in 1925.

South Sakhalin was administered by Japan asKarafuto Prefecture(Karafuto-chō(Hoa thái sảnh)), with the capital atToyohara(today'sYuzhno-Sakhalinsk). A large number of migrants were brought in from Korea.[citation needed]

The northern, Russian, half of the island formedSakhalin Oblast,with the capital atAleksandrovsk-Sakhalinsky.[citation needed]

Whaling

[edit]

Between 1848 and 1902,Americanwhaleshipshuntedwhalesoff Sakhalin.[40]They cruised forbowheadandgray whalesto the north andright whalesto the east and south.[41]

On June 7, 1855, the shipJefferson(396 tons), ofNew London,was wrecked onCape Levenshtern,on the northeastern side of the island, during a fog. All hands were saved as well as 300 barrels ofwhale oil.[42][43][44]

Second World War

[edit]
See also:Invasion of South SakhalinandJapanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union

In August 1945, after repudiating theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact,the Soviet Union invaded southern Sakhalin, an action planned secretly at theYalta Conference.The Soviet attack started on August 11, 1945, a few days before the surrender of Japan. The Soviet 56th Rifle Corps, part of the16th Army,consisting of the79th Rifle Division,the 2nd Rifle Brigade, the 5th Rifle Brigade and the 214 Armored Brigade,[45]attacked the Japanese88th Infantry Division.Although the Soviet Red Army outnumbered the Japanese by three to one, they advanced only slowly due to strong Japanese resistance. It was not until the 113th Rifle Brigade and the 365th Independent Naval Infantry Rifle Battalion from Sovetskaya Gavan landed on Tōro, a seashore village of western Karafuto, on August 16 that the Soviets broke the Japanese defense line. Japanese resistance grew weaker after this landing. Actual fighting continued until August 21. From August 22 to August 23, most remaining Japanese units agreed to a ceasefire. The Soviets completed the conquest of Karafuto on August 25, 1945, by occupying the capital ofToyohara.[citation needed]

Of the approximately 400,000 people – mostly Japanese and Korean – who lived on South Sakhalin in 1944, about 100,000 wereevacuated to Japanduring the last days of the war. The remaining 300,000 stayed behind, some for several more years.[46]

While the vast majority of Sakhalin Japanese and Koreans were gradually repatriated between 1946 and 1950, tens of thousands ofSakhalin Koreans(and a number of their Japanese spouses) remained in the Soviet Union.[47][48]

No final peace treaty has been signed and the status of four neighboring islands remainsdisputed.Japan renounced its claims of sovereignty over southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands in theTreaty of San Francisco(1951), but maintains that the four offshore islands ofHokkaidocurrently administered by Russia were not subject to this renunciation.[49]Japan granted mutual exchange visas for Japanese and Ainu families divided by the change in status. Recently, economic and political cooperation has gradually improved between the two nations despite disagreements.[50]

Recent history

[edit]
Main article:Sakhalin Oblast
Central part ofYuzhno-Sakhalinsk,2009

On 1 September 1983,Korean Air Flight 007,a South Korean civilian airliner, flew over Sakhalin and was shot down by the Soviet Union, just west of Sakhalin Island, near the smallerMoneron Island.The Soviet Union claimed it was a spy plane; however, commanders on the ground realized it was a commercial aircraft. All 269 passengers and crew died, including a U.S. Congressman,Larry McDonald.[citation needed]

On 27 May 1995, the 7.0 Mw Neftegorsk earthquakeshook the former Russian settlement ofNeftegorskwith a maximumMercalli intensityof IX (Violent). Total damage was $64.1–300 million, with 1,989 deaths and 750 injured. The settlement was not rebuilt.[citation needed]

Geography

[edit]

Sakhalin is separated from the mainland by the narrow and shallowStrait of Tartary,which often freezes in winter in its narrower part, and fromHokkaido,Japan, by the Soya Strait orLa Pérouse Strait.Sakhalin is the largest island in Russia, being 948 km (589 mi) long, and 25 to 170 km (16 to 106 mi) wide, with an area of 72,492 km2(27,989 sq mi).[2]It lies at similar latitudes to England, Wales and Ireland.

