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Second Silesian War

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Not to be confused withSecond Silesian Uprising.
Second Silesian War
Part of theWar of the Austrian Successionand theSilesian Wars
Painting of Prussian infantry marching in formation across a field at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg
A Prussian infantry advance during theBattle of Hohenfriedberg,as depicted byCarl Röchling
Date7 August 1744 – 25 December 1745
Location
Silesia,Bohemia,Upper Saxony
Result Prussian victory
Belligerents
Prussia Habsburg monarchy
Saxony
Commanders and leaders

Kingdom of PrussiaKing Frederick II

Habsburg monarchyArchduchess Maria Theresa

Electorate of SaxonyPrince-Elector Frederick Augustus II

TheSecond Silesian War(German:Zweiter Schlesischer Krieg) was a war betweenPrussiaandAustriathat lasted from 1744 to 1745 and confirmed Prussia's control of the region ofSilesia(now in south-western Poland). The war was fought mainly in Silesia,Bohemia,andUpper Saxonyand formed onetheatreof the widerWar of the Austrian Succession.It was the second of threeSilesian Warsfought betweenFrederick the Great's Prussia andMaria Theresa's Austria in the mid-18th century, all three of which ended in Prussian control of Silesia.

The conflict has been viewed as a continuation of theFirst Silesian War,which had concluded only two years before. After theTreaty of Berlinended hostilities between Austria and Prussia in 1742, theHabsburg monarchy's fortunes improved greatly in the continuing War of the Austrian Succession. As Austria expanded its alliances with the 1743Treaty of Worms,Prussia entered a renewed alliance with Austria's enemies in the League of Frankfurt and rejoined the war, hoping to prevent a resurgent Austria from taking back Silesia.

The war began with a Prussian invasion of Habsburg Bohemia in mid-1744, and ended in a Prussian victory with theTreaty of Dresdenin December 1745, which confirmed Prussian control of Silesia. Continuing conflict over Silesia would draw Austria and Prussia into aThird Silesian Wara decade later. The Second Silesian War repeated the defeat of the Habsburg monarchy by a lesser German power and contributed to theAustria–Prussia rivalrythat shaped German politics for more than a century.

Context and causes[edit]

First Silesian War[edit]

Main article:First Silesian War
Portrait painting of a young Maria Theresa
Maria Theresaof Austriac. 1744,byMartin van Meytens

Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperorof theHouse of Habsburgdied in 1740 without a male heir; he was succeeded by his eldest daughter, who became ruler of theArchduchy of Austria,as well as of theBohemianandHungarianlands within theHabsburg monarchy,as QueenMaria Theresa.[1]During Emperor CharlesVI's lifetime, this female succession was generally acknowledged by theimperial states,but when he died it was promptly contested by several parties.[2]The newly crowned KingFrederickIIofPrussiatook this Austrian succession crisis as an opportunity to press his dynasty's territorial claims in the Habsburgcrown landofSilesia,invading in December 1740 and beginning theFirst Silesian War.[3]

After early Prussian successes, other powers were emboldened to attack the beleaguered Habsburg realm, widening the conflict into what became theWar of the Austrian Succession.[4]Prussia,France,Spain,Bavariaand others formed an alliance known as theLeague of Nymphenburgto support each other's efforts to seize Habsburg territory and Bavaria's bid for theimperial election.The allies invaded on multiple fronts in mid-1741, soon occupying AustrianTyrol,Upper AustriaandBohemia,and even threateningVienna.[5]Faced with a potential war ofpartition,Austria negotiated a secretarmisticewith Prussia in October and redeployed its forces to face its other enemies.[6]

Prussian forces resumed offensive operations in December, invadingMoraviaand blocking an Austrian drive towardPraguein early 1742.[7]ElectorCharles Albertof Bavaria won the1742 Imperial electionand becameHoly Roman Emperor.[8]In July 1742 Prussia and Austria made aseparate peacein theTreaty of Berlin,under which Austriacededthe majority of Silesia to Prussia in return for Prussia's neutrality in the continuing war.[9]In late 1742, while Prussia enjoyed the restored peace and worked to assimilate Silesia into its administration and economy,[10]Austria fought on against Bavaria and France, reversing its losses from 1741.[11]By the middle of 1743 Austria had recovered control of Bohemia, driven the French back across theRhineintoAlsace,and occupied Bavaria, exiling Emperor Charles VII toFrankfurt.[11]Prussia's withdrawal from the War of the Austrian Succession under a separate peace embittered its erstwhile allies,[12]and the diplomatic position shifted in Austria's favour.[13]

