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Skanda Purana

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A page from the Ganga Mahatmya section ofSkanda PuranainSanskritlanguage andDevanagariscript
A page from theSkanda Puranamanuscript in Sanskrit language and Devanagari script
A leaf from a palm leaf ofSkanda Puranamanuscript book, held together by a thin rope
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TheSkanda Purana(IAST:Skanda Purāṇa) is the largestMukhyapurana,a genre of eighteenHindureligious texts.[1]The text contains over 81,000 verses, and is ofShaiviteliterature,[2]titled afterSkanda,a son ofShivaandParvati(who is also known asMuruganin Tamil literature).[3]While the text is named after Skanda, he does not feature either more or less prominently in this text than in other Shiva-related Puranas.[3]The text has been an important historical record and influence on the Hindu traditions and rituals related to the war-god Skanda.[3][4]

The earliest text titledSkanda Puranalikely existed by the 8th century CE,[5][6]but theSkanda Puranathat has survived into the modern era exists in many versions.[7]It is considered as a living text, which has been widely edited, over many centuries, creating numerous variants.[8]The common elements in the variant editions encyclopedically covercosmogony,mythology,genealogy,dharma,festivals, gemology, temples, geography, discussion of virtues and evil, of theology and of the nature and qualities ofShivaas the Absolute and the source of true knowledge.[9]

The editions of Skandapurana text also provide an encyclopedic travel handbook with meticulousTirtha Mahatmya(pilgrimage tourist guides),[10]containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, Nepal and Tibet, with related legends, parables, hymns and stories.[11][12][13]

ThisMahāpurāṇa,like others, is attributed to the sageVyasa.

Date of composition

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Haraprasad ShastriandCecil Bendall,in about 1898, discovered an oldpalm-leaf manuscriptof Skanda Purana in a Kathmandu library inNepal,written inGupta script.[14][15][16]They dated the manuscript to 8th century CE, onpaleographicgrounds. This suggests that the original text existed before this time.[17]R. Adriaensen, H.Bakker, and H. Isaacson dated the oldest surviving palm-leaf manuscript of Skanda Purana to 810 CE, but Richard Mann adds that earlier versions of the text likely existed in the 8th century CE.[5][18][19]Hans Bakker states that the text specifies holy places and details about the 4th and 5th-century Citraratha ofAndhra Pradesh,and thus may have an earlier origin.[20]The oldest versions of the Skandapurana texts have been discovered in the Himalayan region of South Asia such as Nepal, and the northeastern states of India such asAssam.[21]Thecritical editionsof the text, for scholarly studies, rely on the Nepalese manuscripts.[21]

Additional texts style themselves askhandas(sections) of Skandapurana, but these came into existence after the 12th century.[21]It is unclear if their root texts did belong to the Skandapurana, and in some cases replaced the corresponding chapters of the original.[21]The version of the earliest known recension was later expanded in two later versions namely theRevakhandaandAmbikakhandarecensions. The only surviving manuscript of the Revakhanda recension is from 1682. The four surviving manuscripts of the Ambikakhhnda recension are of a later period and contains much more alterations. Judit Törzsök says a similar recension to these two recensions seems to have been known to Laskhmidhara, thus it existed before 12th century.[19]Ballala Senaquotes content found only in these two recensions, thus the version known at that time was similar to the ancient version of these two recensions.[22]

There are a number of texts and manuscripts that bear the titleSkanda Purana.[5]Some of these texts, except for the title, have little in common with the well-known Skandapurana traced to the 1st millennium CE.[21]The original text has accrued several additions, resulting in several different versions. It is, therefore, very difficult to establish an exact date of composition for the Skanda Purana.[23][7]

Structure

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Stylistically, theSkanda Puranais related to theMahabharata,and it appears that its composers borrowed from theMahabharata.The two texts employ similar stock phrases and compounds that are not found in theRamayana.[5]Some of the mythology mentioned in the present version of theSkanda Puranais undoubtedly post-Guptaperiod, consistent with that of medievalSouth India.This indicates that several additions were made to the original text over the centuries.[17]The Kashi Khanda, for example, acquired its present form around the mid-13th century CE.[24]The latest part of the text might have been composed in as late as the 15th century CE.[23]

Contents

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Tirtha: Holy Pilgrimage

Tirtha are of three kinds,
Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable,
of asadhu,arishi,aguru,
Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable,
like Benaras, Hardwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers,
Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind,
of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, soul.