Itsorographyand geological structure are imperfectly known. One theory is that Sakhalin arose from theSakhalin Island Arc.[51]Nearly two-thirds of Sakhalin is mountainous. Two parallel ranges of mountains traverse it from north to south, reaching 600–1,500 m (2,000–4,900 ft). The Western Sakhalin Mountains peak in Mount Ichara, 1,481 m (4,859 ft), while the Eastern Sakhalin Mountains's highest peak, Mount Lopatin 1,609 m (5,279 ft), is also the island's highest mountain. Tym-Poronaiskaya Valley separates the two ranges. Susuanaisky and Tonino-Anivsky ranges traverse the island in the south, while the swampy Northern-Sakhalin plain occupies most of its north.[52]

Crystalline rocks crop out at several capes;Cretaceouslimestones,containing an abundant and specific fauna of giganticammonites,occur at Dui on the west coast; andTertiaryconglomerates,sandstones,marls,andclays,folded by subsequent upheavals, are found in many parts of the island. The clays, which contain layers of good coal and abundant fossilized vegetation, show that during the Miocene period, Sakhalin formed part of a continent which comprised north Asia, Alaska, and Japan, and enjoyed a comparatively warm climate. ThePliocenedeposits contain a mollusc fauna more Arctic than that which exists at the present time, indicating that the connection between the Pacific andArctic Oceanswas probably broader than it is now.

Main rivers: TheTym,330 km (205 mi) long and navigable by rafts and light boats for 80 km (50 mi), flows north and northeast with numerous rapids and shallows, and enters theSea of Okhotsk.[53]ThePoronayflows south-southeast to theGulf of Patienceor Shichiro Bay, on the southeastern coast. Three other small streams enter the wide semicircularAniva Bayor Higashifushimi Bay at the southern extremity of the island.

The northernmost point of Sakhalin isCape of Elisabethon theSchmidt Peninsula,whileCape Crillonis the southernmost point of the island.See also:Cape Khalpili

Sakhalin has two smaller islands associated with it,Moneron IslandandUsh Island.Moneron, the only land mass in the Tatar strait, 7.2 km (4.5 mi) long and 5.6 km (3.5 mi) wide, is about 24 nautical miles (44 km) west from the nearest coast of Sakhalin and 41 nmi (76 km) from the port city of Nevelsk. Ush Island is an island off of the northern coast of Sakhalin.

  • Sakhalin and its surroundings.
    Sakhalin and its surroundings.
  • Velikan Cape, Sakhalin
    Velikan Cape, Sakhalin
  • Zhdanko Mountain Ridge
    Zhdanko Mountain Ridge

Demographics

[edit]
Nivkhchildren in Sakhalin c. 1903

According to the 1897 census, Sakhalin had a population of 28,113, of which 56.2% were Russians, 8.4%Ukrainians,7.0%Nivkh,5.8%Poles,5.4%Tatars,5.1%Ainu,2.82%Oroks,0.95%Germans,0.81%Japanese,with the non-indigenous people living mainly from agriculture, or being convicts or exiles.[54]The majority of Nivkh, Ainu and Japanese lived from fishing or hunting, whereas the Oroks lived mainly by livestock (reindeer) breeding.[55]The Ainu, Japanese andKoreanslived almost exclusively in the southern part of the island.[56]Since 1925, many Poles fled Soviet Russian persecution in the north to the then Japanese south.[57]

The 400,000Japaneseinhabitants of Sakhalin (including the Japanized indigenousAinu) who had not already beenevacuatedduring the war were deported following the invasion of the southern portion of the island by the Soviet Union in 1945 at the end of World War II.[58]

In 2010, the island's population was recorded at 497,973, 83% of whom were ethnicRussians,followed by about 30,000Koreans(5.5%). Smaller minorities were theAinu,Ukrainians,Tatars,SakhasandEvenks.The native inhabitants currently consist of some 2,000Nivkhsand 750Oroks.The Nivkhs in the north support themselves by fishing and hunting.