Preparations for a second war[edit]

Further information:War of the Austrian Succession
Portrait painting of Emperor Charles VII
Charles Albert of Bavariaas Holy Roman Emperor, byGeorg Desmarées

In September 1743 Austria,Britain–Hanover,andSavoy–Sardiniaconcluded a new alliance under theTreaty of Worms;Britain had previously recognised Prussia's acquisition of Silesia as the mediator of the Treaty of Berlin, but this new alliance made no mention of that guarantee.[13]Meanwhile, theRusso-Swedish Warthat had paralleled the First Silesian War ended in August 1743, freeingRussiato potentially take Austria's side in the ongoing succession war. The following year, EmpressElizabeth of Russiaappointed as her chancellorAlexey Bestuzhev,a proponent of a pro-British and anti-French policy that entailed friendship to Austria and enmity to Prussia.[14]Prussia sought warmer relations with Russia and briefly won a minor defensive agreement, but Russia posed a growing threat to Prussia's eastern frontier.[15]

Frederick was apprehensive that an irresistible anti-Prussian coalition might soon develop between Britain–Hanover,Saxony,Russia and Austria.[16]He viewed the Peace of Breslau as little more than another armistice with Austria, and he needed to prevent Maria Theresa from taking revenge at her convenience when the war elsewhere was concluded.[17]Frederick decided that Prussia must restore its French alliance, build an anti-Austrian coalition with as many other German princes as possible, and then re-enter the war by striking first against Austria.[18]So, in late 1743 and early 1744 Prussia conducted negotiations with France, Bavaria and other German princes to build a coalition to support the Emperor.[19]

On 22 May 1744 Prussia formed an alliance with Bavaria,Sweden,Hesse–Kasseland theElectoral Palatinateknown as the League of Frankfurt, whose announced aim was to recover and defend the territories of Emperor Charles VII, including Bohemia (where he had been proclaimed king in 1742).[20]A parallel treaty with France was concluded on 5 June, under which France committed to support the League and attack theAustrian Netherlands.[19][21]Prussia would champion the Emperor's cause by invading Bohemia from the north, a service for which the Emperor committed to cede the portions of Bohemia northeast of theElbeto Prussia.[22]Meanwhile, the main Austrian force underPrince Charles Alexander of Lorrainewould be occupied by the French in Alsace, where the French would counterattack on the opposite front as Prince Charles's army was pulled in two directions.[23][24]

Maria Theresa pursued the same goals she had from the beginning of the War of the Austrian Succession: first, she needed to compel a general recognition of thePragmatic Sanction of 1713and her right to rule the Habsburg lands; second, she wanted to achieve the election of her husband,Francis Stephen of Lorraine,as Holy Roman Emperor; third, she hoped to recover and preserve control of the contested Habsburg crown lands of Bohemia and Silesia.[19]As soon as the Franco–Bavarian threat from the west could be defeated, Austria intended to resume hostilities in Silesia and drive out the Prussians, restoring the borders of the territories Maria Theresa had inherited.[25][26]On 7 August Prussia declared its intervention in the Austrian war on behalf of Emperor Charles VII, beginning the Second Silesian War.[23]

Methods and technologies[edit]

Further information:Early modern warfare

European warfare in theearly modern periodwas characterised by the widespread adoption offirearmsin combination with more traditionalbladed weapons.18th-century European armies were built around units of massedinfantryarmed withsmoothboreflintlock musketsandbayonets.Cavalrymenwere equipped withsabresandpistolsorcarbines;light cavalrywere used principally forreconnaissance,screeningandtactical communications,whileheavy cavalrywere used astactical reservesand deployed forshock attacks.Smoothboreartilleryprovidedfire supportand played the leading role insiege warfare.[27]Strategic warfare in this period centred around control of keyfortificationspositioned so as to command the surrounding regions and roads, with lengthy sieges a common feature of armed conflict. Decisive field battles were relatively rare, though they played a larger part in Frederick's theory of warfare than was typical among his contemporary rivals.[28]

