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Scientific misconduct

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For dishonesty in educational settings, seeAcademic dishonesty.For unscientific claims presented as science, seePseudoscience.
A reconstruction of the skull purportedly belonging to thePiltdown Man,a long-lasting case of scientific misconduct

Scientific misconductis the violation of the standard codes ofscholarly conductandethical behaviorin the publication ofprofessionalscientific research.It is violation ofscientific integrity:violation of thescientific methodand ofresearch ethicsinscience,including in thedesign,conduct,andreportingof research.

ALancetreview onHandling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countriesprovides the following sample definitions,[1]reproduced in The COPE report 1999:[2]

  • Danish definition: "Intention or gross negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist"
  • Swedish definition: "Intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways."

The consequences of scientific misconduct can be damaging for perpetrators and journal audience[3][4]and for any individual who exposes it.[5]In addition there are public health implications attached to the promotion of medical or other interventions based on false or fabricated research findings. Scientific misconduct can result in loss ofpublic trustin the integrity of science.[6]

Three percent of the 3,475 research institutions that report to theUS Department of Health and Human Services'Office of Research Integrity,indicate some form of scientific misconduct.[7]However the ORI will only investigate allegations of impropriety where research was funded by federal grants. They routinely monitor such research publications for red flags and their investigation is subject to a statute of limitations. Other private organizations like the Committee of Medical Journal Editors (COJE) can only police their own members.[8]

Motivation

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According toDavid GoodsteinofCaltech,there are motivators for scientists to commit misconduct, which are briefly summarised here.[9]

Career pressure
Science is still a very strongly career-driven discipline. Scientists depend on a goodreputationto receive ongoing support andfunding,and a good reputation relies largely on the publication of high-profile scientific papers. Hence, there is a strong imperative to "publish or perish".This may motivate desperate (or fame-hungry) scientists to fabricate results.
Ease of fabrication
In many scientific fields, results are often difficult to reproduce accurately, being obscured bynoise,artifacts,and other extraneousdata.That means that even if a scientist does falsify data, they can expect to get away with it – or at least claim innocence if their results conflict with others in the same field. There are few strongly backed systems to investigate possible violations, attempt to press charges, or punish deliberate misconduct. It is relatively easy to cheat although difficult to know exactly how many scientists fabricate data.[10]
Monetary Gain
In many scientific fields, the most lucrative options for professionals are often selling opinions. Corporations can pay experts to support products directly or indirectly via conferences. Psychologists can make money by repeatedly acting as an expert witness in custody proceedings for the same law firms.

Forms

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The U.S.National Science Foundationdefines three types of research misconduct:fabrication,falsification, andplagiarism.[11][12]

  • Fabricationis making up results and recording or reporting them. This is sometimes referred to as "drylabbing".[13]A more minor form of fabrication is where references are included to give arguments the appearance of widespread acceptance, but are actually fake, or do not support the argument.[14]
  • Falsificationis manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.
  • Plagiarismis the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit. One form is the appropriation of the ideas and results of others, and publishing as to make it appear the author had performed all the work under which the data was obtained. A subset iscitation plagiarism– willful or negligent failure to appropriately credit other or prior discoverers, so as to give an improper impression of priority. This is also known as, "citation amnesia", the "disregard syndrome" and "bibliographic negligence".[15]Arguably, this is the most common type of scientific misconduct. Sometimes it is difficult to guess whether authors intentionally ignored a highly relevant cite or lacked knowledge of the prior work. Discovery credit can also be inadvertently reassigned from the original discoverer to a better-known researcher. This is a special case of theMatthew effect.[16]
    • Plagiarism-fabrication – the act of taking an unrelated figure from an unrelated publication and reproducing it exactly in a new publication, claiming that it represents new data.
    • Self-plagiarism – ormultiple publicationof the same content with different titles or in different journals is sometimes also considered misconduct;scientific journalsexplicitly ask authors not to do this. It is referred to as "salami" (i.e. many identical slices) in the jargon of medical journal editors. According to some editors this includes publishing the same article in a different language.[17]


Other types of research misconduct are also recognized:

  • Ghostwriting– the phenomenon where someone other than the named author(s) makes a major contribution. Typically, this is done to mask contributions from authors with aconflict of interest.
  • Guest authorship[6]- phenomenon where authorship is given to someone who has not made any substantial contribution.[18][19]This can done by senior researchers who muscle their way onto the papers of inexperienced junior researchers[20]as well as others that stack authorship in an effort to guarantee publication. This is much harder to prove due to a lack of consistency in defining "authorship" or "substantial contribution".[21][22][23]
  • Scientific misconduct can also occur during thepeer-reviewprocess by a reviewer or editor with a conflict of interest.Reviewer-coercedcitation can also inflate the perceivedcitation impactof a researcher's work and their reputation in the scientific community,[24]similar to excessive self-citation. Reviewers are expected to be impartial and assess the quality of their work. They are expected to declare a conflict of interest to the editors if they are colleagues or competitors of the authors. A rarer case of scientific misconduct is editorial misconduct,[25]where an editor does not declare conflicts of interest, creates pseudonyms to review papers, gives strongly worded editorial decisions to support reviews suggesting to add excessive citations to their own unrelated works or to add themselves as a co-author or their name to the title of the manuscript.
  • Publishing in apredatory journal,knowingly or unknowingly, was discussed as a form of potential scientific misconduct.[26][27]
  • The peer-review process can have limitations when considering research outside the conventional scientific paradigm: social factors such as "groupthink"can interfere with open and fair deliberation of new research.[28]
  • Sneaked references – the act of subtly embedding references that are not present in a manuscript in the metadata of this accepted manuscript without the original authors being capable of noticing or correcting such modifications.[29]

Photo manipulation

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Compared to other forms of scientific misconduct, image fraud (manipulation of images to distort their meaning) is of particular interest since it can frequently be detected by external parties. In 2006, theJournal of Cell Biologygained publicity for instituting tests to detectphoto manipulationin papers that were being considered for publication.[30]This was in response to the increased usage of programs such asAdobe Photoshopby scientists, which facilitate photo manipulation. Since then more publishers, including theNature Publishing Group,have instituted similar tests and require authors to minimize and specify the extent of photo manipulation when a manuscript is submitted for publication. However, there is little evidence to indicate that such tests are applied rigorously. OneNaturepaper published in 2009[31]has subsequently been reported to contain around 20 separate instances[32]of image fraud.

Although the type of manipulation that is allowed can depend greatly on the type of experiment that is presented and also differ from one journal to another, in general the following manipulations are not allowed:[33][34]

  • splicing together different images to represent a single experiment
  • changingbrightnessandcontrastof only a part of the image
  • any change that conceals information, even when it is considered to be non-specific, which includes:
    • changing brightness and contrast to leave only the most intense signal
    • usingclone toolsto hide information
  • showing only a very small part of the photograph so that additional information is not visible

Image manipulations are typically done on visually repetitive images such as those ofblotsand microscope images.[35]

Helicopter research

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This section is an excerpt fromNeo-colonial science.[edit]

Neo-colonial research orneo-colonial science,[36][37]frequently described as helicopter research,[36]parachute science[38][39]or research,[40]parasitic research,[41][42]or safari study,[43]is when researchers from wealthier countries go to adeveloping country,collect information, travel back to their country, analyze thedataand samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by theHungarian Academy of Sciencesfound that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications aboutleast-developed countriesdid not include a local research co-author.[37]

Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support asfixersbut are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in theresearch.Scientific publicationsresulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such asfunded research centers) and the careers of local scientists.[36]This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advancecolonialism—and critics call for the end of theseextractivist practicesin order todecolonize knowledge.[44][45]

This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers may not ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues.[46]The result of this approach is that local communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage.[39]Ultimately, especially for fields dealing withglobal issueslikeconservation biologywhich rely on local communities to implement solutions, neo-colonial science preventsinstitutionalizationof the findings in local communities in order to address issues being studied by scientists.[39][44]

Responsibilities

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Authorship responsibility

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All authors of a scientific publication are expected to have made reasonable attempts to check findings submitted to academic journals for publication.