The administrative center of the oblast,Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk,a city of about 175,000, has a large Korean minority, typically referred to asSakhalin Koreans,who were forcibly brought by the Japanese duringWorld War IIto work in the coal mines. Most of the population lives in the southern half of the island, centered mainly around Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk and two ports,KholmskandKorsakov(population about 40,000 each). In 2008 there were 6,416 births and 7,572 deaths.[59]

Climate

[edit]
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
48
−8
−18
44
−7
−19
42
−2
−13
57
5
−4
69
12
1
54
16
7
87
19
11
105
21
12
107
18
7
98
11
0
81
2
−7
63
−7
−17
█Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
█Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Weather Underground
Imperial conversion
JFMAMJJASOND
1.9
18
0
1.7
19
−2
1.7
28
9
2.2
41
25
2.7
54
34
2.1
61
45
3.4
66
52
4.1
70
54
4.2
64
45
3.9
52
32
3.2
36
19
2.5
19
1
█Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
█Precipitation totals in inches

The Sea of Okhotsk ensures that Sakhalin has a cold and humid climate, ranging fromhumid continental(KöppenDfb) in the south tosubarctic(Dfc) in the centre and north. The maritime influence makes summers much cooler than in similar-latitude inland cities such asHarbinorIrkutsk,but makes the winters much snowier and a few degrees warmer than in interior East Asian cities at the same latitude. Summers are foggy with little sunshine.[60][failed verification]

Precipitation is heavy, owing to the strong onshore winds in summer and the high frequency of North Pacific storms affecting the island in the autumn. It ranges from around 500 millimetres (20 in) on the northwest coast to over 1,200 millimetres (47 in) in southern mountainous regions. In contrast to interior east Asia with its pronounced summer maximum, onshore winds ensure Sakhalin has year-round precipitation with a peak in the autumn.[52]

Flora and fauna

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Western Gray whale near Sakhalin
Anaphalis margaritaceawithpeacock butterfly

The whole of the island is covered with denseforests,mostlyconiferous.TheYezo(or Yeddo) spruce (Picea jezoensis), theSakhalin fir(Abies sachalinensis) and theDahurian larch(Larix gmelinii) are the chief trees; on the upper parts of the mountains are theSiberian dwarf pine(Pinus pumila) and the Kurile bamboo (Sasa kurilensis).Birches,both Siberian silver birch (Betula platyphylla) andErman's birch(B. ermanii),poplar,elm(Ulmus laciniata),bird cherry(Prunus padus),Japanese yew(Taxus cuspidata), and severalwillowsare mixed with the conifers; while farther south themaple,rowanandoak,as also the JapaneseKalopanax septemlobus,theAmur cork tree(Phellodendron amurense), thespindle(Euonymus macropterus) and the vine (Vitis thunbergii) make their appearance. The underwoods abound in berry-bearing plants (e.g.cloudberry,cranberry,crowberry,red whortleberry), red-berried elder (Sambucus racemosa), wildraspberry,andSpiraea.

Brown bear,Eurasian river otter,red fox,eurasian lynx,leopard catandsableare fairly numerous (as arereindeerin the north); rarely seen, but still present, is the elusiveSakhalin musk deer,a subspecies of Siberian musk deer. Smaller mammals includehare,squirrels,and variousrodents(includingratsandmice) nearly everywhere. Thebirdpopulation is made-up of mostly the common eastern Siberian forms, but there are someendemicor near-endemic breeding species, notably theendangeredNordmann's greenshank(Tringa guttifer) and theSakhalin leaf warbler(Phylloscopus borealoides). The rivers swarm withfish,especially species ofsalmon(Oncorhynchus). Numerouscetaceansvisit the sea coast, including theendangeredWestern Pacificgray whale,[61]for which the waters off of Sakhalin are their only known feeding ground, thus being a vitally important region for their population's longevity. Other cetaceans known to occur in this area are theNorth Pacific right whale,thebowhead whale,and thebeluga whale,the latter two generally preferring icy waters and colder conditions to the north. All are potential prey species for the highly socialkiller whale,or orca. The once-commonJapanese sea lionand Japanesesea otter,both hunted to extinction, formerly ranged from Japan's coastline to Sakhalin, Korea, Kamchatka, and theYellow Sea;however, over-harvesting depleted their numbers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Today,ringed sealsand the giantSteller sea lioncan be spotted around Sakhalin Island.

