Jump to content

Scottish religion in the seventeenth century

This is a good article. Click here for more information.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Scottish Protestant at prayer; statue inCulross Abbey

Scottish religion in the seventeenth centuryincludes all forms of religious organisation and belief in theKingdom of Scotlandin the seventeenth century. The 16th centuryReformationcreated aChurch of Scotland,popularly known as the kirk, predominantlyCalvinistindoctrineandPresbyterianin structure, to whichJames VIadded a layer of bishops in 1584.

While these terms now imply differences in doctrine, in the 17th centuryEpiscopalianmeant churches governed by bishops, usually appointed by the monarch;Presbyterianimplied rule byElders,nominated by congregations. By the 1630s, around 90-95% of Scots were members of the church, and despite disagreements on governance, there was general alignment on Calvinist doctrine. In the 17th century, religious disputes were often as much about political principles, due to the assumption 'true religion and true government' were one and the same.

Although both nominally Episcopalian, theChurch of Englandwas very different in doctrine and religious practice. This meant attempts byCharles Ito impose sharedcanon lawsand a new liturgy, led to theNational Covenant.TheCovenantersgained control of government after the 1638-1639Bishop's Warsbut then broke into factions. Attempts to consolidate their victory led to Scotland's involvement in theWars of the Three Kingdomsand after defeat in theAnglo-Scots War of 1649-1651,incorporation into theEnglish Commonwealth.

The 1660Restorationre-established an Episcopalian structure, but many ministers refused to accept this and held services orconventiclesoutside the established church. Covenanter risings in 1666 and 1679 led to a more intense phase of persecution known as "the Killing Time"and ended with the deposition of the CatholicJames VIIin late 1688. In March 1689, his Protestant daughterMaryand her husbandWilliam of Orangewere accepted as monarchs and the 1690 Settlement permanently removed bishops.

Background[edit]

Main article:Scottish Reformation
John Knox

The modern use ofPresbyterianorEpiscopalianimplies differences in both governance and doctrine but this was not the case in the 17th and 18th centuries.[clarification needed]Episcopalianstructures were governed by bishops, usually appointed by the monarch;Presbyterianimplied rule byElders,nominated by their congregations. Arguments over the role of bishops were as much about politics and the power of the monarch as religious practice.[1]

TheProtestant Reformationcreated aChurch of Scotland or kirkPresbyterian in structure and governance and predominantlyCalvinistin doctrine. The addition of an Episcopalian system in 1584 resulted in a situation where bishops presided over Presbyterian structures, while local lairds or heritors controlled the appointment of clergy in their districts. Tensions between these three power centres drove many of the political and religious conflicts that dominated the 17th century.[2]

In 1567, the CatholicMary, Queen of Scotswas exiled to England, where she was imprisoned and later executed. She was replaced by her one-year-old sonJames VIwho was brought up as a Protestant; by the 1630s, Catholicism was largely restricted to members of the aristocracy and remote Gaelic-speaking areas of theHighlands and Islands.[3]

1600 to 1651; Wars of the Three Kingdoms[edit]

See also:CovenanterandWar of Three Kingdoms
The riots initiated byJenny GeddesinSt Giles Cathedralled to theBishops' Wars

James claimed his authority as monarch and head of the kirkcame from God;when he also became King of England in 1603, a unified Church of Scotland and England governed by bishops became the first step in his vision of a centralised, Unionist state.[4]Although both were nominallyEpiscopalian,they were very different in governance and doctrine; Scottish bishops were doctrinal Calvinists who viewed manyChurch of Englandpractices as little better than Catholicism.[5]

Since Calvinists believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was part of God's plan, the vast majority of Scots agreed monarchy itself was divinely ordered but disagreed on who held ultimate authority in clerical affairs.[6]The Covenanter view was summarised byAndrew Melvilleas '...Thair is twa Kings and twa Kingdomes in Scotland... Chryst Jesus the King and this Kingdome the Kirk, whose subject King James the Saxt is.'[7]Royalists tended to be 'traditionalists' in religion and politics but there were many other factors, including nationalist allegiance to the kirk and individual motives were very complex.[8]

