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Second Battle of Algeciras

Coordinates:36°08′00″N5°25′45″W/ 36.1333°N 5.4292°W/36.1333; -5.4292
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For similarly titled battles, seeBattle of Algeciras.

Second Battle of Algeciras
Part of theFrench Revolutionary Wars

Beau fait d'armes du capitaine Troude,Morel-Fatio
Date12–13 July 1801
Location
Strait of Gibraltar,Mediterranean Sea
36°08′00″N5°25′45″W/ 36.1333°N 5.4292°W/36.1333; -5.4292
Result British victory
Belligerents
Commanders and leaders
James Saumarez
Strength
  • 6 ships of the line
  • 2 frigates (OOB)
  • 9 ships of the line
  • 3 frigates (OOB)
Casualties and losses
  • 18 killed
  • 101 wounded
  • 2,000 killed or wounded
  • 2 ships of the line destroyed
  • 1 ship of the line captured
  • 1 frigate sunk

TheSecond Battle of Algeciras(also known as theBattle of the Gut of Gibraltar) was a naval battle fought on the night of 12 July 1801 (23 messidor an IX of theFrench Republican Calendar) between a squadron of BritishRoyal Navyships of the lineand a larger squadron of ships from theSpanish NavyandFrench Navyin theGut of Gibraltar.

The battle followed theFirst Battle of Algecirason 6 July, in which a French squadron anchored at the Spanish port ofAlgeciraswas attacked by a larger British squadron based at nearbyGibraltar.In a heavy engagement fought in calm weather in the close confines ofAlgeciras Bay,the British force had been becalmed and battered, suffering heavy casualties and losing the 74-gun shipHMSHannibal.Retiring for repairs, both sides called up reinforcements, the French receiving support first, from the Spanish fleet based at Cadiz, which sent sixships of the lineto escort the French squadron to safety.

Arriving at Algeciras on 9 July, the combined squadron was ready to sail again on 12 July, departing Algeciras to the westwards during the evening. The British squadron under Rear-AdmiralSir James Saumarez,having effected its own hasty repairs, set off in pursuit. Finding that his ships were falling behind, Saumarez instructed his captains to separate and attack the combined squadron as best they were able to. The fastest ship wasHMSSuperbunder CaptainRichard Goodwin Keats,which sailed through the Spanish rearguard as a moonless night fell.Superbfired on the rearmost ships, setting the 112-gunReal Carloson fire and capturing theSaint Antoine.Unable to determine friend from foe in the darkness,Real Carlosinadvertently engaged the Spanish shipSan Hermenegildo,spreading the fire to its compatriot. Both ships subsequently exploded with enormous loss of life. A second stage of the battle then developed, asHMSVenerabletook the lead of the British line, attacking the rearmost French shipFormidableunder CaptainAmable Troude.In a furious and protracted engagement,Venerablesuffered heavy damage and was driven ashore, allowing the remainder of the French force to return to Cadiz without further fighting.

After the battle,Venerablewas towed back to Gibraltar for repairs, while the rest of the British squadron resumed theblockadeof the French and Spanish ships in Cadiz, returning the situation to that before the battle. This British victory, coming so soon after Saumarez's defeat in Algeciras harbour, did much to restore parity in the region and the heavy casualties inflicted on the Spanish contributed to a weakening of the Franco-Spanish alliance and the signing ofTreaty of Amiens,which brought the war to a temporary halt early the following year. In France, despite the heavy Spanish losses, the battle was celebrated as a victory, with Troude widely praised and promoted for the defence of his ship.

Background[edit]

Main article:Algeciras campaign

First battle of Algeciras[edit]

Main article:First Battle of Algeciras

In August 1798, the French Mediterranean Fleet was largely destroyed by a British fleet at theBattle of the Nileduring theFrench invasion of Egypt.With theRoyal Navydominant in theMediterranean Seaand their army trapped inEgypt,the French sought in 1801 to augment their depleted forces in the region by sending reinforcements from the Atlantic Fleet and by purchasing ships from theSpanish Navy,based inCadiz.[1]Asquadron sailedfromBreston the Atlantic in January and made three failed attempts to reach Egypt, which was facing a large British invasion, before abandoning the effort and retiring toToulonon the French Mediterranean coast. Threeships of the line,Formidable,IndomptableandDesaix,had been detached from the squadron in May however and were subsequently placed under the command of Contre-AdmiralCharles Linoisunder orders to sail for Cadiz.[2]At Cadiz, the Spanish fleet had agreed to sell six ships of the line to the French Navy, and on 13 June two Frenchfrigates,LibreandIndienne,arrived at the port to oversee the transfer under the command of Contre-AdmiralDumanoir le Pelley.[3]