Transport

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Sea

[edit]
Main article:Sakhalin Shipping Company

Transport, especially by sea, is an important segment of the economy. Nearly all the cargo arriving for Sakhalin (and theKuril Islands) is delivered by cargo boats, or by ferries, in railway wagons, through theVanino-Kholmsk train ferryfrom the mainland port ofVaninoto Kholmsk. The ports of Korsakov and Kholmsk are the largest and handle all kinds of goods, whilecoalandtimbershipments often go through other ports. In 1999, a ferry service was opened between the ports of Korsakov andWakkanai,Japan, and operated through the autumn of 2015, when service was suspended.

For the 2016 summer season, this route will be served by a highspeed catamaran ferry from Singapore named Penguin 33. The ferry is owned by Penguin International Limited[62]and operated by Sakhalin Shipping Company.[63]

Sakhalin's main shipping company is Sakhalin Shipping Company, headquartered in Kholmsk on the island's west coast.

Rail

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About 30% of all inland transport volume is carried by the island's railways, most of which are organized as theSakhalin Railway(Сахалинская железная дорога), which is one of the 17 territorial divisions of theRussian Railways.

TheSakhalin Railwaynetwork extends fromNoglikiin the north toKorsakovin the south. Sakhalin's railway has a connection with the rest of Russia via atrain ferryoperating betweenVaninoandKholmsk.

The process of converting the railways from the Japanese1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in) gauge to the Russian1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in) gauge began in 2004[64][65]and was completed in 2019.[66] The original JapaneseD51 steam locomotiveswere used by the Soviet Railways until 1979.

Besides the main network run by the Russian Railways, until December 2006 the local oil company (Sakhalinmorneftegaz) operated a corporate narrow-gauge750 mm(2 ft5+1⁄2in) line extending for 228 kilometers (142 mi) from Nogliki further north toOkha(Узкоколейная железная дорога Оха – Ноглики). During the last years of its service, it gradually deteriorated; the service was terminated in December 2006, and the line was dismantled in 2007–2008.[67]

Air

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Sakhalin is connected by regular flights toMoscow,Khabarovsk,Vladivostokand other cities of Russia.Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk Airporthas regularly scheduled international flights toHakodate,Japan, andSeoulandBusan,South Korea. There are also charter flights to the Japanese cities ofTokyo,Niigata,andSapporoand to the Chinese cities ofShanghai,DalianandHarbin.The island was formerly served byAlaska AirlinesfromAnchorage,Petropavlovsk,andMagadan.

[edit]

The idea of building afixed linkbetween Sakhalin and the Russian mainland was first put forward in the 1930s. In the 1940s, an abortive attempt was made to link the island via a 10-kilometre-long (6 mi) underseatunnel.[68]The project was abandoned under PremierNikita Khrushchev.In 2000, the Russian government revived the idea, adding a suggestion that a 40-km (25 mile) long bridge could be constructed between Sakhalin and the Japanese island of Hokkaidō, providing Japan with a direct connection to theEurasianrailway network. It was claimed that construction work could begin as early as 2001. The idea was received skeptically by the Japanese government and appears to have been shelved, probably permanently, after the cost was estimated at as much as $50 billion.

In November 2008, Russian presidentDmitry Medvedevannounced government support for the construction of theSakhalin Tunnel,along with the required regauging of the island's railways to Russian standard gauge, at an estimated cost of 300–330 billionroubles.[69]

In July 2013, Russian Far East development ministerViktor Ishayevproposed arailwaybridge to link Sakhalin with the Russian mainland. He also again suggesteda bridge between Sakhalin and Hokkaidō,which could potentially create a continuous rail corridor between Europe and Japan.[70]In 2018, presidentVladimir Putinordered a feasibility study for a mainland bridge project.[citation needed]

Economy

[edit]
At the ceremony marking the opening of aliquefied natural gasproduction plant built as part of the Sakhalin-2 project

Sakhalin is a classic "primary sector of the economy"area, relying onoilandgasexports,coal mining,forestry,andfishing.Limited quantities ofrye,wheat,oats,barleyandvegetablesgrow there, although thegrowing seasonaverages less than 100 days.[52]

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequenteconomic liberalization,Sakhalin has experienced an oilboomwith extensive petroleum-exploration and mining by most large oilmultinational corporations.The oil and natural- gas reserves contain an estimated 14billionbarrels(2.2 km3) of oil and 2,700 km3(96trillioncubic feet) of gas and are being developed under production-sharing agreement contracts involving international oil- companies likeExxonMobilandShell.