In 1618, the General Assembly reluctantly approved theFive Articles of Perth;these included forms retained in England but largely abolished in Scotland and were widely resented.[2]WhenCharles Isucceeded James, unfamiliarity with Scotland made him even more reliant on the bishops, especiallythe Archbishop of St Andrewsand prone to sudden decisions. The 1625 Act of Revocation cancelling all grants of land made by the Crown since 1540 was done without consultation and alienated large parts of the Scottish nobility and clergy.[9]

TheSolemn League and Covenantagreed by English and Scottish Presbyterians in 1643

Despite the small number of Scottish Catholics, fear of'Popery'remained widespread, partly due to the close cultural and religious links between Scots and FrenchHuguenots.[10]Increasing restrictions by the French state led to a series ofHuguenot rebellions,while many Scots also fought in the 1618 to 1648Thirty Years' War,a religious conflict that caused an estimated 8 million deaths.[11]

Concerns were heightened when Charles married the CatholicHenrietta Maria of France,then accepted the firstPapal envoysince the Reformation. In 1636, John Knox'sBook of Disciplinewas replaced by a new Book of Canons, with the threat ofexcommunicationfor anyone who denied the King's supremacy in church matters.[12]Followed in 1637 by aBook of Common Prayer,it led to widespread anger and rioting, allegedly sparked byJenny Geddesduring a service in St Giles Cathedral.[13]

The perception the kirk was under threat prompted representatives from all sections of society to sign aNational Covenanton 28 February 1638, objecting to liturgical 'innovations.'[14]Support for the Covenant was widespread except in Aberdeen and Banff, the heartland of Episcopalian resistance for the next 60 years.[15]Argylland six other members of thePrivy Council of Scotlandbacked the Covenant; in December, the General Assembly expelled bishops from the kirk.[16]

Dunbar,1650; defeat in theThird English Civil Warled to Scotland's incorporation into the Commonwealth.

Charles' efforts to impose his authority led to the 1639 and 1640Bishop's Wars,in whichCovenantervictory left them in control of Scotland. This forced Charles to recall theParliament of England,which had been suspended since 1629 and ultimately resulted in the outbreak of theFirst English Civil Warin 1642.[17]The Scots remained neutral at first but sent troops toUlsterto support their co-religionists in theIrish Rebellion of 1641;the bitterness of this conflict radicalised views in Scotland and Ireland.[18]Argyll viewed religious and economic union with England as the best way to preserve a Presbyterian kirk; in October 1643, the English Parliament signed theSolemn League and Covenant,agreeing to union in return for Scottish military support.[19]

Royalists and moderates in both Scotland and England opposed this on religious and nationalist grounds, as did the religiousIndependentslikeOliver Cromwellwho were against any state-ordered church. The Covenanters and their English allies viewed the Independents who dominated theNew Model Armyas a bigger threat than the Royalists and when Charles surrendered in 1646, they began negotiations to restore him to the English throne. In December 1647, Charles agreed to impose Presbyterianism in England for three years and suppress the Independents but his refusal to take the Covenant himself split the Covenanters intoEngagersand Kirk Party fundamentalists orWhiggamores.Defeat in theSecond English Civil Warresulted in the execution of Charles in January 1649 and the Kirk Party taking control of the General Assembly.[20]

In February 1649, the Scots proclaimedCharles IIKing of Scotland and Great Britain; under the terms of theTreaty of Breda,the Kirk Party agreed to restore Charles to the English throne, in return for his acceptance of the Covenant. A Scottish army invaded England but defeat in theThird English Civil Warresulted with Scotland's incorporation into theCommonwealth of England, Scotland and Irelandin 1652.[21]

1651 to 1660: The Commonwealth[edit]

See also:Scotland under the Commonwealth
Execution of the ProtesterJames Guthriein 1661

After defeat in 1651, the kirk split into two factions. Over two-thirds of the ministry supported the Resolution of December 1650 re-admitting Royalists and Engagers and were known as 'Resolutioners.' 'Protestors' were largely former Kirk Party fundamentalists or Whiggamores who blamed defeat on compromise with 'malignants.' Differences between the two were both religious and political, including church government, religious toleration and the role of law in a godly society.[22]

