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Shudra

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ShudraorShoodra[1](Sanskrit:Śūdra[2]) is one of the fourvarnasof the Hindu caste and social system inancient India.[3][4]Some sources translate it into English as acaste,[4]or as a social class. Theoretically, Shudras constituted a class like workers.[2][5][6]

According toRichard Gombrich's study ofBuddhist texts,particularly relating to castes inSri Lankan BuddhistandTamil Hindusociety, also "The terms Vaisya and Sudra did not correspond to any clear-cut social units, even in the ancient period, but various groups were subsumed under each term [...]; In medieval times (say AD 500–1500) though society was still said to consist of the four classes, this classification seems to have become irrelevant[.]"

The wordShudraappears in theRigvedaand it is found in other Hindu texts such as theManusmriti,Arthashastra,dharmaśāstrasandjyotiḥśāstras.In some cases, Shudras participated in the coronation of kings, or wereamatya"ministers" andrajas"kings" according to early Indian texts.[7][8]

History

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Vedas

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The termśūdraappears only once in theRigveda.[9][10]This mention is found in the mythical story of creation embodied in thePuruṣasuktam.It describes the formation of the four varnas from the body of aprimeval man.It states that thebrahminemerged from his mouth, thekshatriyafrom his arms, thevaishyafrom his thighs and the shudra from his feet. According to historianRam Sharan Sharma,the purpose of this verse may have been to show that shudras had the same lineage as the other varnas and hence were a section of society in theVedic period.On the other hand, it could also represent an attempt to provide a common mythical origin for the heterogenous Brahminical society.[11][12][13]

While theRigvedawas most likely compiled between c. 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE,[14][15]John Muir in 1868 suggested that the verse that mentions the four varnas has "every character of modernness both in its diction and ideas".[16]ThePurusha Suktaverse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as acharter myth.[17][18]

According toStephanie W. Jamisonand Joel Brereton, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".[17]HistorianRam Sharan Sharmastates that "the Rig Vedic society was neither organized on the basis of social division of labour nor on that of differences in wealth... [it] was primarily organised based on kin, tribe and lineage."[19]

According to Sharma, nowhere in theṚgvedaorAtharvaveda"is there any evidence of restrictions regarding food and marriage either between the Dasa and Aryan, or between the Shudra and the higher varnas". Further, adds Sharma, in late Atharva Veda, "Shudra does not come in for notice, probably because his varna did not exist at that stage".[20]

According toRomila Thapar,the Vedic text's mention of Shudra and other varnas has been seen as its origin, and that "in the varna ordering of society, notions of purity and pollution were central and activities were worked out in this context" and it is "formulaic and orderly, dividing society into four groups arranged in a hierarchy".[21]According to Sharma, the Shudra class originated fromIndo-Aryans and non-Indo-Aryanswho were relegated to that position due "partly through external and partly through internal conflicts".[22]

The wordpusanappears in a Vedic-eraupanishadmeaning "nourisher" and associates it with the creation of earth and production activities that nourishes the whole world, and the text calls thisPusanas Shudra.[23][24]The termPusan,in Hindu mythology, is the charioteer of the sun who knows the paths thereby bringing light, knowledge and life to all.[25]The same wordpusanis, however, associated in aBrahmanatext toVaishya.[24]

Arthashastra

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The ancient Hindu textArthashastrastates, according to Sharma, thatAryaswere free men and could not be subject to slavery under any circumstances.[26]The text contrastsAryaswithShudra,but neither as a hereditary slave nor as an economically closed social stratum in a manner that the term Shudra later was interpreted.[27][26][28]According to Rangarajan, the law on labour and employment inArthashastrahas led to a variety of different interpretations by different translators and commentators, and "the accepted view is that slavery, in the form it was practised in contemporary Greece, did not exist in Kautilyan India".[29]

Kautilyaargued for the rights of Shudras and all classes to participate as warriors. Roger Borsche says that this is so because it is in the self-interest of the ruler to "have a people's army fiercely loyal to him precisely because the people had been treated justly".[28]

Manusmriti

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TheManusmritipredominantly discusses the code of conduct (dharma rules) for the Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class).[30]The text mentions Shudras and Vaishyas, but this part is its shortest section. Sections–of theManusmritistate eight rules for Vaishyas and two for Shudras.[31]