—Skanda Purana[12][25]

The whole corpus of texts which are considered as part of theSkanda Puranais grouped in two ways. According to one tradition, these are grouped in sixsaṁhitās, each of which consists of severalkhaṇḍas. According to another tradition, these are grouped in sevenkhaṇḍas, each named after a major pilgrimage region or site. The chapters areMahatmyas,or travel guides for pilgrimage tourists.[10]

The seven khandas

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TheMaheśvara Khaṇḍaconsists of 3 sections:[26][27]

  • theKedāra Khaṇḍa(35 chapters,KedarnathTirtha region,[28]north India)
  • theKaumārikā KhaṇḍaorKumārikā Khaṇḍa(66 chapters, Mahisagara-samgama-tirtha orCambaypilgrimage region,[28]west India) and
  • theArunācala KhaṇḍaorArunācala Māhātmya(37 chapters,TiruvannamalaiTirtha region,[28]south India), further divided into two parts:
    • Pūrvārdha(13 chapters) and
    • Uttarārdha(24 chapters)

TheViṣṇu KhaṇḍaorVaiṣṇava Khaṇḍaconsists of nine sections:[26][27]

  • Veṅkaṭācalamāhātmya(40 chapters,TirupatiTirtha region,[28]south India)
  • Puruṣottamakṣetramāhātmya(49 chapters,PuriOdisha Tirtha region,[28]east India)
  • Badarikāśramamāhātmya(8 chapters,BadrinathTirtha region,[29]north India)
  • Kārttikamāsamāhātmya(36 chapters)
  • Mārgaśirṣamāsamāhātmya17 chapters,MathuraTirtha region[29])
  • Bhāgavatamāhātmya(4 chapters)
  • Vaiśākhamāsamāhātmya(25 chapters)
  • Ayodhyāmāhātmya(10 chapters,AyodhyaTirtha region[29]) and
  • Vāsudevamāhātmya(32 chapters)

TheBrahma Khaṇḍahas three sections (four in some manuscripts):[26][27]

  • Setumāhātmya(52 chapters,Rama SetuTirtha region,[29]Tamil Nadu and towardsSri Lanka)
  • Dharmāraṇya Khaṇḍa(40 chapters) and
  • Uttara KhaṇḍaorBrahmottara Khaṇḍa(22 chapters)

TheKāśī Khaṇḍa(100 chapters,VaranasiandVindhyaTirtha region[30]) is divided into two parts:[26][27]

  • Pūrvārdha(50 chapters) and
  • Uttarārdha(50 chapters)

TheĀvantya Khaṇḍaconsists of:[26]

  • Avantikṣetramāhātmya(71 chapters,UjjainTirtha region[31])
  • Caturaśītiliṅgamāhātmya(84 chapters) and
  • Rewā Khaṇḍa(Thought to have 232 chapters, Juergen Neuss states that the manuscripts attest this is actually the originalRewa KhandaofVayu Puranawhich was wrongly included in the Skanda Purana by Veṅkateśvara Steam Press in 1910 and all publications of the Skanda after it. The one belonging to the Skanda has 116 chapters.[31][32])

TheNāgara Khaṇḍa(279 chapters) consists ofTirtha-māhātmya(Hāṭakeśvara-kṣetra orVadnagarregion).[26][27][33]

ThePrabhāsa Khaṇḍa(491 chapters) consists of four sections:[26][27]

The six samhitas

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The second type of division of theSkanda Puranais found in some texts likeHālasyamāhātmyaof theAgastya Saṁhitāor theŚaṁkarī Saṁhitā,Sambhava Kāṇḍaof theŚaṁkarī Saṁhitā,Śivamāhātmya Khaṇḍaof theSūta SaṁhitāandKālikā Khaṇḍaof theSanatkumāra Saṁhitā.According to these texts, theSkanda Puranaconsists of sixsaṁhitās (sections):

  • theSanatkumāra Saṁhitā
  • theSūta Saṁhitā
  • theŚaṁkarī Saṁhitā
  • theVaiṣṇavī Saṁhitā
  • theBrāhmī Saṁhitāand
  • theSaura Saṁhitā

The manuscripts of theSanatkumāra Saṁhitā,theŚaṁkarī Saṁhitā,theSūta Saṁhitāand theSaura Saṁhitāare extant. A manuscript of a commentary on theSūta SaṁhitābyMadhavācāryais also available.[26]These texts discuss cosmogony, theology, philosophical questions on virtues and vice, questions such as what is evil, the origin of evil, how to deal with and cure evil.[35]