Following the events of 1648-51, Cromwell decided the only way forward was to eliminate the power of the Scottish landed elite and the kirk.[23]In February 1652, a new Council of Scotland was given responsibility for regulating religious affairs, rather than the kirk, and with freedom of worship for all Protestant sects, such asCongregationalistsandQuakers.Apart from a small number of Protestors known as Separatists, the vast majority of the kirk would not accept these changes and Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth without further consultation on 21 April 1652.[24]

Contests for control of individual presbyteries made the split increasingly bitter and in July 1653 each faction held its own General Assembly in Edinburgh. The English military commander in ScotlandRobert Lilburneused the excuse of Resolutioner church services praying for the success ofGlencairn's insurrectionto dissolve both sessions.[25]No further Assemblies were held until 1690, the Resolutioner majority instead meeting in informal 'Consultations' and Protestors holding field assemblies or Conventicles outside Resolutioner-controlled kirk structures.

James Sharp,Resolutioner, later Archbishop of St Andrews, murdered in 1679

Whenthe Protectoratewas established in 1654,Lord Broghillthe head of the Council of State for Scotland summarised his dilemma; 'the Resolutioners love Charles Stuart and hate us, while the Protesters love neither him nor us.'[26]Neither side was willing to co-operate with the Protectorate except in Glasgow where Protestors led byPatrick Gillespieused the authorities in their contest with local Resolutioners.[27]Since the Resolutioners controlled 750 of 900 parishes, Broghill recognised they could not be ignored; his policy was to isolate the 'extreme' elements of both factions and create a new, moderate majority.[28]

Broghill accordingly sought to encourage the kirk's internal divisions, such as having Gillespie appointed Principal of Glasgow University against the wishes of theJames GuthrieandWarriston-led Protestor majority. The Protectorate authorities effectively became arbitrators between the factions, each of whom appointed representatives to argue their case in London. The repercussions affected the kirk for decades to come.[29]

While toleration was not formally extended to either Episcopalians or Catholics, they were largely left alone, although the Quakers were the only non-conformists to establish a presence.[30]Attempts were made to convert the largely Catholic, Gaelic-speaking Highlands and Islands to Presbyterianism, with the first Gaelic catechism published in 1653 and the first Psalm book in 1659.[31]This period was later viewed as very positive for religion, since being barred from politics meant ministers spent more time with their congregations and emphasised preaching that emulated the sects.[32]

1660 to 1685; Restoration and the Killing Time[edit]

Covenanters in a Glenby Alexander Carse; an illegal field assembly or Conventicle.

After theRestoration of the Monarchyin 1660, Scotland regained control of the kirk, but theRescissory Act 1661restored the legal position of 1633. This removed the Covenanter reforms of 1638-1639 although another Act renewed the ability of kirk sessions, presbyteries and synods to impose civil penalties, suggesting some compromise was possible.[33]The restoration of Episcopacy was proclaimed by the Privy Council of Scotland on 6 September 1661.[34]

James Sharp,who was in London representing the Resolutioners, accepted a position asArchbishop of St Andrews.He was consecrated along withRobert LeightonasBishop of Dunblaneand soon an entire bench of bishops had been appointed. In 1662, the kirk was restored as the national church, independent sects banned and all office-holders were required to renounce the Covenant; about a third, or around 270 in total, lost their positions.[33]Most occurred in the south-west of Scotland, an area particularly strong in its Covenanting sympathies; some took to preaching in the open fields, orconventicles,which often attracted thousands of worshippers.[35]

The government responded by alternating persecution and toleration; in 1663, a Parliamentary Act declared dissenting ministers 'seditious persons' and imposed heavy fines on those who failed to attend the parish churches of the "King's curates ".In 1666 a group of men from Galloway captured the government's local military commander and marched on Edinburgh and were defeated at theBattle of Rullion Green.Around 50 prisoners were taken, while a number of others were arrested; 33 were executed and the resttransportedto Barbados.[36]

The Rising led to the replacement of theDuke of Rothesas King's Commissioner byJohn Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdalewho followed a more conciliatory policy. Letters of Indulgence were issued in 1669, 1672 and 1679, allowing evicted ministers to return to their parishes, if they agreed to avoid politics. A number returned but over 150 refused the offer, while many Episcopalians were alienated by the compromise.