The Silesian Wars, like most European wars of the 18th century, were fought as so-calledcabinet warsin which disciplinedregular armieswere equipped and supplied by the state to conduct warfare on behalf of the sovereign's interests. Occupied enemy territories were regularly taxed and extorted for funds, but large-scale atrocities against civilian populations were rare compared with conflicts in the previous century.[29]Military logisticswas the decisive factor in many wars, as armies had grown too large to support themselves on prolonged campaigns by foraging and plunder alone. Military supplies were stored in centralisedmagazinesand distributed bybaggage trainsthat were highly vulnerable to enemy raids.[30]Armies were generally unable to sustain combat operations during winter and normally establishedwinter quartersin the cold season, resuming their campaigns with the return of spring.[27]

Course[edit]

Map of Central Europe with coloured territories
The Central European borders ofBrandenburg–Prussia(blue-green) and theHabsburg monarchy(red) after Prussia's seizure of Silesia in theFirst Silesian War

Bohemian campaign of 1744[edit]

Frederick led Prussian soldiers across the frontier into Bohemia on 15 August 1744.[31]The invading army of around 70,000 men[20]entered Bohemia in three columns: the eastern column, led byCount Kurt von Schwerin,advanced from Silesia throughGlatzand across theGiant Mountains;the central column, led byLeopold of Anhalt-Dessau,marched through Saxony (with an order from the Emperor guaranteeingsafe conduct), passing throughLusatiaand advancing toLeitmeritz;the western column, led by Frederick himself, advanced up the Elbe throughDresdenand across theOre Mountainsto Leitmeritz.[32]After entering Bohemia, all three forces converged on Prague by the beginning of September, surrounding and besieging the Bohemian capital. The city underwent a week of heavyartillerybombardment, eventually surrendering to the Prussians on 16 September.[31]

Frederick left a modest garrison in Prague and quickly marched on to the south, occupyingTábor,České BudějoviceandHluboká.[33]As expected, this new threat drew the Austrian army under Prince Charles back from Alsace through Bavaria; the French, however, failed to harass and disrupt the Austrian redeployment as they had promised,[24]owing in part to KingLouis XVfalling seriously ill while overseeing the defence atMetz.[20]Consequently, Prince Charles's army was able to return to Bohemia quickly, in good order and at full strength, though it was forced to abandon control of Alsace and Bavaria.[34]Austrian diplomats also persuaded Saxony to re-enter the conflict on Austria's side, though in a strictly defensive role.[32]By early October the Austrians were advancing through southwestern Bohemia toward Prague, while a Saxon army marched from the northwest to support them.[35]

Learning of the Austrians' rapid approach and unexpected strength, Frederick began pulling his forces back from south-eastern Bohemia to face the oncoming foes. Frederick tried repeatedly to force a decisive engagement, but Austrian commanderOtto Ferdinand von Traunmanoeuvred away from all Prussian advances while continually harassing the invaders' supply lines, and the Prussians' supplies ran low in the hostile province. By early November the Prussians were forced to retreat to Prague and the Elbe, and after some weeks of manoeuvre an Austrian–Saxon force crossed the Elbe on 19 November.[35]At this point the Prussians abandoned Prague and gave up Bohemia, retreating in poor morale intoUpper Silesia,which they defended through the winter against Austrian incursions.[36]

Early 1745: Bavarian defeat[edit]

Portrait painting of Frederick Augustus II
Frederick AugustusIIof Saxony and Poland, byLouis de Silvestre

On 8 January 1745 Austria further strengthened its diplomatic position with theTreaty of Warsaw,which established a new "Quadruple Alliance" between Austria, Britain–Hanover, Saxony, and theDutch Republic,aimed at opposing the League of Frankfurt and restoring the traditional borders of the Habsburg Monarchy.[37]Prince-ElectorFrederick AugustusIIof Poland–Saxony now committed 30,000 troops to the cause in return for cash subsidies from the British and Dutch.[38]This publicly defensive alliance was soon followed by a secret offensive agreement between Austria and Saxony, signed on 18 May inLeipzig,which envisioned a territorial partition of Prussia.[39]Meanwhile, as Austrian forces withdrew from Bavaria to respond to the Prussian invasion of Bohemia, Emperor Charles VII recovered control of his capital atMunich,only to die shortly after relocating there on 20 January, destroying the rationale behind Frederick's alliance.[36]These events combined to produce a major shift in the direction of the war in Germany.[40]

