Sedentism

Incultural anthropology,sedentism(sometimes calledsedentariness;comparesedentarism^[1]) is the practice of living in one place for a long time. As of 2024, the large majority of people belong to sedentary cultures. Inevolutionary anthropology and archaeology,sedentismtakes on a slightly different sub-meaning, often applying to the transition fromnomadicsociety to alifestylethat involves remaining in one place permanently. Essentially, sedentism means living in groups permanently in one place.^[2]Theinvention of agricultureled to sedentism in many cases, but the earliest sedentary settlements were pre-agricultural.

Initial requirements for permanent, non-agricultural settlements

For small-scale nomadic societies it can be difficult to adopt a sedentary lifestyle in a landscape without on-siteagriculturalorlivestock breedingresources, since sedentism often requires sufficient year-round, easily accessible local natural resources.

Non-agricultural sedentism requires good preservation and storage technologies, such as smoking, drying, andfermentation,as well as good containers such as pottery, baskets, or special pits in which to securely store food whilst making it available. It was only in locations where the resources of several major ecosystems overlapped that the earliest non-agricultural sedentism occurred. For example, people settled where a river met the sea, atlagoonenvironments along the coast, at river confluences, or where flatsavannamet hills, and mountains with rivers.

Criteria for the recognition of sedentism in archaeological studies

In archaeology a number of criteria must hold for the recognition of either semi or full sedentism.

According to Israeli archaeologistOfer Bar-Yosef,they are as follows:^[3]^[4]

1. Increasing presence of organisms that benefit from human sedentary activities, e.g.

House mice
Rats
Sparrows

2.Cementumincrements on mammal teeth

Indications that hunting took place in both winter and summer

3. Energy expenditure

Leveling slopes
Building houses
Production of plaster
Transport of undressed stones
Digging of graves
Shaping of largemortars

In many mammals dark cementum is deposited during winter when food is scarce and light cementum is deposited in the summer when food is abundant, so the outermost cementum layer shows at which season the animal was killed. Thus if animals were killed the year around in some area it suggests that people were sedentary there.^[5]

Historical regions of sedentary settlements

The first sedentary sites were pre-agricultural, and they appeared during theUpper PaleolithicinMoraviaand on theEast European Plainbetween c. 25000–17000 BC.^[6]In theLevant,theNatufianculture was the first to become sedentary at around 12000 BC. The Natufians were sedentary for more than 2000 years before they, at some sites, started to cultivate plants around 10000 BC.^[7]A year-round sedentary site, with its larger population, generates a substantial demand on locally provided natural resources, a demand that may have triggered the development of deliberate agriculture.

TheJōmon cultureinJapan,which was primarily a coastal culture, was sedentary from c. 12000 to 10000 BC, before the cultivation of rice at some sites in northernKyushu.^[8]^[9]In northernmostScandinavia,there areseveral early sedentary siteswithout evidence of agriculture or cattle breeding. They appeared from c. 5300–4500 BC^[10]and are all located optimally in the landscape for utilization of major ecosystem resources;^{[citation needed]}for example, theLillbergetStone Age village site (c. 3900 BC), theNyelvsite (c. 5300 BC), and theLake Inarisite (c. 4500 BC).^{[citation needed]}In northernSwedenthe earliest indication of agriculture occurs at previously sedentary sites, and one example is theBjurseletsite used during the period c. 2700–1700 BC, famous for its large caches of long distance tradedflint axesfromDenmarkandScania(some 1300 km). The evidence ofsmall-scale agricultureat that site can be seen from c. 2300 BC (burnt cereals of barley).

Historical effects of increased sedentism

Sedentism increased contacts andtrade,and the firstMiddle Eastcereals and cattle inEuropecould have spread through a stepping stone process, where the productive gifts (cereals, cattle, sheep and goats) were exchanged through a network of large pre-agricultural sedentary sites, rather than a wave of advance spread of people with agricultural economy, and where the smaller sites found in between the bigger sedentary ones did not get any of the new products. Not all contemporary sites during a certain period (after the first sedentism occurred at one site) were sedentary. Evaluation of habitational sites in northern Sweden indicates that less than 10 percent of all the sites around 4000 BC were sedentary. At the same time, only 0.5–1 percent of these represented villages with more than 3–4 houses. This means that the old nomadic or migratory life style continued in a parallel fashion for several thousand years, until somewhat more sites turned to sedentism, and gradually switched over to agricultural sedentism.