Pre-1660, Glasgow had been a stronghold of the Protestor faction; in 1670, Robert Leighton was appointedArchbishop of Glasgowin an attempt to bring dissenters back into the kirk. He failed to make progress; this was not simply due to the Protestor resistance but also that of Episcopalians, deriving from the presbytery struggles of the 1650s. This meant a return to persecution; preaching at a conventicle was made punishable by death, while attendance attracted severe sanctions. In 1674,heritorsand masters were made responsible for the 'good behaviour' of their tenants and servants; from 1677, this meant posting bonds for those living on their land. In 1678, 3,000 Lowland militia and 6,000 Highlanders, known as the "Highland Host", were billeted in the Covenanting shires, especially those in the South-West, as a form of punishment.[37]

The Covenanter's Prison inSt Giles Kirkyard,Edinburgh, where prisoners were held after theBattle of Bothwell Bridgein 1679

In 1679, a group of Covenanters killed Archbishop Sharp. The incident led to a rising that grew to 5,000 men. They were defeated by forces underJames, Duke of Monmouth,the King's illegitimate son, at theBattle of Bothwell Bridge.Two ministers were executed and 250 followers shipped to Barbados, 200 drowning when their ship went down off Orkney. The rebellion eventually led to the fall of Lauderdale, who was replaced by the King's brother, the openly CatholicJames,known in Scotland as the Duke of Albany.[38]

The dissenters, led byDonald CargillandRichard Cameronwere originally known as the Society People, then later as theCameronians.They became increasingly radical and on 22 June 1680 posted theSanquhar Declaration,in which they renounced their allegiance to Charles II. After Cameron was killed, Cargill excommunicated Charles, his brother James and other royalists; Cargill himself was captured and executed in May 1681.[39]

The government passed aTest Act,forcing every holder of public office to take an oath of non-resistance. Eight Episcopal clergy andJames Dalrymple,Lord President of the Court of Sessionresigned and the leading noblemanArchibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyllwas forced into exile. In 1684, the remaining Society People posted anApologetical Declarationon several market crosses, threatening retaliation against government officials; In response to this new element of outright political sedition, the Scottish Privy Council authorised extrajudicial field executions of those caught in arms or those who refused to swear loyalty to the King.[40]This more intense phase of persecution, later known in Protestant historiography as "the Killing Time",led to dissenters being summarily executed by the dragoons ofJames Graham, Laird of Claverhouseor sentenced to transportation or death bySir George Mackenzie,theLord Advocate.[41]

1688 to 1700; Glorious Revolution[edit]

See also:Glorious Revolution in Scotland
Images of alleged tortures inflicted onVaudois Protestantsin 1685 fed the perception of a Protestant Europe under threat

The Scottish Succession Act of August 1681 confirmed the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir 'regardless of religion,' the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king and the independence of the Scottish Crown. It went beyond simply ensuring James's succession to the Scottish throne by explicitly stating the aim was also to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without '...the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war.'[42]At the same time, the 1681 Scottish Test Act required all public officials to swear unconditional loyalty to the king, but with the crucial qualifier they 'promise to uphold the true Protestant religion'.[43]

Despite his Catholicism, James became king in April 1685 with widespread support in Scotland due to fears of civil war if he were bypassed, while the rapid defeat ofArgyll's Risingin June 1685 stemmed from opposition to re-opening past divisions within the kirk.[44]In 1687, James extended 'tolerance' to the dissident Presbyterians who had backed Argyll, with the exception of the Cameronians, whose leading ministerJames Renwickwas executed in 1688.[45]Doing so alienated his Episcopalian base while promoting Catholics to senior government positions was seen as incompatible with his promise to ensure the primacy of the kirk.[46]