With Prussia's forces driven out of Bohemia, Austria renewed its offensive against Bavaria in March 1745, swiftly over-running the defences that had been re-established there during the winter. On 15 April the Austrians underKároly József Batthyánydecisively defeated the Franco-Bavarian army at theBattle of Pfaffenhofenand drove the allied forces entirely out of Bavaria.[39]After this defeat,Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria(the son of the late Emperor Charles VII) made peace with Maria Theresa by theTreaty of Füssenon 22 April.[41]In the treaty, Maximilian abandoned his father's claims on Austrian lands and promised to support Francis Stephen of Lorraine in the forthcoming imperial election; in return, Maria Theresa retroactively recognised Charles VII's legitimacy as Holy Roman Emperor. This closed the Bavarian theatre of the War of the Austrian Succession, allowing Austria to concentrate its forces on the remaining fronts in Silesia, Italy, and the Netherlands.[39]

Mid-1745: Battles of Hohenfriedberg and Soor[edit]

Painting of Prussian grenadiers chasing Saxon soldiers across a marshy field at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg
Prussiangrenadiersover-running Saxon forces during theBattle of Hohenfriedberg,as depicted byCarl Röchling

Having made peace with Bavaria, in late April Austria prepared for a large-scale invasion of Silesia, moving the army of Charles of Lorraine into Moravia, while a Saxon army organised near Leipzig. Frederick abandoned the mountainous southern tip of Upper Silesia to the Austrianvanguardofpandurs,[42]concentrating his defences around the town ofFrankensteinin the valley of theEastern Neisse.[43]Meanwhile,Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessauwas put in command of a smaller force in Brandenburg to prevent a Saxon invasion. At the end of May, the Austrian–Saxon force crossed through the Giant Mountains and camped around the Silesian village ofHohenfriedberg,where Frederick staged a surprise attack on the morning of 4 June.[42]The ensuingBattle of Hohenfriedbergended in a decisive Prussian victory, sending Prince Charles's army retreating in disarray back into the mountains.[44]

Austria's reversal at Hohenfriedberg removed any immediate prospect of recovering Silesia.[45]The Prussians followed the retreating Austrian–Saxon army into Bohemia, harassing its rear as far asKöniggrätz,where the two forces camped on opposite sides of the Elbe. The armies faced off but fought little during the next two months,[46]while Frederick pursued a peace agreement that would again guarantee his control of Silesia.[47]Britain's willingness to subsidise Austria's war against Prussia was greatly reduced by the outbreak of a newJacobite uprising,and on 26 August Britain and Prussia agreed to theConvention of Hanover,in which both sides recognised each other's German possessions (including Prussian Silesia), and Prussia committed not to seek territorial gains in Bohemia or Saxony in any eventual peace agreement.[48]

On the Austrian side, Maria Theresa negotiated through the middle of the year with the Germanprince-electorsto make her husband Holy Roman Emperor, now that the Bavarian emperor had died.[47]The1745 Imperial electionwas held on 13 September in Frankfurt, where Francis Stephen of Lorraine was indeed named Emperor FrancisI (despite dissenting votes from Prussia and the Palatinate), achieving one of Maria Theresa's major goals in the war.[37]Meanwhile, supplies had run low in the Prussian camp in Bohemia, and Prussia's forces were gradually pushed back by Austrian probes.[47]On 29 September Prince Charles's army staged a surprise attack on Frederick's camp near the village ofSoor;the resultingBattle of Soorended in a Prussian victory, despite the Austrian surprise and superior numbers.[41][44]The Prussians' supplies were exhausted, however, and they withdrew again into Upper Silesia for the winter, driving out the Austrian light troops that had entered the region ahead of Prince Charles's main force.[49]

Late 1745: Battles of Hennersdorf and Kesselsdorf[edit]

Portrait of young Frederick the Great
Frederick the Greatof Prussia in 1745, byAntoine Pesne

Prussia and Britain hoped the Austrian defeats at Hohenfreidberg and Soor would persuade Austria to come to terms and concentrate its efforts against France, but Maria Theresa was resolved to fight on. On 29 August Austria and Saxony had agreed on a more offensive alliance aimed at seizing Prussian territory,[50]and in early November they began a new offensive from multiple directions toward Brandenburg.[41][44]Prince Charles's Austrian army marched north from Bohemia toward Lusatia, while the main Saxon army underFrederick Augustus Rutowskyprepared to attack from western Saxony, hoping together to seizeBerlinand end the war outright. On 8 November Frederick was informed of these movements and ordered LeopoldI to prepare his troops in western Brandenburg, while Frederick himself departed forLower Silesiato gather forces to meet Charles's advance.[51]