Simultaneous submission of scientific findings to more than one journal or duplicate publication of findings is usually regarded as misconduct, under what is known as the Ingelfinger rule, named after the editor ofThe New England Journal of Medicine1967–1977, Franz Ingelfinger.[47]

Guest authorship(where there is stated authorship in the absence of involvement, also known as gift authorship) and ghost authorship (where the real author is not listed as an author) are commonly regarded as forms of research misconduct. In some cases coauthors of faked research have been accused of inappropriate behavior or research misconduct for failing to verify reports authored by others or by a commercial sponsor. Examples include the case ofGerald Schattenwho co-authored withHwang Woo-Suk,the case of Professor Geoffrey Chamberlain named as guest author of papers fabricated by Malcolm Pearce,[48](Chamberlain was exonerated from collusion in Pearce's deception)[49]– and the coauthors withJan Hendrik Schönat Bell Laboratories. More recent cases include that of Charles Nemeroff,[50]then the editor-in-chief ofNeuropsychopharmacology,and a well-documented case involving the drugActonel.[51]

Authors are expected to keep all study data for later examination even after publication. The failure to keep data may be regarded as misconduct. Some scientific journals require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors might have commercial or non-commercial conflicts of interest. Authors are also commonly required to provide information about ethical aspects of research, particularly where research involves human or animal participants or use of biological material. Provision of incorrect information to journals may be regarded as misconduct. Financial pressures on universities have encouraged this type of misconduct. The majority of recent cases of alleged misconduct involving undisclosed conflicts of interest or failure of the authors to have seen scientific data involve collaborative research between scientists and biotechnology companies.[50][52]

Research institution responsibility

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In general, defining whether an individual is guilty of misconduct requires a detailed investigation by the individual's employing academic institution. Such investigations require detailed and rigorous processes and can be extremely costly. Furthermore, the more senior the individual under suspicion, the more likely it is that conflicts of interest will compromise the investigation. In many countries (with the notable exception of the United States) acquisition of funds on the basis of fraudulent data is not a legal offence and there is consequently no regulator to oversee investigations into alleged research misconduct. Universities therefore have few incentives to investigate allegations in a robust manner, or act on the findings of such investigations if they vindicate the allegation.

Well publicised cases illustrate the potential role that senior academics in research institutions play in concealing scientific misconduct. A King's College (London) internal investigation showed research findings from one of their researchers to be 'at best unreliable, and in many cases spurious'[53]but the college took no action, such as retracting relevant published research or preventing further episodes from occurring.

In a more recent case[54]an internal investigation at the National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune determined that there was evidence of misconduct byGopal Kundu,but an external committee was then organised which dismissed the allegation, and the NCCS issued a memorandum exonerating the authors of all charges of misconduct. Undeterred by the NCCS exoneration, the relevant journal (Journal of Biological Chemistry) withdrew the paper based on its own analysis.

Scientific peer responsibility

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Some academics believe that scientific colleagues who suspect scientific misconduct should consider taking informal action themselves, or reporting their concerns.[55]This question is of great importance since much research suggests that it is very difficult for people to act or come forward when they see unacceptable behavior, unless they have help from their organizations. A "User-friendly Guide," and the existence of a confidentialorganizational ombudsmanmay help people who are uncertain about what to do, or afraid of bad consequences for their speaking up.[56]

Responsibility of journals

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Journals are responsible for safeguarding the research record and hence have a critical role in dealing with suspected misconduct. This is recognised by theCommittee on Publication Ethics(COPE) which has issued clear guidelines[57]on the form (e.g. retraction) that concerns over the research record should take.

  • The COPE guidelines state that journal editors should consider retracting a publication if they have clear evidence that the findings are unreliable, either as a result of misconduct (e.g. data fabrication) or honest error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error). Retraction is also appropriate in cases of redundant publication, plagiarism and unethical research.
  • Journal editors should consider issuing anexpression of concernif they receive inconclusive evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors, there is evidence that the findings are unreliable but the authors' institution will not investigate the case, they believe that an investigation into alleged misconduct related to the publication either has not been, or would not be, fair and impartial or conclusive, or an investigation is underway but a judgement will not be available for a considerable time.
  • Journal editors should consider issuing a correction if a small portion of an otherwise reliable publication proves to be misleading (especially because of honest error), or the author / contributor list is incorrect (i.e. a deserving author has been omitted or somebody who does not meet authorship criteria has been included).