It was also badly timed; Scotland in particular had long-standing cultural links with FrenchHuguenots,who were expelled from France inOctober 1685.[47]While fewer than 2% of Scots were Catholic, combined with thekilling of 2,000 Swiss Protestantsin 1686 it reinforced fears Protestant Europe was threatened by a Catholic counter-reformation.[48]In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis; the birth ofJames Francis Edwardon 10 June created a Catholic heir, excluding James' Protestant daughterMaryand her husbandWilliam of Orange.Prosecuting theSeven Bishopswas viewed as going beyond tolerance for Catholicism and into an assault on theChurch of England;their acquittal on 30 June destroyed James' political authority.[49]

William IIIandMary IIdepicted on the ceiling of thePainted Hall,Greenwich

Representatives from the English political class invited Williamto assume the English throne; when he landed inBrixhamon 5 November, James' army deserted him and he left for France on 23 December.[50]In Edinburgh, key Royal officials fled the capital leaving a power vacuum during which rioters stormedHolyrood Abbey,destroyed its Catholic chapel and damaged the tombs of the Stuart kings, while others took down the heads of executed Covenanters from above the city gates.[51]Order was restored once news came James had gone into exile; while there was little domestic Scottish involvement in the coup, Scots were well represented among those who returned with William, while his invasion force included the DutchScots Brigade.Members of theScottish Privy Councilwent to London and on 7 January 1689, they asked William to take over the responsibilities of government, pending a Scottish Convention in March.[41]

While a large majority of the English Parliament agreed Mary should replace her father, William's demand he be made joint monarch and sole ruler if she died was only narrowly approved. In Scotland, the split within the kirk made William more important because his Calvinism meant Presbyterians saw him as a natural ally, while the Episcopalian minority could only retain control with his support.[52]TheScottish Conventionthat convened on 14 March inEdinburghwas dominated by the Presbyterians. On 4 April, it passed theClaim of Rightand the 'Articles of Grievances', which held James forfeited the Crown by his actions; on 11 May, William and Mary became co-monarchs of Scotland.[53]

The General Assembly meeting in November 1690 was the first since 1654 and even before it convened, over 200 Episcopalian ministers had been removed from their livings.[54]The 1690 Settlement eliminated episcopacy and created two commissions for the south and north of the Tay, which over the next 25 years removed almost two-thirds of all ministers.[55]However, nearly one hundred clergy took advantage of Acts of indulgence in 1693 and 1695 to return to the kirk, while many others were protected by the local gentry. In 1673, Michael Fraser was appointed minister at Daviot and Dunlichty and was still there when he died in 1726, despite being evicted in 1694, as well as joining the 1715 and 1719 Jacobite Risings.[56]Those who remained outside the kirk eventually formed theReformed Presbyterian Churchand theScottish Episcopal Church.[57]

Popular Protestantism[edit]

See also:Society in early modern ScotlandandHistory of popular religion in Scotland
The Bible of William Hannay of Tundergarth, a Covenanter during the period of the "Killing Time"

Scottish Protestantism in the seventeenth century was highly focused on the Bible, which was seen as infallible and the major source of moral authority. TheGeneva Biblewas commonly used in the early part of the century; although the kirk adopted theAuthorised King James Versionin 1611 and the first Scots version was printed in 1633, it continued to be employed into the late seventeenth century.[58]Family worship was strongly encouraged by the Covenanters. Books of devotion were distributed to encourage the practice and ministers were encouraged to investigate whether this was being carried out.[59]

The seventeenth century saw the high-water mark of kirk discipline. Kirk sessions were able to apply religious sanctions, such as excommunication and denial of baptism, to enforce godly behaviour and obedience. In more difficult cases of immoral behaviour they could work with the local magistrate, in a system modelled on that employed in Geneva.[60]Public occasions were treated with mistrust and from the later seventeenth century there were efforts by kirk sessions to stamp out activities such aswell-dressing,bonfires,guising,penny weddingsand dancing.[61]

Under an act of 1649, kirk sessions were charged with levying taxes on local heritors for poor relief, rather than relying on voluntary contributions.[62]By the mid-seventeenth century the system had largely been rolled out across the Lowlands, but was limited in the Highlands.[63]The system was largely able to cope with general poverty and minor crises, helping the old and infirm to survive and provide life support in periods of downturn at relatively low cost, but was overwhelmed in the major subsistence crisis of the 1690s, known as theseven ill years.[64]The kirk also had a major role in education. Statutes passed in1616,1633,1646and1696established a parish school system,[65]paid for by local heritors and administered by ministers and localpresbyteries.[66]By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas.[67]