Prussian forces quietly paralleled Prince Charles's march through Lusatia, until the Austrians had come nearly to the Brandenburg border. There, on 23 November Frederick launched a successful surprise attack on Charles's camp atKatholisch Hennersdorf;thisBattle of Hennersdorfended with the Saxon elements of the allied army destroyed and the larger Austrian force confused and scattered. Charles and his remnants were forced to retreat back into central Saxony and Bohemia, leaving Lusatia under Prussian control.[52]Meanwhile, LeopoldI's army advanced into western Saxony on 29 November against minimal resistance, progressing as far as Leipzig by the next day and occupying that city. From there, his army and Frederick's converged toward Dresden in early December.[53]

Frederick's force attempted to come between the Saxon capital and Prince Charles's Austrians, while Leopold's army advanced directly upon Rutowsky's Saxons, who were entrenched beside the village ofKesselsdorf.[53]On 15 December Leopold's force attacked and destroyed Rutowsky's army in theBattle of Kesselsdorf,opening the way to Dresden, as Prince Charles and the remaining Saxon soldiers retreated through the Ore Mountains into Bohemia.[37]The Prussians occupied Dresden on 18 December,[54]after which Frederick once again sent envoys to Maria Theresa and Frederick AugustusII to propose peace.[55]

Treaty of Dresden[edit]

Austrian and Saxon delegates and British mediators joined the Prussians in Dresden, where they quickly negotiated a peace treaty. Under the resulting agreement, Maria Theresa acknowledged Prussia's control of Silesia and Glatz, and Frederick retroactively recognised FrancisI as Holy Roman Emperor and agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction,[54]while also committing to neutrality for the remainder of the War of the Austrian Succession.[37]For its part in the Austrian alliance, Saxony was compelled to pay one millionrixdollarsin reparations to Prussia. The region's border were thus confirmed at thestatus quo ante bellum,which had been Prussia's principal goal.[55]ThisTreaty of Dresdenwas signed on 25 December 1745, ending the Second Silesian War between Austria, Saxony, and Prussia.[54]

Outcomes[edit]

Map of European political borders in 1748
Europe in the years after theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748),withBrandenburg–Prussiain violet and theHabsburg monarchyin gold

The First and Second Silesian Wars have been described as campaigns within one continuous War of the Austrian Succession.[56]Partly for this reason, contemporaries and later historians have consistently viewed the Second Silesian War's conclusion as a victory for Prussia, which defended its seizure of Silesia.[57]Prussia's intervention in Bohemia also seriously impeded the Austrian war effort against France.[24]However, by making another separate peace while the French continued to fight the wider War of the Austrian Succession, Frederick damaged his own diplomatic credibility.[6]The Treaty of Dresden also deepened Austria and Saxony's hostility toward Prussia,[58]leading them into the anti-Prussian alliance that would spark theThird Silesian Warin the following decade.[59]

Prussia[edit]

By again defeating Austria, Prussia confirmed its acquisition of Silesia, a densely industrialised region with a large population and substantial tax yields.[60]The small kingdom's unexpected victories over the Habsburg monarchy marked the beginning of Prussia's rise toward the status of a Europeangreat power,as it began to leave German rivals such as Bavaria and Saxony behind.[61]His series of battlefield victories in 1745 won Frederick general acclaim as a brilliant military commander; it was at the end of this war that he began to be spoken of as "Frederick the Great".[62][63]

The seizure of Silesia made Prussia and Austria into lasting and determined enemies, beginning theAustria–Prussia rivalrythat would come to dominate German politics over the next century.[64]Saxony, envious of Prussia's ascendancy and threatened by Prussian Silesia's geostrategic position, also turned its foreign policy firmly against Prussia.[58]Frederick's repeated unilateral withdrawal from his alliances in the War of the Austrian Succession deepened the French royal court's distrust of him,[6]and his next perceived "betrayal" (a defensive alliance with Britain under the 1756Convention of Westminster) accelerated France's eventual realignment toward Austria in theDiplomatic Revolutionof the 1750s.[65]

