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Branches of science

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Further information:Outline of science
For broader coverage of this topic, seeAcademic discipline.
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Science
Galileo demonstrating his telescope to the Doge of Venice.
Branches
In society

Thebranches ofscience,also referred to assciences,scientificfieldsorscientific disciplines,are commonly divided into three major groups:

Scientific knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions.[2]This verifiability may well vary evenwithina scientific discipline.[3][4]

Natural, social, and formal science make up thefundamental sciences,which form the basis ofinterdisciplinarity- andapplied sciencessuch asengineeringandmedicine.Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their ownterminologiesandexpertises.[5]

Formal sciences

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Main article:Formal sciences
For a topical guide, seeOutline of formal science.

Theformal sciencesare the branches of science that are concerned withformal systems,such aslogic,mathematics,theoretical computer science,information theory,systems theory,decision theory,statistics.

Unlike other branches, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity oftheoriesbased onobservationsin thereal world(empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties offormal systemsbased ondefinitionsandrules.Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal sciences actually constitute as a science. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing ofscientific modelsdealing with observable reality,[6]and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences.

Logic

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Main article:Logic
For a topical guide, seeOutline of logic.

Logic(fromGreek:λογική,logikḗ,'possessed ofreason,intellectual,dialectical,argumentative')[7][8][note 1]is the systematic study of validrules of inference,i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (theconclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal ofarguments.[9]

It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of thelogical forms;thevalidityandsoundnessofdeductive reasoning;thestrengthofinductive reasoning;the study offormal proofsandinference(includingparadoxesandfallacies); and the study ofsyntaxandsemantics.

Historically, logic has been studied inphilosophy(since ancient times) andmathematics(since the mid-19th century). More recently, logic has been studied incognitive science,which draws oncomputer science,linguistics,philosophy andpsychology,among other disciplines.

Data science

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Main article:Data science
See also:Data visualizationandDIKW pyramid

Information science

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Main article:Information science

Information science is an academic field which is primarily concerned withanalysis,collection,classification,manipulation, storage,retrieval,movement, dissemination, and protection ofinformation.Practitioners within and outside the field study the application and the usage of knowledge inorganizationsin addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existinginformation systemswith the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems.

See also:Information visualizationandDIKW pyramid

Mathematics

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Main article:Mathematics
For a topical guide, seeOutline of mathematics.

Mathematics,in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of formal science; but traditionally mathematics means more specifically the coalition of four areas:arithmetic,algebra,geometry,andanalysis,which are, to some degree, the study of quantity, structure, space, and change respectively.

Statistics

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Main article:Statistics
For a topical guide, seeOutline of statistics.

Statisticsis the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation ofdata.[10][11]It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning ofdata collectionin terms of the design ofsurveysandexperiments.[10]

Astatisticianis someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of awide number of fields.There is also a discipline calledmathematical statistics,which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.

The wordstatistics,when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art."[12]This should not be confused with the wordstatistic,referring to a quantity (such asmeanormedian) calculated from a set of data,[13]whose plural isstatistics( "this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading" ).

Systems theory

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Main article:Systems theory

Systems theoryis thetransdisciplinarystudy ofsystemsin general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization ofsystems thinkingand a generalization ofsystems science.The term originates fromBertalanffy'sGeneral System Theory(GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as theaction theoryofTalcott Parsonsand the sociologicalautopoiesisofNiklas Luhmann.

In this context the wordsystemsis used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting throughfeedback.Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of the human body, in local and global ecosystems, and climate.

Decision theory

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Main article:Decision theory

Decision theory(or thetheory of choicenot to be confused withchoice theory) is the study of anagent'schoices.[14]Decision theory can be broken into two branches:normativedecision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines theoptimal decisionsgiven constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzeshowagents actually make the decisions they do.

Decision theory is closely related to the field ofgame theory[15]and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by economists, statisticians, psychologists, biologists,[16]political and other social scientists, philosophers,[17]and computer.

Empirical applications of this rich theory are usually done with the help ofstatisticalandeconometricmethods.