Title page fromGeorge Sinclair'sSatans Invisible World(1685), one of the many tracts published in Scotland arguing the existence of witchcraft

In the seventeenth century the pursuit of witchcraft was largely taken over by the kirk sessions and was often used to attack superstitious and Catholic practices in Scottish society. Most of the accused, some 75 per cent, were women, with over 1,500 executed, and thewitch hunt in Scotlandhas been seen as a means of controlling women.[68]The most intense phase of persecution took place from1661 to 1662,when over 664 people in four counties were accused of witchcraft. With the exception of local outbreaks in East Lothian in 1678 and 1697 at Paisley, the numbers declined as trials were tightly controlled by the judiciary and government, and evidence made less reliant on torture. It has also been suggested it was partly due to a reduction in economic and social tensions; the last recorded executions were in 1706, the last trial in 1727 and the 1563 Act was repealed in 1736.[69]

Catholicism[edit]

Main article:Roman Catholicism in Scotland

The number of practising Catholics continued to decline in the seventeenth century and the church structure deteriorated; by the 1640s, it is estimated fewer than 2% of Scots were Catholic, restricted to parts of the aristocracy and the remoteHighlands and Islands.[10]Some were to convert to Roman Catholicism, as didJohn Ogilvie(1569–1615), who went on to be ordained a priest in 1610, later being hanged forproselytismin Glasgow and often thought of as the only Scottish Catholic martyr of the Reformation era.[70]An IrishFranciscanmission in the 1620s and 1630s claimed large numbers of converts, but these were confined to the Western Isles and had little impact on the mainland.[71]Acollege for the education of Scots clergywas opened at Madrid in 1633, and was afterwards moved toValladolid.In 1653, the remaining five or six clergy were incorporated underWilliam Ballantineas prefect of the mission.[72]

A small number of Jesuits were active in Strathgrass from the 1670s; in 1694,Thomas Nicolsonwas appointed as the firstVicar Apostolicover the mission in 1694 and the situation of Catholicism improved marginally.[71]Nicholson divided Scotland into districts, each with its own designated priests and undertook visitations to ensure the implementation of Papal legislation; in 1700, hisStatuta Missionis,which included a code of conduct for priests and laymen, were approved by all the clergy.[73]However, by 1703 there were still only 33 Catholic clergy working in Scotland.[74]

References[edit]