The other texts

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The manuscripts of several other texts which claim to be part of theSkanda Purāṇaare found partially or wholly. Some of the notable regional texts amongst these are:Himavat Khaṇḍawhich containsNepalamahatmya(30 chapters,NepalTirtha region),Kanakādri Khaṇḍa,Bhīma Khaṇḍa,Śivarahasya Khaṇḍa,Sahyādri Khaṇḍa,Ayodhyā Khaṇḍa,Mathurā KhaṇḍaandPātāla Khaṇḍa.[26]

Kaverimahatmya presents stories and a pilgrim guide for theKaveririver (Karnataka) and Coorg Tirtha region.[14]Vivsamitrimahatmya presents mythology and a guide for theVadodaraTirtha region.[14]

The oldest known 1st-millennium palm-leaf manuscripts of this text mention many major Hindu pilgrimage sites, but do not describeKailash-Manasarovar.[16]The later versions do, particularly inManasakhanda.[16]

The narratives

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TheSkanda Purana,like many Puranas, include the legends of theDaksha's sacrifice,Shiva's sorrow, churning of the ocean (Samudra manthan) and the emergence ofAmrita,the story of the demonTarakasura,the birth of Goddess Parvati, her pursuit of Shiva, and her marriage to Lord Shiva, among others.

The central aim of the Skandapurana text, states Hans Bakker, is to sanctify the geography and landscape of South Asia, and legitimize the regional Shaiva communities across the land, as it existed at the time the edition was produced.[36]The text reflects the political uncertainties, the competition with Vaishnavism, and the cultural developments with the Pashupata Hindus during the periods it was composed.[37]

Manuscripts

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TheSkanda Puranamanuscripts have been found in Nepal, Tamil Nadu (Tamil:கந்த புராணம்) and other parts of India.[5]TheSkanda Puranais among of the oldest dated manuscripts discovered in Nepal. Apalm-leaf manuscriptof the text is preserved at the National Archives of Nepal (NAK 2–229), and its digital version has been archived by Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project (NGMCP B 11–4). It is likely that the manuscript was copied by the scribe on Monday, March 10 811 CE, though there is some uncertainty with this date because thesamvatof this manuscript is unclear.[38]Michael Witzeldates this Nepalese manuscript to about 810 CE.[38][39]This manuscript was discovered as one in a group of seven different texts bound together. The group included fourteen manuscripts mostly Buddhist, six of which are very oldSaddharma Pundarika Sutramanuscripts, one ofUpalisutra,one Chinese Buddhist text, and oneBhattikavyaBuddhist yamaka text. TheSkanda Puranafound in this manuscripts collection is written in transitional Gupta script, Sanskrit.[38]

The 1910 edition included sevenkhaṇḍas (parts):Maheśvara,ViṣṇuorVaiṣṇava,Brahma,Kāśī,Āvantya,NāgaraandPrabhāsa.[26]In 1999–2003, an English translation of this text was published by theMotilal Banarsidass,New Delhi in 23 volumes. This translation is also based on a text divided into sevenkhaṇḍas.

Critical Edition

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The Skandapurāṇa,vol. I, adhyāyas 1-25, edited by Rob Adriaensen,Hans T. Bakker,and Harunaga Isaacson, 1998; vol. IIa, adhyāyas 26-31.14, ed. by Hans T. Bakker and Harunaga Isaacson, 2005; vol. IIb, adhyāyas 31-52, ed. by Hans T. Bakker, Peter C. Bisschop, and Yuko Yokochi, 2014; vol. III, adhyāyas 34.1-61, 53-69, ed. by Yuko Yokochi, 2013. Supplement to theGroningen Oriental Studies,Groningen: Egbert Forsten, and Leiden: Brill.