Evidence emerged in 2012 that journals learning of cases where there is strong evidence of possible misconduct, with issues potentially affecting a large portion of the findings, frequently fail to issue an expression of concern or correspond with the host institution so that an investigation can be undertaken. In one case,[31]Nature allowed acorrigendumto be published despite clear evidence of image fraud. Subsequent retraction of the paper required the actions of an independent whistleblower.[58]

The cases ofJoachim BoldtandYoshitaka Fujii[59]inanaesthesiologyfocussed attention on the role that journals play in perpetuating scientific fraud as well as how they can deal with it. In the Boldt case, the editors-in-chief of 18 specialist journals (generally anaesthesia and intensive care) made a joint statement regarding 88 published clinical trials conducted without Ethics Committee approval. In the Fujii case, involving nearly 200 papers, the journalAnesthesia & Analgesia,which published 24 of Fujii's papers, has accepted that its handling of the issue was inadequate. Following publication of a letter to the editor from Kranke and colleagues in April 2000,[60]along with a non-specific response from Dr. Fujii, there was no follow-up on the allegation of data manipulation and no request for an institutional review of Dr. Fujii's research.Anesthesia & Analgesiawent on to publish 11 additional manuscripts by Dr. Fujii following the 2000 allegations of research fraud, with Editor Steven Shafer stating[61]in March 2012 that subsequent submissions to the Journal by Dr. Fujii should not have been published without first vetting the allegations of fraud. In April 2012 Shafer led a group of editors to write a joint statement,[62]in the form of an ultimatum made available to the public, to a large number of academic institutions where Fujii had been employed, offering these institutions the chance to attest to the integrity of the bulk of the allegedly fraudulent papers.

Consequences of scientific misconduct

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Consequences for science

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The consequences of scientific fraud vary based on the severity of the fraud, the level of notice it receives, and how long it goes undetected. For cases of fabricated evidence, the consequences can be wide-ranging, with others working to confirm (or refute) the false finding, or with research agendas being distorted to address the fraudulent evidence. ThePiltdown Manfraud is a case in point: The significance of the bona-fide fossils that were being found was muted for decades because they disagreed with Piltdown Man and the preconceived notions that those faked fossils supported. In addition, the prominent paleontologistArthur Smith Woodwardspent time at Piltdown each year until he died, trying to find more Piltdown Man remains. The misdirection of resources kept others from taking the real fossils more seriously and delayed the reaching of a correct understanding of human evolution. (TheTaung Child,which should have been the death knell for the view that the human brain evolved first, was instead treated very critically because of its disagreement with the Piltdown Man evidence.)

In the case of ProfDon Poldermans,the misconduct occurred in reports of trials of treatment to prevent death and myocardial infarction in patients undergoing operations.[63]The trial reports were relied upon to issue guidelines that applied for many years across North America and Europe.[64]

In the case of Dr Alfred Steinschneider, two decades and tens of millions of research dollars were lost trying to find the elusive link between infant sleep apnea, which Steinschneider said he had observed and recorded in his laboratory, andsudden infant death syndrome(SIDS), of which he stated it was a precursor. The cover was blown in 1994, 22 years after Steinschneider's 1972Pediatricspaper claiming such an association,[65]whenWaneta Hoyt,the mother of the patients in the paper, was arrested, indicted and convicted on five counts of second-degree murder for the smothering deaths of her five children.[66]While that in itself was bad enough, the paper, presumably written as an attempt to save infants' lives, ironically was ultimately used as a defense by parents suspected in multiple deaths of their own children in cases ofMünchausen syndrome by proxy.The 1972Pediatricspaper was cited in 404 papers in the interim and is still listed on Pubmed without comment.[67]

Consequences for those who expose misconduct

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The potentially severe consequences for individuals who are found to have engaged in misconduct also reflect on the institutions that host or employ them and also on the participants in any peer review process that has allowed the publication of questionable research. This means that a range of actors in any case may have a motivation to suppress any evidence or suggestion of misconduct. Persons who expose such cases, commonly calledwhistleblowers,find themselves open to retaliation by a number of different means.[48]These negative consequences for exposers of misconduct have driven the development of whistle blowers charters – designed to protect those who raise concerns (for more details refer toretaliation (law)).