The shift to sedentism is coupled with the adoption of newsubsistencestrategies, specifically fromforaging(hunter-gatherer) toagriculturalandanimal domestication.The development of sedentism led to the rise of population aggregation and formation ofvillages,cities,and othercommunitytypes.

InNorth America,evidence for sedentism emerges around 4500 BC.^{[citation needed]}

Forced sedentism

Forced sedentismorsedentarizationoccurs when a dominant group restricts the movements of a nomadic group.Nomadicpopulations have undergone such a process since the first cultivation of land; the organization of modern society has imposed demands that have pushed aboriginal populations to adopt a fixed habitat.

At the end of the 19th and throughout the 20th century many previously nomadic tribes turned to permanent settlement. It was a process initiated by local governments, and it was mainly a global trend forced by the changes in the attitude to the land and real property and also due to state policies that complicated border crossing. Among these nations areNegev BedouininJordan,IsraelandEgypt,^[11]Bashkirs,Kyrgyz,Kazakhs,Evenks,Evens,Sakhain theSoviet Union,Tibetannomads inChina,^[12]BabongoinGabon,BakainCameroon,^[13]InnuinCanada,RomaniinRomaniaandCzechoslovakia,etc.

As a result of forced sedentarization, many rich herdsmen inSiberiahave been eliminated by deliberate overtaxation or imprisonment, year-round mobility has been discouraged, many smaller sites and family herd camps have been shut down, children have been separated from their parents and taken to boarding schools. This caused severe social, cultural and psychological issues toIndigenous peoples of Siberia.^[14]^[15]

References

^Gabaccia, Donna R. (2012). "Food, Mobility, and World History".The Oxford Handbook of Food History.pp. 305–323.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199729937.013.0017.ISBN 978-0-19-972993-7.This assumption that civilized peoples were largely immobile has sometimes been labeled as sendentarying or sedentarism.
^Kris Hirst,Sedentism Archived18 November 2012 at theWayback Machine
^Bar-Yosef, Ofer(1998).The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture.
^"Sedentism and Pristine Agriculture".neareast-prehistory.com.Archived fromthe originalon 22 October 2009.
^Lieberman, Daniel E. (1994). "The Biological Basis for Seasonal Increments in Dental Cementum and Their Application to Archaeological Research".Journal of Archaeological Science.21(4). Elsevier BV: 525–539.Bibcode:1994JArSc..21..525L.doi:10.1006/jasc.1994.1052.ISSN 0305-4403.
^Stuart, Gene S. (1979). "Ice Age Hunters: Artists in Hidden Cages". Mysteries of the Ancient World. National Geographic Society. p. 19.
^Lieberman D.E.,Seasonality and gazelle hunting at Hayonim Cave: new evidence for "sedentism" during the Natufian,Paléorient,1991, volume 17, issue 17/1, pp. 47–57
^Jomon Fantasy: Resketching Japan's Prehistory.June 22, 1999.
^"Ancient Jomon of Japan", Habu Junko, Cambridge Press, 2004
^New Evidence on the Ertebølle Culture on Rugen Archived2004-11-12 at theWayback Machine
^The Sedentarization of the Bedouin People Archived2012-04-12 at theWayback Machine
^Sedentarization of Tibetan Nomads
^Matsuura, Naoki (September 2009)."Visiting Patterns of Two Sedentarized Central African Hunter-Gatherers: Comparison of the Babongo in Gabon and the Baka in Cameroon"(PDF).African Study Monographs.30(3): 137–159.
^Hele, K. (1994)."Native people and the socialist state: the native populations of Siberia and their experience as part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics"(PDF).Canadian Journal of Native Studies.14(2): 251–272.
^Krupnik, I. (2000). "Reindeer pastoralism in modern Siberia: research and survival during the time of crash".Polar Record.19(1): 49–56.Bibcode:2000PolRe..19...49K.doi:10.1111/j.1751-8369.2000.tb00327.x(inactive 12 June 2024).{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (link)^{[dead link]}