Theoretical computer science

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Main article:Theoretical computer science

Theoretical computer science(TCS) is a subset of generalcomputer scienceandmathematicsthat focuses on more mathematical topics of computing, and includes thetheory of computation.

It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. TheACM's (Association for Computing Theory)Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory(SIGACT) provides the following description:[18]

TCS covers a wide variety of topics includingalgorithms,data structures,computational complexity,parallelanddistributedcomputation,probabilistic computation,quantum computation,automata theory,information theory,cryptography,program semanticsandverification,machine learning,computational biology,computational economics,computational geometry,andcomputational number theoryandalgebra.Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique andrigor.

Natural sciences

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Main article:Natural science
For a topical guide, seeOutline of natural science.

Natural scienceis a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding ofnatural phenomena,based onempirical evidencefromobservationandexperimentation.Mechanisms such aspeer reviewand repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.

Natural science can be divided into two main branches:life scienceandphysical science.Life science is alternatively known asbiology,and physical science is subdivided into branches:physics,chemistry,astronomyandEarth science.These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields).

Physical science

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For a topical guide, seeOutline of physical science.

Physical scienceis an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.

Physics

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Main articles:PhysicsandBranches of physics
For a topical guide, seeOutline of physics.

Physics(fromAncient Greek:φύσις,romanized:physis,lit. 'nature') is anatural sciencethat involves the study ofmatter[note 2]and itsmotionthroughspacetime,along with related concepts such asenergyandforce.[20]More broadly, it is the general analysis ofnature,conducted in order to understand how theuniversebehaves.[21][22][note 3]

Physics is one of the oldestacademic disciplines,perhaps the oldest through its inclusion ofastronomy.[note 4]Over the last two millennia, physics was a part ofnatural philosophyalong withchemistry,certain branches ofmathematics,andbiology,but during theScientific Revolutionin the 16th century, thenatural sciencesemerged as unique research programs in their own right.[note 5]Certain research areas areinterdisciplinary,such asbiophysicsandquantum chemistry,which means that the boundaries of physics are notrigidly defined.In the nineteenth and twentieth centuriesphysicalismemerged as a major unifying feature of thephilosophy of scienceas physics provides fundamental explanations for everyobservednaturalphenomenon.New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.

Chemistry

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Main article:Chemistry
For a topical guide, seeOutline of chemistry.

Chemistry(the etymology of the word has been much disputed)[note 6]is thescienceofmatterand the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed byphysics,but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties ofmatter,as well as the changes it undergoes duringchemical reactions.[23][24]It is aphysical sciencewhich studies varioussubstances,atoms,molecules,and matter (especially carbon based). Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include:biochemistry,the study ofsubstancesfound inbiological organisms;physical chemistry,the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such asthermodynamicsandquantum mechanics;andanalytical chemistry,the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of theirchemical compositionandstructure.Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g.neurochemistrythe chemical study of thenervous system.

Earth science

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Main article:Earth science
For a topical guide, seeOutline of Earth sciences.

Earth science(also known asgeoscience,the geosciencesorthe Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for thesciencesrelated to theplanetEarth.[25]It is arguably a special case inplanetary science,the Earth being the only knownlife-bearing planet. There are bothreductionistandholisticapproaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of theatmosphere,hydrosphere,lithosphere,andbiosphere,as well as thesolid earth.Typically Earth scientists will use tools fromphysics,chemistry,biology,geography,chronologyandmathematicsto build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.

Geology
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Main article:Geology
For a topical guide, seeOutline of geology.

Geology(from theAncient Greekγῆ,gē( "earth" ) and -λoγία,-logia,( "study of", "discourse" )[26][27]) is anEarth scienceconcerned with thesolid Earth,therocksof which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of anyterrestrial planetornatural satellitesuch asMarsorthe Moon.Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, includinghydrologyand theatmospheric sciences,and so is treated as one major aspect of integratedEarth system scienceandplanetary science.