Regulatory Violations and Consequences(example)

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Title 10 Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 50.5, Deliberate Misconductof theU.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)regulations, addresses the prohibition of certain activities by individual involved in NRC-licensed activities. 10 CFR 50.5 is designed to ensure the safety and integrity ofnuclearoperations.10 CFR Part 50.9, Completeness and Accuracy of Information,focuses on the requirements for providing information and data to the NRC. The intent of 10 CFR 50.5 is to deter and penalize intentional wrongdoing (i.e., violations). 10 CFR 50.9 is crucial in maintaining transparency and reliability in thenuclearindustry, which effectively emphasizes honesty and integrity in maintaining the safety and security of nuclear operations. Providing false or misleading information or data to the NRC is therefore a violation of 10 CFR 50.9.

Violation of any of these rules can lead to severe penalties, includingtermination,finesandcriminal prosecution.It can also result in therevocationof licenses or certifications, thereby barring individuals or entities from participating in any NRC-licensed activities in the future.

Data issues

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Exposure of fraudulent data

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With the advancement of the internet, there are now several tools available to aid in the detection ofplagiarismandmultiple publicationwithin biomedical literature. One tool developed in 2006 by researchers in Dr.Harold Garner's laboratory at theUniversity of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at DallasisDéjà vu,[68]an open-access database containing several thousand instances of duplicate publication. All of the entries in the database were discovered through the use of text data mining algorithmeTBLAST,also created in Dr. Garner's laboratory. The creation of Déjà vu[69]and the subsequent classification of several hundred articles contained therein have ignited much discussion in the scientific community concerning issues such asethical behavior,journal standards, and intellectual copyright. Studies on this database have been published in journals such asNatureandScience,among others.[70][71]

Other tools which may be used to detect fraudulent data includeerror analysis.Measurements generally have a small amount of error, and repeated measurements of the same item will generally result in slight differences in readings. These differences can be analyzed, and follow certain known mathematical and statistical properties. Should a set of data appear to be too faithful to the hypothesis, i.e., the amount of error that would normally be in such measurements does not appear, a conclusion can be drawn that the data may have been forged. Error analysis alone is typically not sufficient to prove that data have been falsified or fabricated, but it may provide the supporting evidence necessary to confirm suspicions of misconduct.

Data sharing

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Kirby Lee andLisa Berosuggest, "Although reviewing raw data can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive, having such a policy would hold authors more accountable for the accuracy of their data and potentially reduce scientific fraud or misconduct."[72]

Underreporting

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The vast majority of cases of scientific misconduct may not be reported. The number ofarticle retractionsin 2022 was nearly 5,500, butIvan Oranskyand Adam Marcus, co-founders ofRetraction Watch,estimate that at least 100,000 retractions should occur every year, with only about one in five being due to "honest error".[73]

Some notable cases

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Main article:List of scientific misconduct incidents

In 1998Andrew Wakefieldpublished a fraudulent research paper inThe Lancetclaiming links between theMMR vaccine,autism,andinflammatory bowel disease.In 2010 he was found guilty of dishonesty in his research and banned from medicine by the UKGeneral Medical Councilfollowing an investigation byBrian Deerof the LondonSunday Times.[74]

The claims in Wakefield's paper were widely reported,[75]leading to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in the UK and Ireland andoutbreaks of mumps and measles.Promotion of the claimed link continues to fuel theanti-vaccination movement.

In 2011Diederik Stapel,a highly regarded Dutchsocial psychologist,was discovered to have fabricated data in dozens of studies on human behaviour.[76]He has been called "the biggest con man in academic science".[77]

In 2020Sapan Desaiand his coauthors published two papers, in the prestigious medical journalsThe LancetandThe New England Journal of Medicine,early in theCOVID-19pandemic. The papers were based on a very large dataset published bySurgisphere,a company owned by Desai. The dataset was exposed as a fabrication, and the papers were soon retracted.[78][79]

Solutions

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Changing research assessment

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Since 2012, theDeclaration on Research Assessment(DORA), from San Francisco, gathers many institutions, publishers and individuals committing to improve the metrics used to assess research and to stop focusing on thejournal impact factor.[80]

See also

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References

[edit]
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Further reading

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