In 1996, two large consortia,Sakhalin-IandSakhalin-II,signed contracts to explore for oil and gas off the northeast coast of the island. The two consortia's pre-project estimate of costs were a combinedUS$21 billion on the two projects; costs had almost doubled to $37 billion as of September 2006, triggering Russian governmental opposition. The cost will include an estimated US$1 billion to upgrade the island's infrastructure: roads, bridges,waste managementsites, airports, railways, communications systems, and ports. In addition, Sakhalin-III-through-VI are in various early stages of development.

The Sakhalin I project, managed byExxon Neftegas,completed a production-sharing agreement (PSA) between the Sakhalin I consortium, the Russian Federation, and the Sakhalin government. Russia is in the process of building a 220 km (140 mi) pipeline across theTatar Straitfrom Sakhalin Island toDe-Kastri terminalon the Russian mainland. From De-Kastri, the resource will be loaded onto tankers for transport to East Asian markets, namely Japan, South Korea and China.

A second consortium, Sakhalin Energy Investment Company Ltd (Sakhalin Energy), is managing the Sakhalin II project. It has completed the first production-sharing agreement (PSA) with the Russian Federation. Sakhalin Energy will build two 800-km pipelines running from the northeast of the island to Prigorodnoye (Prigorodnoe) in Aniva Bay at the southern end. The consortium will also build, at Prigorodnoye, the firstliquefied natural gas(LNG) plant to be built in Russia. The oil and gas are also bound for East Asian markets.

Sakhalin II has come under fire from environmental groups, namely Sakhalin Environment Watch, for dumping dredging material in Aniva Bay. These groups were also worried about the offshore pipelines interfering with the migration of whales off the island. The consortium has (as of January 2006) rerouted the pipeline to avoid the whale migration. After a doubling in the projected cost, the Russian government threatened to halt the project for environmental reasons.[71]There have been suggestions[by whom?]that the Russian government is using the environmental issues as a pretext for obtaining a greater share of revenues from the project and/or forcing involvement by the state-controlledGazprom.The cost overruns (at least partly due to Shell's response to environmental concerns), are reducing the share of profits flowing to the Russian treasury.[72][73][74][75]

In 2000, the oil-and-gas industry accounted for 57.5% of Sakhalin's industrial output. By 2006 it is expected[by whom?]to account for 80% of the island's industrial output. Sakhalin's economy is growing rapidly thanks to its oil-and-gas industry.

As of 18 April 2007,Gazprom had taken a 50% plus one share interest in Sakhalin II by purchasing 50% of Shell, Mitsui and Mitsubishi's shares.

In June 2021, it was announced that Russia aims to make Sakhalin Island carbon neutral by 2025.[76]