En routeto Cadiz, Linois had learned from the crew of the capturedbrigHMSSpeedythat a powerful British squadron of seven ships of the line under Rear-AdmiralSir James Saumarezlay off Cadiz,blockadingthe port. Concerned that this squadron could overwhelm his own, Linois took shelter in the small but well-defended harbour ofAlgeciras,just acrossAlgeciras Bayfrom the heavily fortified British naval base atGibraltar.[4]Saumarez was informed of Linois's arrival, and turned eastwards to confront him, discovering the French ships anchored in a well prepared position on the morning of 6 July. Saumarez attacked immediately, but found that his ships were hampered by a lack of wind. Becalmed under heavy fire, the British squadron inflicted severe damage on the French ships which withdrew into shallower water, two grounding. However, when Saumarez ordered his ships to follow,HMSHannibalgrounded as well, trapped under a heavy barrage from the shore.[5]With no wind with which to manoeuvre and thesquadron's boatsall either sunk or engaged in towing the batteredHMSPompéeback to Gibraltar, Saumarez called off the attack at 13:35. The battered British squadron retired to Gibraltar, except forHannibal,which was trapped, battered and swiftly forced to surrender, having lost two masts and more than 140 men.[6]

Passage of Moreno[edit]

With both squadrons badly damaged, reinforcements were called for, Linois sending a messenger overland to Cadiz with an appeal for the Spanish fleet there, under Admiral DonJose de Mazzaredoto send a squadron to escort the French force in Algeciras to the safety of Cadiz.[7]At Cadiz, le Pelley had to plead with Mazzaredo for assistance, the Spanish admiral agreeing on 8 July to send a powerful squadron under Vice-Admiral Don Juan Joaquín Moreno de Mondragón to Algeciras. Moreno's force consisted of two 112-gunfirst rateships of the line,Real CarlosandSan Hermenegildo,the 96-gunSan Fernando,80-gunArgonautaand the 74-gunSan Agustín.[8]With this force was the 74-gun French shipSaint Antoine,which a few days earlier had been the SpanishSan Antonio.Saint Antoinewas the first of the French ships purchased from the Spanish Navy to enter service, the crew drawn from the crews of le Pelley's frigates supplemented by Spanish sailors and commanded by Commodore Julien le Ray. With the squadron were the frigatesLibre,Indienneand the SpanishSabinaas well as the FrenchluggerVautour.[9]

The combined squadron sailed from Cadiz on 9 July, progressing rapidly southwards and reaching Algeciras Bay late in the afternoon, except forSaint Antoinewhich was delayed and arrived the following morning.[10]The force was anchored close to Algeciras, well out of range of cannon at Gibraltar, and there waited for Linois to finish making the necessary repairs to his ships. Shadowing the combined squadron was a small British force under CaptainRichard Goodwin KeatsonHMSSuperbwith the frigateHMSThamesand thebrigHMSPasley.Although part of Saumarez's squadron, Keats had been too late to take part in the first battle, and had instead cruised off Cadiz watching the Spanish fleet there. When Moreno sailed, Keats was initially chased by portions of the Franco-Spanish squadron, but eluded and followed them, subsequently joining Saumarez at Gibraltar.[8]At the British port, the dockyards were the scene of frantic activity as Saumarez, supported by commissioner CaptainAlexander Ball,sought to repair his squadron so that it could intercept Moreno's forces on their voyage back to Cadiz.Pompéewas temporarily abandoned in the yard, her crew redistributed to work on the rest of the squadron. Saumarez also gave orders that his flagship,HMSCaesarwas also to be left at Gibraltar, but CaptainJahleel Brentonrequested the opportunity to repair his ship and Saumarez relented, the crew ofCaesarworking all day and in shifts throughout the night in order to bring their ship up to fighting standard.[11]Saumarez believed however that due to the condition of Linois's ships and the mistaken assumption that the combined squadron would sail forCartagenato the east, he would have at least two weeks to prepare and sent messages to the Mediterranean Fleet underLord Keith,then at sea off Egypt, requesting support against the combined squadron.[12]