See also

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References

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  1. ^Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare (1996).Studies inSkanda Purāṇa.Published by Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-1260-3
  2. ^Bakker 2014,pp. 4–6.
  3. ^abcRocher 1986,pp. 114, 229–238.
  4. ^KK Kurukkal (1961), A Study of the Karttikeya Cult as reflected in the Epics and the Puranas, University of Ceylon Review, Vol. 19, pages 131-138
  5. ^abcdeRichard D. Mann (2011).The Rise of Mahāsena.BRILL. p. 187.ISBN9789004218864.
  6. ^Bakker 2014,pp. 1–3.
  7. ^abDoniger 1993,pp. 59–83.
  8. ^Wendy Doniger.On Hinduism.Oxford University Press. p. 234.Certainly, different parts of Skanda Puran were added at different periods and different traditions, composed in increments over several centuries, were brought together in the present redactions. The text often betrays its chequered past, despite its contant attempts to integrate each new view. But this is its strength not weakness. The Skanda Purana is, in a real sense, a living purana, one of the few Puranas extant still extant in Sanskrit and certainly, one of the most popular.
  9. ^Rocher 1986,pp. 234–238.
  10. ^abGlucklich 2008,p. 146,Quote:The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were calledmahatmyas.
  11. ^Jean Holm; John Bowker (1998).Sacred Place.Bloomsbury Academic. p. 68.ISBN978-0-8264-5303-7.
  12. ^abKrishan Sharma; Anil Kishore Sinha; Bijon Gopal Banerjee (2009).Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage.Northern Book Centre. pp. 3–5.ISBN978-81-89091-09-5.
  13. ^Vijay Nath (2007),Puranic Tirthas: A study of their indigenous origins and the transformation (based mainly on the Skanda Purana),Indian Historical Review, Vol. 34, Issue 1, pages 1-46
  14. ^abcRocher 1986,p. 237.
  15. ^D. C. Sircar (1965).Indian Epigraphy.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 63.ISBN978-81-208-1166-9.
  16. ^abcAlex McKay (2015).Kailas Histories: Renunciate Traditions and the Construction of Himalayan Sacred Geography.BRILL. pp. 134–143.ISBN978-9004306189.
  17. ^abFred W. Clothey (1978).The Many Faces of Murukan̲.Walter de Gruyter. p. 224.ISBN9789027976321.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-04-14.Retrieved2020-11-21.
  18. ^Rocher 1986,pp. 229–231.
  19. ^abHans Bakker, ed. (2004)."Three Chapters of Saiva Material Added to the Earliest Known Recension of the Skanda Purana".Origin and Growth of the Purāṇic Text Corpus.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 17–18.ISBN9788120820494.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-03-26.Retrieved2021-12-27.
  20. ^Bakker 2014,pp. 3-4 with footnotes.
  21. ^abcdeHans Bakker (2004)."The Structure of the Varanasimahatmya in Skandapurana 26-31".Origin and Growth of the Purāṇic Text Corpus.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 2–3.ISBN9788120820494.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-04-14.Retrieved2020-11-21.
  22. ^Yuko Yokochi (2004)."The Relation between the Skandapurana and the Avantyakhanda".Origin and Growth of the Purāṇic Text Corpus.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 79.ISBN9788120820494.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-03-26.Retrieved2021-12-27.
  23. ^abStephen Jacobs (2015).The Art of Living Foundation.Ashgate. p. 139.ISBN9781472412683.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-04-14.Retrieved2020-11-21.
  24. ^Jonathan P. Parry (1994).Death in Banaras.Cambridge University Press. p. 272.ISBN9780521466257.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-04-14.Retrieved2020-11-21.
  25. ^Geoffrey Waring Maw (1997).Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas.Sessions Book Trust. p. 7.ISBN978-1-85072-190-1.
  26. ^abcdefghijShastri, P. (1995)Introduction to the Puranas,New Delhi: Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, pp.118–20
  27. ^abcdefRocher 1986,p. 229.
  28. ^abcdeRocher 1986,p. 230.
  29. ^abcdRocher 1986,p. 231.
  30. ^Rocher 1986,pp. 232–233.
  31. ^abRocher 1986,p. 233.
  32. ^Jurgen Neuss, Oliver Hellwig,Rewakhanda of the VayupuranaArchived2019-06-30 at theWayback Machine
  33. ^Mehta, R. N. (1968). Misra, S. C. (ed.). "Nāgarakhaṇḍa - A study". Humanities.Journal of the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.XVII(1). Baroda: 103–128.
  34. ^abcdRocher 1986,p. 234.
  35. ^Rocher 1986,p. 236-237.
  36. ^Bakker 2014,pp. 10–11.
  37. ^Bakker 2014,pp. 11–13.
  38. ^abcKengo Harimoto (2011). "In search of the Oldest Nepalese Manuscript".Rivista degli Studi Orientali.84:85–90.;
    A 38-5 Saddharmapuṇḍarīka(sūtra)Archived2020-11-29 at theWayback Machine,University of Hamburg, Germany
  39. ^M Witzel (1986). "On the Archetype of Pantanjali's Mahabhasya".Indo-Iranian Journal.29:249–259.

Works cited

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Further reading

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  • Kaur, Jagdish (1979). "Bibliographical Sources for Himalayan Pilgrimages and Tourism Studies: Uttarakhand".Tourism Recreation Research.4(1): 13–16.doi:10.1080/02508281.1979.11014968.
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