International partnerships

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Claimed by

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See also

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ab"Sakhalin Island | island, Russia".Encyclopedia Britannica.July 23, 2024.
  2. ^ab"Islands by Land Area".Island Directory.United Nations Environment Program.February 18, 1998. Archived fromthe originalon February 20, 2018.RetrievedJune 16,2010.
  3. ^Ros, Miquel (January 2, 2019)."Russia's Far East opens up to visitors".CNN Travel.RetrievedJanuary 6,2019.
  4. ^"The Sakhalin Regional Museum: The Indigenous Peoples".Sakh.com. Archived fromthe originalon March 17, 2009.RetrievedJune 16,2010.
  5. ^Gan, Chunsong (2019).A Concise Reader of Chinese Culture.Springer. p. 24.ISBN9789811388675.
  6. ^Westad, Odd (2012).Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750.Basic Books. p. 11.ISBN9780465029365.
  7. ^Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.(in Russian). Vol. LXXVII. 1904. pp. 34–37, 56–63.
  8. ^Reid, Anna (2003).The Shaman's Coat: A Native History of Siberia.New York: Walker & Company. pp.148–150.ISBN0-8027-1399-8.
  9. ^abNarangoa 2014,p. 295.
  10. ^abNakayama 2015,p. 20.
  11. ^abSchlesinger 2017,p. 135.
  12. ^abHudson 1999,p. 226.
  13. ^Zgusta 2015,p. 64.
  14. ^"Yosha Bunko".wetherall.sakura.ne.jp.RetrievedSeptember 24,2024.
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  17. ^Zgusta 2015,p. 96.
  18. ^Nakamura 2010,p. 415.
  19. ^abWalker 2006,p. 133.
  20. ^Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002) [2001].Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle.Seattle, Wash: University of Washington Press. pp. 158–161.ISBN0-295-98124-5.RetrievedJune 16,2010.Link is to partial text.
  21. ^(Sei Wada,‘The Natives of the Lower reaches of the Amur as Represented in Chinese Records’, Memoirs of the Research Department of Toyo Bunko, no. 10, 1938, pp. 40‒102) (Shina no kisai ni arawaretaru Kokuryuko karyuiki no dojin chi na の ký tái に hiện はれたる hắc long giang hạ lưu vực の thổ nhân ( The natives on the lower reaches of the Amur river as represented in Chinese records), Tõagaku 5, vol. 1, Sept. 1939.) Wada, ‘Natives of the Lower Reaches of the Amur River’, p. 82.
  22. ^abcdMorris-Suzuki, Tessa (November 15, 2020)."Indigenous Diplomacy: Sakhalin Ainu (Enchiw) in the Shaping of Modern East Asia (Part 1: Traders and Travellers)".Japan Focus: The Asia-Pacific Journal.18(22).
  23. ^Smith 2017,p. 83.
  24. ^Kim 2019,p. 81.
  25. ^abWalker 2006,pp. 134–135.
  26. ^abSasaki 1999,pp. 87–89.
  27. ^Sasaki 1999,p. 87.
  28. ^(Shiro Sasaki, ‘A History of the Far East Indigenous Peoples’ Transborder Activities Between the Russian and Chinese Empires’, Senri Ethnological Studies, vol. 92, 2016, pp. 161‒193.) Sasaki, ‘A History of the Far East Indigenous Peoples’ Transborder Activities’, p. 173.
  29. ^Thu nguyệt tuấn hạnh 『 nhật lộ quan hệ とサハリン đảo: Mạc mạt minh trị sơ niên の lĩnh thổ vấn đề 』 trúc ma thư phòng, 1994 niên, 34 hiệt ( Akizuki Toshiyuki,Nich-Ro kankei to Saharintō: Bakumatsu Meiji shonen no ryōdo mondai (Japanese–Russian Relations and Sakhalin Island: Territorial Dispute in the Bakumatsu and First Meiji Years),(Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo Publishers Ltd), p. 34.ISBN4480856684)
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  31. ^Sasaki 1999,p. 88.
  32. ^Walker 2006,pp. 149–150.
  33. ^Lower, Arthur (1978).Ocean of Destiny: A concise History of the North Pacific, 1500–1978.UBC. p. 75.ISBN9780774843522.
  34. ^Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste(1736).Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique, et physique de l'empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise, enrichie des cartes générales et particulieres de ces pays, de la carte générale et des cartes particulieres du Thibet, & de la Corée; & ornée d'un grand nombre de figures & de vignettes gravées en tailledouce.Vol. 1. La Haye: H. Scheurleer. p. xxxviii.RetrievedJune 16,2010.
  35. ^Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste(1736).Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique, et physique de l'empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise, enrichie des cartes générales et particulieres de ces pays, de la carte générale et des cartes particulieres du Thibet, & de la Corée; & ornée d'un grand nombre de figures & de vignettes gravées en tailledouce.Vol. 4. La Haye: H. Scheurleer. pp. 14–16.RetrievedJune 16,2010.The people whose name the Jesuits recorded asKe tcheng ta tse( "HezhenTatars ") lived, according to the Jesuits, on the Amur below the mouth of theDondon River,and were related to theYupi ta tse( "Fishskin Tatars" ) living on the Ussuri and the Amur upstream from the mouth of the Dondon. The two groups might thus be ancestral of theUlchandNanaipeople known to latter ethnologists; or, the "Ke tcheng" might in fact be Nivkhs.