Battle[edit]

See also:Order of Battle in the Algeciras campaign

On 11 July the activity on Moreno's ships indicated to British observers at Gibraltar that the combined squadron was readying for sea, and the British working parties repairing Saumarez's squadron correspondingly redoubled their efforts. The arrival of a light easterly wind which would favour passage back to Cadiz encouraged both Moreno and Saumarez to prepare for departure to the Atlantic base on the following day.[13]At 12:00 on 12 July,Caesarwarpedout of Gibraltar dockyard with her band playing the popular song "Heart of Oak"to the answering strains of"Britons, Strike Home!"from the dockside as crowds again turned out in their thousands to watch the coming battle.[14]By that time however, Moreno's forces were already at sea: at dawn on 12 July the leading Spanish ships loosed their sails and by 12:00 the French and Spanish squadron had begun to gather at their rendezvous point off Cabrita Point at the mouth of Algeciras Bay.[9]At 15:00, Saumarez set sail, his pennant flying fromCaesarand followed by ships of the lineSuperb,HMSSpencer,HMSVenerableandHMSAudacious,frigatesThamesand the PortugueseCarlottaand several smaller vessels.[11]Both Saumarez and Linois expected reinforcements sent by Lord Keith to arrive during the day, but none appeared.[15]

At 19:00, delayed by the effect of theRock of Gibraltaron the wind, the British squadron rounded Gibraltar and found the French and Spanish ships still assembling at Cabrita Point. The light wind prevented any rapid movement, and Saumarez began to slowlytacktowards the combined squadron in line of battle formation.[9]Moreno's departure had been delayed due to the state of the capturedHannibal,renamedAnnibal,which was unable to make any progress under itsjury mastsand had been taken under tow by the frigateIndienne.Sighting Saumarez's force, Moreno instructedIndienneandHannibalto return to Algeciras and at 19:45 issued orders for the remainder of the squadron to sail west through theGut of Gibraltartowards Cadiz.[9]He also, following Spanish naval tradition, disembarked his flagshipReal Carlosand transferred to the frigateSabina,persuading Linois to quitFormidableand do the same.[16]

Superband the rearguard[edit]

"...the Spanish shipsReal Carlos,112, andSan Hermenegildo,112, mistaking each other for the aggressor, began a mutual attack, resulting in theReal Carloslosing her foretopmast, the sails of which – falling over her own guns – caught fire. While in this condition theHermenegildo– still engaging theReal Carlosas an enemy – in the confusion fell on board her and caught fire also. Both ships burned until they blew up. "
CommanderLord Cochrane,Witness of the battle from Gibraltar.[17]

At 20:00, Saumarez led his ships into the Gut after the combined squadron, but in the gathering dusk Moreno's squadron was already out of sight and the British admiral realised that his ships were too slow to catch the French and Spanish ships in their current formation before they reached the comparative safety of the open ocean.[14]At 20:40, with the wind picking up, he therefore instructed the squadron to break formation and attack the rear of the combined squadron, directing his orders at Keats inSuperb,whose ship was the fastest.[1]Keats immediately set all sail. The wind soon freshened to a hard gale in the Straits and with foresail and top-gallants set the Superb went at 11 1/2 knots and by 22:00 had regained sight of the combined squadron's rearguard,[18]which consisted of the 112-gun ships and theSaint Antoine.Behind, all Keats could see wasCaesarandVenerablein the distance, and by 23:00 onlyCaesarwas still in sight, more than 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) behindSuperb.[16]Although he was now facing considerable odds, Keats steeredSuperbto within 350 yards (320 m) of theReal Carlos.She poured three successive broadsides into the Spanish before fire was returned, so unexpected was the attack.[19]By 23:20, Keats was coming under fire from all three vessels of the Franco-Spanish rearguard, although evading much of it by the simple tactic of not illuminating his ship so that the ships of the combined squadron fired on one another more than on their British opponent. Linois had also ordered his ships to extinguish their lights, but this only added to the confusion of the Spanish ships in the squadron.[20]The moon had set and the night was quite dark, which contributed to the ineffectiveness of the Spanish gunnery.Real Carlosfired randomly at the British ship but failed to strike it once during the brief engagement. Keats' ship was much more accurate however, firing three broadsides beforeSuperbwas carried beyondReal Carlosand towardsSaint Antoine.The British broadsides caused severe damage, knocking away the foretopmast and causing a fire to break out on the Spanish ship's deck following the third broadside.[10]The fire grew rapidly and soon was so fierce that it could be plainly seen by observers at Gibraltar.[20]