Though Manusmriti says Brahmins may seize property from sudra because Sudra owns nothing.[32]Sudra shouldnt accumulate wealth as if he becomes wealthy he might harass brahmin.[33]

In sections 10.43 - 10.44, Manu listsKshatriyatribes who, neglecting the priests and their rites, had fallen to the status of Shudras. These are:Pundrakas,Codas,Dravidas,Kambojas,Yavanas,Sakas,Paradas,Pahlavas,Chinas,Kiratas,DaradasandKhasas.[34][35]

Yajnavalkya smriti and Grhyasutras

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According toLaurie Patton,a professor of religion specialising in early Indian religions, the rights and status of Shudra vary widely across early Indian texts.[36]TheApastamba Grhysutraexcludes the Shudra students from hearing or learning the Vedas.[36]Yajnavalkya Smritiin contrast, mentions Shudra students, and theMahabharatastates that all four varnas, including the Shudras, may hear the Vedas.[37][38]Other Hindu texts go further and state that the three varnas – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya – may acquire knowledge from Shudra teachers, and theyajnasacrifices may be performed by Shudras.[39]These rights and social mobility for Shudras may have arisen in times of lower societal stress and greater economic prosperity, periods that also saw improvement in the social conditions of women.[37]

Medieval Upanishads

[edit]

Medieval era texts such asVajrasuchi Upanishaddiscuss varna and include the term Shudra.[40][41]According to Ashwani Peetush, a professor of philosophy at the Wilfrid Laurier University, theVajrasuchi Upanishadis a significant text because it assumes and asserts that any human being from any social background can achieve the highest spiritual state of existence.[42]

Non-Hindu texts

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Outside of the conflicting stances within the Hindu texts, non-Hindu texts present a different picture about the Shudras. A Buddhist text, states Patton, "refers to Shudras who know the Vedas, grammar,Mimamsa,Samkhya,Vaisheshikaandlagna".[36]

According toJohannes Bronkhorst,a professor of Indology specialising in early Buddhism and Hinduism, the ancient Buddhist canon is predominantly devoid of varna discussions, and the varnas are rarely referred to in its ancient discourses.[43]The Buddhist texts do not describe the Indian society as divided into the four varṇas of "Brahmins, Ksạtriyas, Vaiśyas and Śūdras". Instead, states Bronkhorst, the bulk of society is described as consisting of "householders" (Pāli:gahapati), without internal distinctions.[43]Even where the Brahmins are mentioned in such a context, they too are referred to as householders, orBrāhmaṇa-gahapati.[44]The termvaṇṇadoes appear in the Buddhist texts as few exceptions, but states Bronkhorst, only in the context of abstract divisions of society and it seems to "have remained a theoretical concept without any parallel in actual practice".[45]

Education

[edit]

Historian R. S. Sharma, after discussing several examples concludes that the dharmaśāstras did not allow the Shudras access toliteracybut allowed them to learn arts and crafts such as elephant training, etc. He also adds that texts denied them Vedic education as it was believed to impede agriculture and vice versa. While the other varnas showed varying degrees of literacy, the Shudras were generally illiterate. The social reformerJyotirao Phuleblamed the deterioration of the Shudras on illiteracy and emphasised education for them.[46][47][48][49]Phule stated:

For want of education intellect deteriorated, for want of intellect morality decayed, for want of morality progress stopped, for want of progress wealth vanished, for want of wealth Shudra perished and all these sorrows sprang from illiteracy[49]

Occupation

[edit]
AGurkha,Brahmin and Shudra in an 1868 photo.