Oceanography
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Main article:Oceanography

Oceanography,ormarine science,is the branch ofEarth sciencethat studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, includingmarine organismsandecosystemdynamics;ocean currents,waves,and geophysical fluid dynamics;plate tectonicsand the geology of the seafloor; andfluxesof various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it:biology,chemistry,geology,meteorology,andphysicsas well asgeography.

Meteorology
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Main article:Meteorology
For a topical guide, seeOutline of meteorology.

Meteorologyis theinterdisciplinaryscientific study of theatmosphere.Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs inweather forecastingwere achieved.

Astronomy

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For a topical guide, seeOutline of astronomy.

Space scienceis the study of everything in outer space.[28]This has sometimes been calledastronomy,but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields,[29]such as studying issues related tospace travelandspace exploration(includingspace medicine),space archaeology[30]and science performed inouter space(seespace research).

Biological science

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Main article:Biology
For a topical guide, seeOutline of biology.
See also:List of life sciences

Life science,also known asbiology,is thenatural sciencethat studieslifesuch asmicroorganisms,plants,andanimalsincludinghuman beings,– including theirphysical structure,chemical processes,molecular interactions,physiological mechanisms,development,andevolution.[31]Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes thecellas the basic unit of life,genesas the basic unit ofheredity,andevolutionas the engine that propels thecreationandextinctionofspecies.Living organismsareopen systemsthat survive by transformingenergyand decreasing their localentropy[32]to maintain a stable and vital condition defined ashomeostasis.[33]

Biochemistry

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Main article:Biochemistry
For a topical guide, seeOutline of biochemistry.

Biochemistry,orbiological chemistry,is the study ofchemical processeswithin and relating to livingorganisms.[34]It is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from areductionistpoint of view it is fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related tomolecular biology,cell biology,genetics,andphysiology.

Microbiology

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Main article:Microbiology
See also:Branches of microbiology

Microbiologyis the study ofmicroorganisms,those beingunicellular(single cell),multicellular(cell colony), oracellular(lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines includingvirology,bacteriology,protistology,mycology,immunologyandparasitology.

Botany

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Main article:Botany
For a topical guide, seeOutline of botany.

Botany,also calledplant science(s),plant biologyorphytology,is thescienceofplantlife and a branch ofbiology.Traditionally, botany has also included the study offungiandalgaebymycologistsandphycologistsrespectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of theInternational Botanical Congress.Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000speciesofland plantsof which some 391,000 species arevascular plants(including approximately 369,000 species offlowering plants),[35]and approximately 20,000 arebryophytes.[36]

Zoology

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Main article:Zoology
For a topical guide, seeOutline of zoology.

Zoology(/zoʊˈɒlədʒi/)[note 7]is the branch ofbiologythat studies the animal kingdom, including thestructure,embryology,evolution,classification,habits,and distribution of allanimals,both living andextinct,and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived fromAncient Greekζῷον,zōion,i.e. "animal"and λόγος,logos,i.e. "knowledge, study".[37]Some branches of zoology include:anthrozoology,arachnology,archaeozoology,cetology,embryology,entomology,helminthology,herpetology,histology,ichthyology,malacology,mammalogy,morphology,nematology,ornithology,palaeozoology,pathology,primatology,protozoology,taxonomy,andzoogeography.

Ecology

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Main article:Ecology
For a topical guide, seeOutline of ecology.

Ecology(fromGreek:οἶκος,"house", or "environment";-λογία,"study of" )[note 8]is a branch ofbiology[38]concerning interactions amongorganismsand theirbiophysical environment,which includes bothbioticandabioticcomponents. Topics of interest include thebiodiversity,distribution,biomass,andpopulationsof organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and betweenspecies.Ecosystemsare dynamically interacting systems oforganisms,thecommunitiesthey make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such asprimary production,pedogenesis,nutrient cycling,andniche construction,regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits.

Social sciences

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Main article:Social science
For a topical guide, seeOutline of social science.

Social scienceis the branch of science devoted to the study ofsocietiesand therelationshipsamongindividualswithin those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field ofsociology,the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array ofacademic disciplines,includinganthropology,archaeology,economics,education,history,human geography,law,linguistics,political science,andpsychology.