WithReal Carlosdisabled, Keats pushed on into combat withSaint Antoine,the combined French and Spanish crew engaging the British vessel as it approached.[21]At 23:50, Keats laid his ship close alongside the new French ship, beginning a close and heated action as the ships of the line exchanged broadsides with one another in pitch darkness and with an increasing wind.[16]For 30 minutes the battle continued until, with the ships offCape Spartelin North Africa, a wounded Le Ray decided that his ship was no longer able to contest the action and hailedSuperbto announce that he had surrendered. The halyards that held up his pennant had however become tangled in the rigging, giving the appearance that the ship was still in French hands: this later led it to be attacked repeatedly by other British ships as they came up during the night.[22]Formidablewas also to the rear of the combined squadron, escaping attack by feigning British signal lights until it had safely passed the battle betweenSuperbandSaint Antoine.[23]Keats remained with his prize, awaiting the arrival of the rest of the squadron:Caesar,Venerable,SpencerandThamesarrived after midnight, all firing onSaint Antoineas they passed before continuing westwards in search of the remainder of Moreno's squadron.Superbwas later joined byCarlottaand the small shipsHMSCalpeandLouisa,which remained on hand during the night.[24]

HMSSuperbsails unnoticed off the Spanish fleet at Algeciras Bay, while theHermenegildoandReal Carlosexplode in the background after mistakenly firing on one other. Drawing byAntoine Léon Morel-Fatio.

To the east of the combat betweenSuperbandSaint Antoine,the fire onReal Carlosblazed out of control, spreading throughout the ship. In the darkness, the blazing vessel stood out and was mistaken by the crew ofSan Hermenegildofor a British ship. Despite specific orders from Moreno for his captains to be sure of their targets,San Hermenegildoclosed with the burning ship and fired several broadsides intoReal Carlos.[20]The attack prompted a response and the two huge warships began a close exchange of fire that was only brought to a close whenReal Carlosdrifted intoSan Hermenegildo,the flames spreading from the former's sails to the latter.[25]Saumarez, on witnessing the sight, excitedly exclaimed to Brenton "My God sir, look there! The day is ours!"[23]Within minutes both ships were tangled together, fire spreading unchecked throughout the vessels. The fire was too dangerous for British ships to make any rescue attempts,[21]and although several hundred men managed to escape the wrecks on small boats, there were still more than 1,700 sailors on board when first theReal Carlosat 00:15 and then theSan Hermenegildoat 01:00 exploded as the flames reached their central magazines, killing both crews. 262 survivors in boats were taken aboard the capturedSaint Antoineand 38 onSuperb,while a handful managed to reach the rest of the Franco-Spanish squadron,[26]but the enormous loss of life in this incident was one of the worst maritime disasters to that time.[27]

VenerableandFormidable[edit]

Combat du Formidable,Pierre-Julien Gilbert,1832

While Keats had remained with his prize Saumarez had led the remainder of the squadron forward, althoughAudacioushad been left far behind the rest of the British force. The French and Spanish ships had scattered asSuperbattacked the rearguard and during the night each made their way separately to the rendezvous off Cadiz harbour.[23]As dawn broke at 04:00 on 13 July, lookouts on the leading British ship of the lineVenerableunder CaptainSamuel Hoodspotted the French shipFormidable,under the command of CaptainAmable Troudein the absence of Linois, to the north.Formidablewas trailing the rest of the squadron, close to the shore inConil Bayto the south of Cadiz and north ofCape Trafalgar.The wind was light and coming from the land and soCaesarandSpencer,the latter being a long way behind the others, were unable to approach the French ship and it was left toVenerableandThames,both inshore and therefore better able to make use of the wind, to lead the attack.[24]Formidablehad only jury topmasts following the battle on 6 July, and so Hood was able to rapidly approach the French ship, coming under fire from Troude's stern guns at 05:15, Hood holding off from replying until 05:20 so as to not delay his progress. The light breeze was at that point in Hood's favour, andVenerablewas able to come close alongsideFormidableand open fire with a full broadside.[26]Off Cadiz, the remnants of Moreno's squadron formed up with the intention of sailing toFormidable's aid, but were struck by a calm and could only watch the battle to the south.[23]