Traditionally, Shudras werepeasantsandartisans.The ancient texts designate the Shudra as a peasant. Shudras were described as the giver of grain and ancient texts describe a Shudra's mode of earning as being "by the sickle and ears of corn". The ancient precept, "Vedas are destroyer of agriculture and agriculture is destroyer of Vedas", is shown as one of the reasons as to why the Shudras were not allowed to learn Vedas. The fact that peasants were held as Shudras is also documented by Chinese travellerXuanzangin the7th century.Also, an "outcaste" who entered the profession of agriculture would be absorbed in the Shudra varna.[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][excessive citations]

The Shudra, states Marvin Davis, are not required to learn theVedas.They were notdvijaor "twice-born", and their occupational sphere stated as service (seva) of the other three varna.[3][21]The wordDvijais neither found in anyVedasandUpanishads,nor is it found in any Vedanga literature such as the Shrauta-sutras or Grihya-sutras.[58]The word is almost entirely missing, in any context, from ancient Sanskrit literature composed before the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and it scarcely appears in the dharmasutras.[58]Increasing mentions of it appear in the dharmasastras of mid to late 1st millennium CE. The presence of the worddvijais a marker that the text is likely a medieval-era text.[58]

The traditional occupation of Shudra as described by Ghurye is agriculture, trade and crafts.[59]However, this categorisation varies by scholar.[60]As per Drekmeier state "Vaishya and Shudra actually shared many occupations and were frequently grouped together".[61][62]

TheArthashastramentions Shudra as artisans while theVishnusmriti(3rd century) states all arts to be their occupational domain. In contrast, theParasarasmritiand other texts state that arts and crafts are the occupational domain of all four varnas.[63]

Other sources state that this statement of occupations of Shudra is a theoretical discussion found in select texts, it is not historical. Other Hindu texts such as the epics, states Naheem Jabbar, assert that Shudras played other roles such as kings and ministers.[7]According to Ghurye,[64]in reality, the hereditary occupation aspect of Shudra and other varnas was missing from large parts of India, and all four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) were agriculturalists, traders or became warriors in large numbers depending on economic opportunity and circumstantial necessities.[65]According to Ghurye:

Though theoretically the position of the Shudras was very low, there is evidence to show that many of them were well-to-do. Some of them succeeded in marrying their daughters in royal families. Sumitra, one of the 3 wives of king Dasharatha, was a Shudra. Some of them even worked their way up to throne. The famousChandraguptais traditionally known to be a Shudra.

— G. C. Ghurye,Caste and Race in India[66]

Bali, Indonesia

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Among the Hindu communities of Bali, Indonesia, the Shudra (locally spelledSoedra) have typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be a Brahmin (Brahmana), Kshatriya (Ksatrya) or Vaishya. In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recitemeweda(Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.[67]

Historical evidence

[edit]

Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature ofvarnaandjatiin documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence for the existence ofvarnaandjatisystems in medieval India has been elusive, and contradicting evidence has emerged.[68][69]

Varnais rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records ofAndhra Pradesh,for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of history and Asian studies, to question whethervarnawas socially significant in the daily lives of this region. The mention ofjatiis even rarer, through the 13th century. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest.[68]

Richard Eaton, a professor of history, writes, "anyone could become a warrior regardless of social origins, nor do thejatiappear as features of people's identity. Occupations were fluid. "Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many" father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social status was earned, not inherited "in the HinduKakatiyapopulation in theDeccanregion between the 11th and 14th centuries.[70]

According to Johannes Bronkhorst, none of Ashoka's inscriptions mention the terms Kshatriyas, Vaishyas or Shudras, and only mention Brahmins andŚramaṇas.[71]

Several popular medieval eraBhakti movementpoet-saints and religious leaders were born in a Shudra family. Examples includeTukaramandNamdev.[72][73]The compositions of Namdev have been popular not only in the Hindu community ofMaharashtra,but also in the Sikh community. Sixty of his compositions were included by the Sikh Gurus of Punjab region as they compiled theSikhismscripture theGuru Granth Sahib.[74][75]

Commentary

[edit]
A 1908 photo of abrideandbridegroomof the sudra caste in ahorse-drawn vehicle.[76]

Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar,a social reformer, believed that there were initially only three varnas: theBrahmin,KshatriyaandVaishya,and that the Shudras were the Kshatriyas who were denied theUpanayana,an initiation ritual, by the Brahmins.[77]This claim has been contested by historians such asR. S. Sharma.Sharma criticised Ambedkar for relying solely on translations of texts for his information, and stated Ambedkar wrote the book with the sole purpose to prove Shudras were of high caste origin, which was very popular among the highly educated parts of the lower castes during that time period.[78]