Positivistsocial scientists use methods resembling those of thenatural sciencesas tools for understanding society, and so define science in its strictermodern sense.Interpretivistsocial scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empiricallyfalsifiabletheories. In modern academic practice, researchers are ofteneclectic,using multiplemethodologies(for instance, by combining bothquantitativeandqualitative research). The term "social research"has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.

Applied sciences

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Main article:Applied science
For a topical guide, seeOutline of applied science.

Applied scienceis the use of existing scientific knowledge to achieve practical goals, liketechnologyor inventions.

Withinnatural science,disciplines that arebasic sciencedevelop basicinformationto explain and perhaps predict phenomena in the natural world. Applied science is the use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a particularly practical or useful result. This includes a broad range of applied science-related fields, includingagricultural science,engineeringandmedicine.

Applied science can also applyformal science,such asstatisticsandprobability theory,as inepidemiology.Genetic epidemiologyis an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods.

Relationships between the branches

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The relationships between the branches of science are summarized by the table[39]

Science
Formal science Empirical sciences
Natural science Social science
Foundation
Application

Visualizations and metascience

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Metasciencerefers to or includes a field of science that is about science itself.OpenAlexandScholiacan be used to visualize and explorescientific fieldsand research topics.

Locations of papers in a map of science and locations of the key papers for Nobel prizes
Cluster network of scientific publications in relation to Nobel prizes[40]
Academic papers by discipline (visualization of 2012–2021 OpenAlex data; v2)
A visualization of scientific outputs by field in OpenAlex.[41]
A study can be part of multiple fields and lower numbers of papers is not necessarily detrimental for fields.
Change of number of scientific papers by field (visualization of 2012–2021 OpenAlex data)
Graph illustrating the recent development or history of scientific outputs based on data in OpenAlex.org[41]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Also related toλόγος(logos), "word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle." (Liddell and Scott, 1999).
  2. ^Richard FeynmanbeginshisLectureswith theatomic hypothesis,as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is... thatall things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another...."[19]
  3. ^The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as thecosmosor thephilosophical world
  4. ^Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000 BCE, such as theSumerians,Ancient Egyptians,and theIndus Valley civilization,all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
  5. ^Francis Bacon's 1620Novum Organumwas critical in thedevelopment of scientific method.
  6. ^SeeChemistry (etymology)for possible origins of this word.
  7. ^The pronunciation of zoology as/zuˈɒlədʒi/is typically regarded as nonstandard, though is not uncommon.
  8. ^In Ernst Haeckel's (1866) footnote where the term ecology originates, he also gives attribute toAncient Greek:χώρας,romanized:khōrā,lit. 'χωρα', meaning "dwelling place, distributional area" —quoted from Stauffer (1957).