Venerabletook the worst of the early action and at 05:30 the mizzen topmast was shot away. Hood responded by ordering CaptainAiskew HollisinThamesto approach Troude's stern, the frigate repeatedlyrakingthe French ship under fire from the ineffective stern guns.[25]For another hour the ships traded broadsides, until at 06:45 the mainmast ofVenerablecollapsed over the side, significantly retarding the ship's movement.Formidablewas able to pull ahead slowly in the light and unreliable winds, continuing to fire the stern guns at the now immobile British ship.[26]Venerablewas now drifting out of control, the foremast collapsing at 07:50 as the ship grounded on the shoals atSancti Petri,12 miles (19 km) south of Cadiz. With his main opponent disabled, Troude continued slowly towards Cadiz, out of range of the approachingCaesar.[28]

Saumarez sent Jahleel Brenton in agigtoVenerableat 08:00, just as the foremast also fell overboard, with instructions that if the combined French and Spanish squadron, visible off Cadiz, should proceed south to attack the grounded British vessel then Hood should remove his crew and set his ship on fire.Thameswas brought close alongside in order to evacuate the ship if the need arose, but Hood refused the order and insisted that he would be able to save his ship. Eventually the arrival ofAudaciousandSuperbon the southern horizon decided the issue as Moreno abandoned any intention to counterattack, instead entering Cadiz harbour with his squadron, followed by Troude inFormidable.[25]Their arrival was greeted with cheers from the city's population, unaware of the disaster in the Gut of Gibraltar.[29]The confusion meant that the situations of the lost ships were unknown, andSaint Antoine's arrival was still anticipated at Cadiz as late as 16 July.[23]

Aftermath[edit]

Casualties[edit]

With the immediate threat gone, Saumarez was able to direct his squadron's efforts to salvaging the battered and groundedVenerable.The calm sea and light winds aided this operation, and at 14:00, assisted byThamesand the boats ofCaesarandSpencer,Venerablewas once again afloat.[28]Hood's ship was taken under tow by firstThamesand thenSpencer,the British squadron turning back towards Gibraltar at 18:00, the crew rigging a series of jury masts and sails to assist the process. By 08:00 on 14 July,Venerablewas again able to sail independently, the squadron arriving at Gibraltar later that day.[30]At Gibraltar the returning squadron was greeted with cheers and a 21-gun salute.[29]Spencer,AudaciousandThamesremained at sea off Cadiz to continue the blockade, which remained in place until the end of the French Revolutionary Wars in March 1802 at thePeace of Amiens.

British casualties had been relatively light, incurred almost entirely onVenerable,which suffered 18 killed and 87 wounded.Superbhad 15 men wounded including a lieutenant, all from the action withSaint Antoine,while the only other ship directly engaged wasThames,which hadn't lost a single man either killed or wounded. Apart fromVenerablenone of the other ships had suffered any significant damage, includingSuperbandThames.In the aftermath of the battle, Saumarez arranged aprisoner exchange,the crew ofSaint Antoinesent into Algeciras in return for the release of the crew ofHannibal.[31]Losses among the combined squadron were drastically heavier:Formidablereported 20 killed and an unreported number of wounded and Saint Antoine's casualties were not reported at the time but were considered by later historians such asWilliam Jamesto "have been very severe".[28]By far the biggest loss however was on board the two destroyed 112-gun ships, each of which had had a crew of roughly 1,000 men from which just over 300 are known to have escaped to other ships. The loss of more than 1,700 Spanish sailors in the battle was one of the most severe losses of life in a single maritime incident to that time.[27]