Sri Aurobindostates Shudra and the other varna is a concept found in all human beings in different proportions. He states that this was externalised and mechanised into a system quite different from what it was intended.[79]

The tenets of Vedic Hinduism in north India held less sway in the south, where the societal divisions were simply Brahmin and Shudra. However, some non-Brahmins, like theVellalar,adopted the classification ofSat Shudra(clean Shudra) in an attempt to distinguish themselves from other non-Brahmin communities.[80]

See also

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References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^"Sudra | Encyclopedia.com".
  2. ^abSharma 1990,pp. 60–61, 192–200, 261–267 with footnotes.
  3. ^abDavis, Marvin (1983).Rank and Rivalry: The Politics of Inequality in Rural West Bengal.Cambridge University Press. p. 51.ISBN9780521288804.
  4. ^abVaradaraja V. Raman 2006,pp. 200–204.
  5. ^Ghurye 1969,pp. 15–17, Quote: "This was only generally true, for there were groups of occupations like trading, agriculture, labouring in the field and doing military service which were looked upon as anybody's, and most caste were supposed to be eligible for any of them..
  6. ^Richard Gombrich(2012)."Chapter 8. Caste in the Monastery".Buddhist Precept & Practice.Routledge. pp. 343–357.ISBN978-1-136-15616-8.
  7. ^abNaheem Jabbar (2009).Historiography and Writing Postcolonial India.Routledge. pp. 148–149.ISBN978-1-134-01040-0.
  8. ^Sharma 1990,pp. 54–61, 267–268 with footnotes.
  9. ^Basham 1989,pp. 25–26.
  10. ^Sharma 1990,p. 33.
  11. ^Sharma 1990,p. 32.
  12. ^Sharma, Ram Sharan(1983).Material culture and social formations in ancient India.Macmillan. p. 51.ISBN9780333904169.
  13. ^Flood 1996,pp.36-37.
  14. ^Flood 1996,p. 37.
  15. ^Witzel 1995,p. 4.
  16. ^Muir, John (1868).Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and Institutions, Volume 1(2nd ed.). London: Trubner and Co. p. 12.
  17. ^abStephanie Jamison & Joel Brereton 2014,pp. 57–58.
  18. ^Moriz Winternitz;V. Srinivasa Sarma (1996).A History of Indian Literature.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 59–60.ISBN978-81-208-0264-3.
  19. ^Sharma 1990,p. 10.
  20. ^Sharma 1990,p. 44–45.
  21. ^abThapar 2004,p. 63.
  22. ^Sharma 1990,p. 45.
  23. ^Patrick Olivelle(1998).The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation.Oxford University Press. p. 49.ISBN978-0-19-535242-9.
  24. ^abSharma 1990,pp. 49–50.
  25. ^Patrick Olivelle(1998).The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation.Oxford University Press. pp. 483, 636.ISBN978-0-19-535242-9.
  26. ^abSharma 1958,p. 163 (1990:177).
  27. ^D. R. Bhandarkar 1989,p. 9.
  28. ^abRoger Boesche 2013,pp. 103–104.
  29. ^LN Rangarajan 1992,p. 411.
  30. ^Patrick Olivelle 2005,pp. 16, 62–65.
  31. ^Patrick Olivelle 2005,pp. 16, 8–14, 206–207.
  32. ^Patrick Olivelle 2005, page 189.
  33. ^Patrick Olivelle 2005, page 214.
  34. ^Deshpande, Madhav; Hook, Peter Edwin (1979).Aryan and Non-Aryan in India.University of Michigan. p. 8.ISBN0891480145.Retrieved24 June2018.
  35. ^Baldwin, John Denison (1871).Pre-Historic Nations.Sagwan Press. p. 290.ISBN1340096080.Retrieved25 June2018.
  36. ^abcLaurie Patton 2002,p. 90.
  37. ^abLaurie Patton 2002,pp. 90–91.
  38. ^Sharma 1990,p. 293.
  39. ^Laurie Patton 2002,p. 91.
  40. ^Mariola Offredi (1997), The banyan tree: essays on early literature in new Indo-Aryan languages, Volume 2, Manohar Publishers,OCLC46731068,ISBN9788173042775,page 442
  41. ^M.V. Nadkarni (2005),Review Articles: Perspectives on Dalit Problems and Solutions[permanent dead link],Journal of Social and Economic Development, Vol. 7, No. 1, page 99
  42. ^Ashwani Peetush (2011), Justice and Religion: Hinduism, in Encyclopedia of Global Justice, Springer Netherlands,ISBN978-1402091599,pages 596–600