  36. ^La Pérouse, Jean François de Galaup, comte de (1831). de Lesseps, Jean Baptiste (ed.).Voyage de Lapérouse, rédigé d'après ses manuscrits, suivi d'un appendice renfermant tout ce que l'on a découvert depuis le naufrage, et enrichi de notes par m. de Lesseps.pp. 259–266.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^"Началось исследование Южного Сахалина под руководством лейтенанта Николая Васильевича Рудановского"[Study of South Sakhalin Started under Lieutenant Nikolay Vasilievich Rudanovsky] (in Russian). President Library of Russia. October 18, 1853.RetrievedOctober 31,2021."I made my trips around Sakhalin Island in autumn and winter...": reports of Lieutenant N. V. Rudanovskiy. 1853–1854
  38. ^ Burkhardt, Frederick;Secord, James A.,eds. (2015).The Correspondence of Charles Darwin.Vol. 23. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 211.ISBN9781316473184.RetrievedOctober 3,2020.The Russians had established a penal colony in northern Sakhalin in 1857 [...].
  39. ^"Chekhov's trip to Sakhalin puts lockdown in perspective".The Economist.ISSN0013-0613.RetrievedMarch 28,2024.
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  44. ^Starbuck, Alexander (1878).History of the American Whale Fishery from Its Earliest Inception to the year 1876.Castle.ISBN1-55521-537-8.
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  65. ^Dickinson, Rob."Steam and the Railways of Sakhalin Island".International Steam Page. Archived fromthe originalon February 17, 2008.RetrievedJune 16,2010.
  66. ^Gauge conversion
  67. ^Bolashenko, Serguei (Болашенко, С.) (July 6, 2006).Узкоколейная железная дорога Оха – Ноглики[Okha-Nogliki narrow-gauge railway].САЙТ О ЖЕЛЕЗНОЙ ДОРОГЕ(in Russian). Archived fromthe originalon August 11, 2014.RetrievedJune 17,2010.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. ^The Moscow Times(July 7, 2008)."Railway a Gauge of Sakhalin's Future".The RZD-Partner.Archived fromthe originalon September 9, 2012.RetrievedJune 17,2010.
  69. ^Президент России хочет остров Сахалин соединить с материком[President of Russia wants to join Sakhalin Island to the mainland] (in Russian). PrimaMedia. November 19, 2008.RetrievedJune 17,2010.
  70. ^"Minister Proposes 7km Bridge to Sakhalin Island".RIA Novosti.The Moscow Times. July 19, 2013.RetrievedMarch 29,2014.
  71. ^"Russia Threatens To Halt Sakhalin-2 Project Unless Shell Cleans Up".Terra Daily.Agence France-Presse.September 26, 2006.RetrievedJune 17,2010.
  72. ^Kramer, Andrew E. (September 19, 2006)."Russia Halts Pipeline, Citing River Damage".The New York Times.p. C.11.RetrievedJune 17,2010.
  73. ^"Cynical in Sakhalin".Financial Times.London. September 26, 2006.Archivedfrom the original on December 10, 2022.RetrievedOctober 2,2006.
  74. ^"A deal is a deal".The Times.London. September 22, 2006. Archived fromthe originalon February 9, 2007.RetrievedJune 17,2010.
  75. ^"CEO delivers message at Sakhalin's first major energy conference"(Press release).Sakhalin Energy.September 27, 2006. Archived fromthe originalon November 1, 2007.RetrievedJune 17,2010.Citations for the date:"Sakhalin II: Laying the Base for Future Arctic Developments in Russia"(Press release). Sakhalin Energy. September 27, 2006. Archived fromthe originalon December 14, 2011.RetrievedJune 17,2010."Media Archives 2006".Sakhalin Energy. Archived fromthe originalon July 15, 2011.RetrievedJune 17,2010.
  76. ^"Russia aims to make Sakhalin island carbon neutral by 2025".Reuters.June 2, 2021.RetrievedJune 3,2021.

Works cited

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Further reading

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  • Anton Chekhov,A Journey to Sakhalin(1895), including:
    • Saghalien [or Sakhalin] Island(1891–1895)
    • Across Siberia
  • C. H. Hawes,In the Uttermost East(London, 1903). (quoted in EB1911, see below)
  • Ajay Kamalakaran,Sakhalin Unplugged(Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 2006)
  • Ajay Kamalakaran,Globetrotting for Love and Other Stories from Sakhalin Island(Times Group Books, 2017)
  • Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch;Bealby, John Thomas (1911)."Sakhalin".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 24 (11th ed.). p. 54.
  • John J. Stephan,Sakhalin: A History.Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
[edit]
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