Finally, there was damage to two Spanish frigates: theSabinawas struck by cannon fire during the night killing one man and wounding five, although it was not determined which ship had fired on the flagship and James suggested that it may have been from one of the destroyed 112-gun ships in a case offriendly fire.[28]In addition, the Spanish 34-gun frigatePerlawas seen wallowing off the North African coast of the Strait of Gibraltar on the morning of 13 July, sinking later in the day due to severe damage. HowPerlacame to be engaged in the action has never been explained. The ship was not part of Moreno's squadron at Algeciras and none of the British ships reported engaging a frigate during the night – during the hours of darknessPerlamust have encountered the battle and become caught in the cross-fire, suffering fatal damage.[32]

Effects[edit]

In Britain the battle was celebrated, Saumarez having been deemed to have removed the stain of his defeat six days earlier in the battle in the Bay of Algeciras. He was awarded the thanks of bothHouses of Parliamentand, already aKnight Bachelor,made aKnight of the Bathwith a pension of £1,200 annually (the equivalent of £115,000 as of 2024).[33]The first lieutenants ofCaesar,SuperbandVenerablewere promoted to commander and the capturedSaint Antoinewas commissioned into the Royal Navy as HMSSan Antonio,although the age and small size of the ship meant that she was never suited to front line service and was instead stationed permanently atPortsmouth.[30]Nearly five decades later, the second battle was among the actions recognised by theNaval General Service Medal,awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847.[34]

In France the battle was represented as a victory, largely based on a report sent toParisby Dumanoir le Pelley on the strength of a letter written by Captain Troude, which claimed that he had fought not onlyVenerableandThames,but alsoCaesarandSpencer(misidentified in the report asSuperb).[35]Troude claimed that he had not only driven all of these ships off and completely destroyedVenerableby driving the ship ashore by 07:00, but that he had then waited nearby until 10:00 in the hope of resuming the action. In reward for his services as represented, Troude was promoted and highly praised, later holding a number of important active commands in the French Navy.[36]

The outcome of the battle, reversing the British defeat of 6 July, inflicting severe losses on the Spanish fleet at Cadiz and trapping Linois in Cadiz proved decisive in confirming British control of the Mediterranean Sea. With the French plan to reinforce the army stranded in Egypt in ruins, the British invasion fleet was free to operate without interference, succeeding in capturing the country in September.[37]In a wider sense too, it emphasized the degree to which the Royal Navy dominated European waters, destroying any attempt by the navies of France and its allies to conduct operations at sea.[38]In Spain the government, furious at the losses suffered for so little gain, began to distance themselves from the alliance with France, which was a contributing factor in the signing of theTreaty of Amiensin March 1802 that ended the French Revolutionary Wars.[39]For the remainder of the war the British maintained undisputed control of the Mediterranean Sea and the Spanish coast, the Cadiz blockade preventing the French and Spanish forces there from putting to sea.[37]

References[edit]

  1. ^abWoodman, p. 161
  2. ^Clowes, p. 459
  3. ^Clowes, p. 465
  4. ^Mostert, p. 404
  5. ^Clowes, p. 463
  6. ^James, p. 118
  7. ^James, p. 124
  8. ^abClowes, p. 466
  9. ^abcdJames, p. 126
  10. ^abGardiner, p. 92
  11. ^abJames, p. 125
  12. ^Musteen, p. 43
  13. ^Mostert, p. 406
  14. ^abMostert, p. 407
  15. ^Musteen, p. 44
  16. ^abcClowes, p. 467
  17. ^Adkins, p. 95
  18. ^Hannah, p. 68
  19. ^Hannah, p. 81
  20. ^abcMusteen, p. 46
  21. ^ab"No. 15392".The London Gazette.3 August 1801. pp. 945–946.
  22. ^James, p. 127
  23. ^abcdeMusteen, p. 47
  24. ^abJames, p. 128
  25. ^abcGardiner, p. 93
  26. ^abcClowes, p. 468
  27. ^abMostert, p. 408
  28. ^abcdJames, p. 129
  29. ^abMusteen, p. 49
  30. ^abJames, p. 130
  31. ^Musteen, p. 50
  32. ^James, p. 354
  33. ^UKRetail Price Indexinflation figures are based on data fromClark, Gregory (2017)."The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)".MeasuringWorth.Retrieved7 May2024.
  34. ^"No. 20939".The London Gazette.26 January 1849. pp. 236–245.
  35. ^James, p. 131
  36. ^Clowes, p. 469
  37. ^abMostert, p. 409
  38. ^Clowes, p. 470
  39. ^Rodger, p. 472

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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