  43. ^abJohannes Bronkhorst 2011,p. 34 with footnotes.
  44. ^Johannes Bronkhorst 2011,pp. 34–35.
  45. ^Johannes Bronkhorst 2011,p. 35.
  46. ^Sharma 1990,p. 134: "Thus the dharmashastras sought to establish a divorce between literate education, which was confined to the members of the twice born varnas, and technical training which lay in the sphere of the shudras. It was also stated that Vedic study impedes pursuit of pursuit of agriculture and vice versa."
  47. ^Angus J. L. Menuge (20 July 2017).Religious Liberty and the Law: Theistic and Non-Theistic Perspectives.Taylor & Francis. pp. 272–.ISBN978-1-351-98266-5.
  48. ^J. S. Rajput; National Council of Educational Research and Training (India) (2004).Encyclopaedia of Indian Education: A-K.NCERT. p. 22.ISBN978-81-7450-303-9.Although varying degrees of literacy were present among the first three castes, there was absolute illiteracy among Shudras.
  49. ^abMichael D. Palmer; Stanley M. Burgess (12 March 2012).The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice.John Wiley & Sons. p. 210.ISBN978-1-4443-5537-6.His emphasis on the education of the Shudras is well explained in his own words: For want of education intellect deteriorated, For want of intellect morality decayed, For want of morality progress stopped, For want of progress wealth vanished, For want of wealth Shudra perished and all these sorrows sprang from illiteracy.
  50. ^Ronald L. Barrett (4 March 2008).Aghor Medicine: Pollution, Death, and Healing in Northern India.University of California Press. pp. 68–.ISBN978-0-520-25218-9.Among the most vocal of these supporters was Dr. Shastri, a professor of Ayurvedic medicine at a well-known university, who associated the Caraka Samhita use of shudra for lesser conditions with the shudra (peasant) castes, linking both
  51. ^G. Krishnan-Kutty (1986).Peasantry in India.Abhinav Publications. pp. 47–.ISBN978-81-7017-215-4.The ancient texts designate the sudra as a peasant. The distinction between the all-India category of varna and the local and omnipresent category of jati is well brought out by M. N. Srinivas in his famous bookThe Remembered Village,...
  52. ^Richard Sisson (1971).The Congress Party in Rajasthan: Political Integration and Institution-building in an Indian State.University of California Press. pp. 33–.ISBN978-0-520-01808-2.The Shudra included peasants and artisans
  53. ^Sharma 1990,pp. 102–: "The mass of Shudra population seems to be employed in agricultural operations. [according to the Majjhima Nikaya] the Shudra [lives on] on the use of sickle and the carriage of crops on the pole held over his shoulder."
  54. ^Jayant Gadkari (October 1996).Society and Religion: From Rugveda to Puranas.Popular Prakashan. pp. 76–.ISBN978-81-7154-743-2.an extract from Pali work Majjima Nikaya tell us... shudras [live] by the sickle and ears of corn. A large number of Shudras appear to be agricultural laborers. Shudras were not entitled to learn Vedas, and a precept says, 'Vedas are the destroyer of agriculture and agriculture is the destroyer of Vedas.'
  55. ^Sangeet Kumar (1 January 2005).Changing role of the caste system: a critique.Rawat Publications. p. 144.ISBN978-81-7033-881-9.In same texts, the pure Shudras were described as giver of grain (annada) and householder (grhastha). The reason was that the actual cultivation was generally done by peasants belonging to the Shudras caste.