External links

The dictionary definition ofsedentismat Wiktionary
Emily A. Schultz, Robert H. Lavenda.The Consequences of Domestication and Sedentism Archived15 July 2009 at theWayback Machine.From a college textbook – Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition Second Edition. pp 196–200
Keith Weber, Shannon Horst. 2011.Desertification and livestock grazing: The roles of sedentarization, mobility and rest
David Western, Rosemary Grooma, Jeffrey Worden. 2009.The impact of subdivision and sedentarization of pastoral lands on wildlife in an African savanna ecosystem
Shuji Sueyoshi, Ryutaro Ohtsuka. 2007.LONG-LASTING EFFECTS OF SEDENTARIZATION-INDUCED INCREASE OF FERTILITY ON LABOR FORCE PROPORTION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN AN ARAB SOCIEITY [sic]: A CASE STUDY IN SOUTH JORDAN
Fagan, Brian.2005.Ancient North America.Thames & Hudson, Ltd.: London.
Halén, Ove. 1994.Sedentariness During the Stone Age of Northern SwedenAlmkvist & Wiksell, Stockholm.
Sofer, Olga. 1981Sedentism During the Paleolithic
Habu, Junku. 2004Ancient Jomon of Japan Cambridge University Press
Lands of the NegevonYouTube,a short film presented by Israel Land Administration describing the challenges Bedouins face in their sedentarization in Israel's southern Negev region
Should Pastoralists be sedentarized?,Drylands Coordination Group

[1] Gabaccia, Donna R. (2012). "Food, Mobility, and World History".The Oxford Handbook of Food History.pp. 305–323.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199729937.013.0017.ISBN 978-0-19-972993-7.This assumption that civilized peoples were largely immobile has sometimes been labeled as sendentarying or sedentarism.

[2] Kris Hirst,Sedentism Archived18 November 2012 at theWayback Machine

[3] Bar-Yosef, Ofer(1998).The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture.

[4] "Sedentism and Pristine Agriculture".neareast-prehistory.com.Archived fromthe originalon 22 October 2009.

[Lieberman_1994_pp._525–539-5] Lieberman, Daniel E. (1994). "The Biological Basis for Seasonal Increments in Dental Cementum and Their Application to Archaeological Research".Journal of Archaeological Science.21(4). Elsevier BV: 525–539.Bibcode:1994JArSc..21..525L.doi:10.1006/jasc.1994.1052.ISSN 0305-4403.

[6] Stuart, Gene S. (1979). "Ice Age Hunters: Artists in Hidden Cages". Mysteries of the Ancient World. National Geographic Society. p. 19.

[7] Lieberman D.E.,Seasonality and gazelle hunting at Hayonim Cave: new evidence for "sedentism" during the Natufian,Paléorient,1991, volume 17, issue 17/1, pp. 47–57

[8] Jomon Fantasy: Resketching Japan's Prehistory.June 22, 1999.

[9] "Ancient Jomon of Japan", Habu Junko, Cambridge Press, 2004

[10] New Evidence on the Ertebølle Culture on Rugen Archived2004-11-12 at theWayback Machine

[11] The Sedentarization of the Bedouin People Archived2012-04-12 at theWayback Machine

[12] Sedentarization of Tibetan Nomads

[13] Matsuura, Naoki (September 2009)."Visiting Patterns of Two Sedentarized Central African Hunter-Gatherers: Comparison of the Babongo in Gabon and the Baka in Cameroon"(PDF).African Study Monographs.30(3): 137–159.

[14] Hele, K. (1994)."Native people and the socialist state: the native populations of Siberia and their experience as part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics"(PDF).Canadian Journal of Native Studies.14(2): 251–272.

[15] Krupnik, I. (2000). "Reindeer pastoralism in modern Siberia: research and survival during the time of crash".Polar Record.19(1): 49–56.Bibcode:2000PolRe..19...49K.doi:10.1111/j.1751-8369.2000.tb00327.x(inactive 12 June 2024).{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (link)^{[dead link]}

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