  1. ^Main.
  2. ^abMitchison, Fry & Fry 2002,pp. 166–168.
  3. ^Prebble 1973,p. 50.
  4. ^Stephen 2010,pp. 55–58.
  5. ^McDonald 1998,pp. 75–76.
  6. ^Macleod 2009,pp. 5–19 passim.
  7. ^Melville 1842,p. 370.
  8. ^Harris 2015,pp. 53–54.
  9. ^Harris 2015,pp. 353–356.
  10. ^abFissel 1994,pp. 269, 278.
  11. ^Wilson 2009,p. 787.
  12. ^Stevenson 1973,pp. 45–46.
  13. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,p. 203.
  14. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,p. 204.
  15. ^Plant.
  16. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 205–206.
  17. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 209–210.
  18. ^Royle 2005,p. 142.
  19. ^Robertson 2014,p. 125.
  20. ^Mitchison, Fry & Fry 2002,pp. 223–224.
  21. ^Royle 2005,p. 611.
  22. ^Holfelder 1998,p. 9.
  23. ^Morrill 1990,p. 162.
  24. ^Baker 2009,pp. 290–291.
  25. ^Holfelder 1998,p. 190.
  26. ^Dow 1979,p. 192.
  27. ^Holfelder 1998,p. 196.
  28. ^Dow 1979,p. 204.
  29. ^Holfelder 1998,p. 213.
  30. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 226–227.
  31. ^Lynch 1992,p. 363.
  32. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 228–230.
  33. ^abMackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 231–234.
  34. ^McCoy 1974,p. 216.
  35. ^Mitchison, Fry & Fry 2002,p. 253.
  36. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 235–236.
  37. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 237–238.
  38. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 238–239.
  39. ^Callow 2004.
  40. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 240–241.
  41. ^abMackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,p. 245.
  42. ^Jackson 2003,pp. 38–54.
  43. ^Harris & Taylor 2013,p. 122.
  44. ^Womersley 2015,p. 189.
  45. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,p. 241.
  46. ^Harris 2007,pp. 153–157.
  47. ^Spielvogel 1980,p. 410.
  48. ^Bosher 1994,pp. 6–8.
  49. ^Harris 2007,pp. 235–236.
  50. ^Harris 2007,pp. 3–5.
  51. ^Lynch 1992,p. 297.
  52. ^Harris 2007,pp. 271–272.
  53. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 241–245.
  54. ^Lynch 1992,p. 300.
  55. ^Lynch 1992,p. 304.
  56. ^Lenman 1980,p. 56.
  57. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,p. 253.
  58. ^Wormald 1991,pp. 192–193.
  59. ^Henderson 2011,p. 8.
  60. ^Houston & Whyte 2005,p. 30.
  61. ^Houston & Whyte 2005,p. 34.
  62. ^Mitchison, Fry & Fry 2002,p. 96.
  63. ^Grell & Cunningham 1997,p. 37.
  64. ^Mitchison 1990,pp. 127, 145.
  65. ^Houston & Whyte 2005,p. 31.
  66. ^"School education prior to 1873",Scottish Archive Network,2010,archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2011,retrieved18 May2013.
  67. ^Anderson 2003,pp. 219–228..
  68. ^Brown 2012,p. 81.
  69. ^Levack 2002,pp. 166–180.
  70. ^Buckley, Bauerschmidt & Pomplun 2010,p. 164.
  71. ^abLynch 1992,pp. 365–366.
  72. ^Herbermann 1912,p. 620.
  73. ^Mairena 2008,pp. 56–60.
  74. ^Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1986,pp. 298–299.

Sources[edit]