  56. ^Grewal, J. S. (2005).The State and Society in Medieval India.Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy, and Culture. Oxford University Press. p. 156.ISBN978-0-19-566720-2.At its beginning or a little before the millennium, the Manusmriti considers the pursuit of agriculture blameworthy because the 'wooden [plough] with the iron point injures the earth and the [beings] living in the earth'. Thus, by an appeal to the doctrine of ahimsa, so much promoted by Buddhism and Jainism, the plough became unclean, and the peasant who worked the plough earned opprobrium that has stuck till our own times. R. S. Sharma shows how in the legal texts, peasants were generally regarded not as Vaishyas as earlier, but as Shudras. This is confirmed in the seventh century by Xuan Zhuang (Hsuan Tsang) who found that in India peasants were held to be Shudras. Such varna ranking of most peasant castes (now usually given the designation of 'Other Backward Castes') is thus more than 1300 years old, and was in place by the early medieval times. If certain older communities were thus reduced in status, it is possible that other communities, previously held to be outside the pale of the varna system, were absorbed as Shudra castes once they took to agriculture. We have such an example in the Kaivartas.
  57. ^Dwijendra Narayan Jha (1 January 2004).Early India: A Concise History.Manohar Publishers & Distributors. p. 196.ISBN978-81-7304-587-5.For the shudras now took their position as cultivators and the origin of the modern peasant castes of kurmis in Bihar and kunbis in Maharashtra may be traced back to the early medieval period
  58. ^abcPatric Olivelle (2012). Silvia D'Intino, Caterina Guenzi (ed.).Aux abords de la clairière: études indiennes et comparées en l'honneur de Charles Malamoud.Volume 7 of Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Sciences Religieuses: Série Histoire et prosopographie. Brepols, Belgium. pp. 117–132.ISBN978-2-503-54472-4.
  59. ^Ingold, Tim (1994).Companion encyclopedia of anthropology.London New York: Routledge. p. 1026.ISBN978-0-415-28604-6.
  60. ^Ghurye 1969,pp. 63–64, 102 Quote: "treat both the Vaishyas and the Shudras as almost indistinguishable. The occupations prescribed by Parashara, who is par excellence the mentor of the age, for both of them are the same, viz. agriculture, trade and crafts".
  61. ^Charles Drekmeier (1962).Kingship and Community in Early India.Stanford University Press. pp. 85–86.ISBN978-0-8047-0114-3.
  62. ^Sharma 1990,pp. 263–269, 342–345.
  63. ^Stella Kramrisch (1994).Exploring India'S Sacred Art.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 60–61.ISBN978-81-208-1208-6.
  64. ^Ghurye 1969,pp. 15–16.
  65. ^Ghurye 1969,pp. 16–17.
  66. ^Ghurye 1969,p. 63.
  67. ^Jane Belo (1953), Bali: Temple Festival, Monograph 22, American Ethnological Society, University of Washington Press, pages 4-5
  68. ^abTalbot 2001,pp. 50–51.
  69. ^Orr 2000,pp. 30–31.
  70. ^Eaton 2008,pp. 15–16.
  71. ^Johannes Bronkhorst 2011,pp. 32, 36.
  72. ^Richard M. Eaton (2005),A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives,Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0521716277,pages 129-130
  73. ^Novetzke 2013,pp. 54–55.
  74. ^Pashaura Singh (2003).The Bhagats of the Guru Granth Sahib: Sikh Self-definition and the Bhagat Bani.Oxford University Press. pp. 11–15, 105–107, 119–120.ISBN978-0-19-566269-6.
  75. ^Kerry Brown (2002).Sikh Art and Literature.Routledge. p. 114.ISBN978-1-134-63136-0.
  76. ^Joyce, Thomas Athol(1908).Women of all nations, a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs and influence.
  77. ^Ambedkar, B.R. (1970).Who were the Shudras(PDF).Bombay: Thackers. p. xiv. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 August 2014.Retrieved17 August2014.
  78. ^Sharma 1990,p. 5.
  79. ^Aurobindo (1996),pp. 740–747
  80. ^Vaitheespara, Ravi (2011)."Forging a Tamil Caste: Maraimalai Adigal (1876-1950) and the discourse of caste in colonial Tamilnadu".In Bergunder, Michael; Frese, Heiko (eds.).Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India.Primus Books. p. 96.ISBN978-9-38060-721-4.

General and cited references

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