Austria[edit]

The Second Silesian War was a disappointment for Austria, whose armed forces proved surprisingly ineffective against smaller Prussian armies.[66]The Treaty of Dresden formalised the loss of the Habsburg monarchy's wealthiest province,[61]and defeat by a lesser German prince significantly dented Habsburg prestige.[67]The rest of the Habsburg patrimony in Central Europe was preserved intact, however, and Maria Theresa did win Prussia's retroactive support for her husband's election as Holy Roman Emperor.[37]

Despite its defeat, Austria was reluctant to recognise Prussia as a rival power and refused to accept the loss of Silesia.[68]When theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapellefinally ended the wider War of the Austrian Succession in 1748, Maria Theresa's government refused to sign the peace agreement because it guaranteed Prussian sovereignty in the conquered province. Instead, she began a general reform of Austria's military and a review of its diplomatic policy, all aimed at one day recovering Silesia and relegating Prussia to the status of a lesser power.[69]This policy eventually led to the formation of a broad anti-Prussian alliance between Austria, France and Russia, followed by the outbreak of the Third Silesian War and the widerSeven Years' Warin 1756.[59]The struggle with Prussia would become the driving factor behind wide-ranging efforts to modernise the Habsburg monarchy over the next half century.[70]

References[edit]

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  3. ^Clark (2006),p. 183.
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  6. ^abcHolborn (1982),p. 213.
  7. ^Carlyle (1862a).Chapter XIII—Battle of Chotusitz.Vol. Book XIII. pp. 574–579.
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  9. ^Carlyle (1862a).Chapter XIV—Peace of Breslau.Vol. Book XIII. pp. 581–586.
  10. ^Fraser (2000),pp. 130–131.
  11. ^abClifford (1914),p. 3103.
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  18. ^Fraser (2000),pp. 152–153.
  19. ^abcCarlyle (1862b).Chapter VII—Friedrich Makes Treaty With France; and Silently Gets Ready.Vol. Book XIV. pp. 725–729.
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  21. ^Hochedlinger (2003),p. 257
  22. ^Fraser (2000),p. 153, 159.
  23. ^abCarlyle (1864a).Chapter I—Preliminary: How the Moment Arrived.Vol. Book XV. pp. 11–13.
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  26. ^Fraser (2000),p. 150.
  27. ^abBlack (1994),pp. 38–52.
  28. ^Black (1994),pp. 67–80.
  29. ^Clark (2006),p. 209.
  30. ^Creveld (1977),pp. 26–28.
  31. ^abCarlyle (1864a).Chapter II—Friedrich Marches upon Prag, Captures Prag.Vol. Book XV. pp. 16–27.
  32. ^abBrowning (1993),p. 181.
  33. ^Asprey (1986),pp. 293–294.
  34. ^Carlyle (1864a).Chapter III—Friedrich, Diligent in His Bohemian Conquests, Unexpectedly Comes upon Prince Karl, with No French Attending Him.Vol. Book XV. pp. 35–36.
  35. ^abCarlyle (1864a).Chapter IV—Friedrich Reduced to Straits; Cannot Maintain His Moldau Conquests Against Prince Karl.Vol. Book XV. pp. 42–54.
  36. ^abCarlyle (1864a).Chapter V—Friedrich, under Difficulties, Prepares for a New Campaign.Vol. Book XV. pp. 61–62, 79–80.
  37. ^abcdeClifford (1914),p. 3105.
  38. ^Hochedlinger (2003),p. 259.
  39. ^abcCarlyle (1864a).Chapter VI—Valori Goes on an Electioneering Mission to Dresden.Vol. Book XV. pp. 88–90, 96–97.
  40. ^Simms (2009),pp. 336–337.
  41. ^abcHolborn (1982),p. 216.
  42. ^abCarlyle (1864a).Chapter IX—The Austrian–Saxon Army Invades Silesia, across the Mountains.Vol. Book XV. pp. 127–128, 142–143.
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  51. ^Carlyle (1864a).Chapter XIII—Saxony and Austria Make a Surprising Last Attempt.Vol. Book XV. pp. 192–197.
  52. ^Fraser (2000),p. 194.
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  70. ^Hochedlinger (2003),p. 267.

Sources[edit]

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