  • Anderson, R (2003). Bryce, TGK; Humes, WM (eds.).The history of Scottish Education pre-1980 in "Scottish Education: Post-Devolution".Edinburgh University Press.ISBN0-7486-1625-X.;
  • Baker, Derek (2009).Schism, Heresy and Religious Protest.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521101783.
  • Bosher, JF (1994). "The Franco-Catholic Danger, 1660–1715".History.79(255): 5–30.doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1994.tb01587.x.JSTOR24421929.
  • Brown, S. J. (2012). Devine, T.M; Wormald, J (eds.).Religion and society to c. 1900 inThe Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-956369-2.
  • Buckley, J; Bauerschmidt, FC; Pomplun, T (2010).The Blackwell Companion to Catholicism.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1444337327.
  • Callow, John (2004). "Cargill, Donald [Daniel] 1627-1681".Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(online ed.). Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/4461.(Subscription orUK public library membershiprequired.)
  • Croft, P.,King James(Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003),ISBN0-333-61395-3.
  • Dow, F D (1979).Cromwellian Scotland 1651-1660.John Donald.
  • Fissel, Mark (1994).The Bishops' Wars: Charles I's Campaigns against Scotland, 1638-1640.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0521466865.
  • Graham, M. F., "Scotland", in A. Pettegree,The Reformation World(London: Routledge, 2000),ISBN0-415-16357-9.
  • Grell, O. P.; Cunningham, A (1997).Health Care and Poor Relief in Protestant Europe, 1500–1700.Routledge.ISBN0-415-12130-2.;
  • Harris, Tim (2015).Rebellion: Britain's First Stuart Kings, 1567-1642.OUP Oxford.ISBN978-0198743118.
  • Harris, Tim (2007).Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720.Allen Lane.ISBN978-0-7139-9759-0.
  • Harris, Tim; Taylor, Stuart (2013).Final Crisis of the Stuart Monarchy: The Revolutions of 1688-91 in Their British, Atlantic and European Contexts.Boydell Press.ISBN978-1843838166.
  • Herbermann, C. G., ed. (1912).The Catholic Encyclopedia;: an International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic church; Volume 13.Appleton.
  • Henderson, G. D. (2011).Religious Life in Seventeenth-Century Scotland.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-24877-8..
  • Holfelder, Kyle (1998).Factionalism in the Kirk during the Cromwellian Invasion and Occupation of Scotland, 1650 to 1660: The Protester-Resolutioner Controversy(PHD). University of Edinburgh.
  • Houston, R. A.; Whyte, I. D., eds. (2005).Scottish Society, 1500–1800.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-89167-1..
  • Jackson, Claire (2003).Restoration Scotland, 1660-1690: Royalist Politics, Religion and Ideas.Boydell Press.ISBN978-0851159300.
  • Lenman, Bruce (1980).The Jacobite Risings in Britain 1689-1746.Eyre Methuen.ISBN978-0413396501.
  • Levack, B. P. (2002). Goodare, J (ed.).The decline and end of Scottish witch-hunting in "The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context".Manchester University Press.ISBN0-7190-6024-9.;
  • Lynch, Michael (1992).Scotland: A New History.Pimlico.ISBN0-7126-9893-0.
  • Macleod, Donald(Autumn 2009)."The influence of Calvinism on politics"(PDF).Theology in Scotland.XVI(2).
  • Mackie, JD; Lenman, Bruce; Parker, Geoffrey (1986).A History of Scotland.Hippocrene Books.ISBN978-0880290401.
  • Main, David."The Origins of the Scottish Episcopal Church".St Ninians Castle Douglas.Retrieved23 August2020.
  • Mairena, M. C. C. (2008).The Restoration of the Roman Catholic Hierarchy in Scotland(PHD). Catholic University of America.ISBN978-0549388333.
  • McCoy, F.N (1974).Robert Baillie and the Second Scots Reformation.University of California Press.ISBN0-520-02447-8.
  • McDonald, Alan (1998).The Jacobean Kirk, 1567–1625: Sovereignty, Polity and Liturgy.Routledge.ISBN185928373X.
  • Melville, James (1842). Pitcairn, Robert (ed.).The Autobiography and Diary of Mr. James Melvill, with a Continuation of the Diary(2015 ed.). Arkose Press.ISBN1343621844.
  • Mitchison, Rosalind; Fry, Peter; Fry, Fiona (2002).A History of Scotland.Routledge.ISBN978-1138174146.
  • Mitchison, Rosalind (1990).Lordship to Patronage.Edinburgh University Press.ISBN074860233X.
  • Morrill, John (1990).Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution.Longman.ISBN0582016754.
  • Plant, David."Scottish National Covenant".BCW Project.Retrieved25 January2021.
  • Prebble, John (1973).Culloden.Martin Secker & Warburg Ltd.ISBN978-0436386015.
  • Robertson, Barry (2014).Royalists at War in Scotland and Ireland, 1638–1650.Routledge.ISBN978-1317061069.
  • Royle, Trevor (2005).Civil War: The War of the Three Kingdoms 1638-1660.Abacus.ISBN0349115648.
  • Spielvogel, Jackson J (1980).Western Civilization.Wadsworth Publishing.ISBN1285436407.
  • Stephen, Jeffrey (January 2010). "Scottish Nationalism and Stuart Unionism".Journal of British Studies.49(1, Scottish Special).doi:10.1086/644534.S2CID144730991.
  • Stevenson, David (1973).Scottish Revolution, 1637-44: Triumph of the Covenanters.David & Charles.ISBN0715363026.
  • Stewart, A.,The Cradle King: A Life of James VI & I(London: Chatto and Windus, 2003),ISBN0-7011-6984-2.
  • Wilson, Peter (2009).The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy.Belknap Press.ISBN978-0674062313.
  • Wormald, J (1991).Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625.Edinburgh University Press.ISBN0-7486-0276-3.
  • Womersley, David (2015).James II (Penguin Monarchs): The Last Catholic King.Allen Lane.ISBN978-0141977065..

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_religion_in_the_seventeenth_century&oldid=1218850449"