References

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Footnotes

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  1. ^"social science | History, Disciplines, & Facts".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved2020-08-18.
  2. ^Popper 2002,p. 20.
  3. ^Davide Castelvecchi, Nature Magazine (2015-12-23)."Is String Theory science?".Scientific American.Retrieved2018-04-03.
  4. ^Editorial Staff (2016-03-03)."Psychology's reproducibility problem".Nature.doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19498.S2CID147141798.Retrieved2018-04-03.
  5. ^Editorial Staff (March 7, 2008)."Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms".Seed magazine. Archived from the original on March 10, 2007.Retrieved2007-09-12.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  6. ^Popper 2002,pp. 79–82.
  7. ^Liddell, Henry George,andRobert Scott.1940. "Logikos."A Greek–English Lexicon,edited byH. S. Joneswith R. McKenzie. Oxford:Clarendon Press.– viaPerseus Project.Retrieved 9 May 2020.
  8. ^Harper, Douglas. 2020 [2001]. "logic (n.)."Online Etymology Dictionary.Retrieved 9 May 2020.
  9. ^Gensler, Harry J. (2017) [2002]. "Chapter 1: Introduction".Introduction to logic(3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 1.doi:10.4324/9781315693361.ISBN9781138910591.OCLC957680480.
  10. ^abDodge, Y. (2003)The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms,OUP.ISBN0-19-920613-9
  11. ^"statistics".TheFreeDictionary.com.Retrieved25 August2020.
  12. ^"Statistics".Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
  13. ^"Statistic".Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.29 March 2024.
  14. ^Steele, Katie and Stefánsson, H. Orri, "Decision Theory", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =[1]
  15. ^Myerson, Roger B. (1991). "1.2: Basic concepts of Decision Theory".Game theory analysis of conflict.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.ISBN9780674728615.
  16. ^Habibi I, Cheong R, Lipniacki T, Levchenko A, Emamian ES, Abdi A (April 2017)."Computation and measurement of cell decision making errors using single cell data".PLOS Computational Biology.13(4): e1005436.Bibcode:2017PLSCB..13E5436H.doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005436.PMC5397092.PMID28379950.
  17. ^Hansson, Sven Ove. "Decision theory: A brief introduction." (2005) Section 1.2: A truly interdisciplinary subject.
  18. ^"SIGACT".Retrieved2017-01-19.
  19. ^R.P. Feynman;R.B. Leighton;Matthew Sands(1963).The Feynman Lectures on Physics.Vol. 1. p. I-2.ISBN0-201-02116-1.
  20. ^ J.C. Maxwell(1878).Matter and Motion.D. Van Nostrand.p.9.ISBN0-486-66895-9.Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.
  21. ^ H.D. Young; R.A. Freedman (2004).University Physics with Modern Physics(11th ed.).Addison Wesley.p. 2.Physics is anexperimentalscience. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles.
  22. ^ S. Holzner (2006).Physics for Dummies.Wiley.p. 7.ISBN0-470-61841-8.Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.
  23. ^"Definition of CHEMISTRY".www.merriam-webster.com.Retrieved24 August2020.
  24. ^"Definition of chemistry | Dictionary.com".www.dictionary.com.Retrieved24 August2020.
  25. ^"WordNet Search: Earth science".wordnetweb.princeton.edu.Retrieved23 August2020.
  26. ^Harper, Douglas."geology".Online Etymology Dictionary.
  27. ^γῆ.Liddell, Henry George;Scott, Robert;A Greek–English Lexiconat thePerseus Project
  28. ^"space science".TheFreeDictionary.com.Retrieved2020-08-23.
  29. ^National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC) – NASA Science
  30. ^"Space science | Define Space science at Dictionary.com".
  31. ^Based on definition from:"Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms".Texas State University at San Marcos. Archived fromthe originalon 2004-06-08.
  32. ^Davies, PC; Rieper, E; Tuszynski, JA (January 2013)."Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell".Bio Systems.111(1): 1–10.Bibcode:2013BiSys.111....1D.doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2012.10.005.PMC3712629.PMID23159919.
  33. ^Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann (December 2015)."A physiologist's view of homeostasis".Advances in Physiology Education.39(4): 259–66.doi:10.1152/advan.00107.2015.ISSN1043-4046.PMC4669363.PMID26628646.
  34. ^"Biological/Biochemistry".acs.org.
  35. ^RBG Kew (2016). The State of the World's Plants Report – 2016. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.https://stateoftheworldsplants.com/report/sotwp_2016.pdfArchived2016-09-28 at theWayback Machine
  36. ^"Bryophytes (Mosses and liverworts) — The Plant List".www.theplantlist.org.
  37. ^"zoology".Online Etymology Dictionary.
  38. ^"the definition of ecology".Dictionary.com.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2018.Retrieved20 February2018.
  39. ^Cohen, Eliel (2021). "The boundary lens: theorising academic actitity".The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century 1st Edition.New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 14–41.ISBN978-0367562984.
  40. ^Ioannidis, John P. A.; Cristea, Ioana-Alina; Boyack, Kevin W. (29 July 2020)."Work honored by Nobel prizes clusters heavily in a few scientific fields".PLOS ONE.15(7): e0234612.Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1534612I.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0234612.ISSN1932-6203.PMC7390258.PMID32726312.
  41. ^ab"Open Alex Data Evolution".observablehq.com.8 February 2022.Retrieved20 February2022.

Works cited

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