Socialism

For other uses, seeSocialism (disambiguation).

Socialismis aneconomicandpolitical philosophyencompassing diverseeconomicandsocial systemscharacterised bysocial ownershipof themeans of production,as opposed toprivate ownership.It describes theeconomic,political,andsocialtheories andmovementsassociated with the implementation of such systems.Social ownership can take various forms, includingpublic,community,collective,cooperative,oremployee.As one of the main ideologies on thepolitical spectrum,socialism is considered the standardleft wingideology in most countries of the world.Types of socialism vary based on the role of markets and planning in resource allocation, and the structure of management in organizations.

Socialist systems divide intonon-marketandmarketforms.A non-market socialist system seeks to eliminate the perceivedinefficiencies, irrationalities, unpredictability,andcrisesthat socialists traditionally associate withcapital accumulationand theprofitsystem.Market socialismretains the use of monetary prices, factor markets and sometimes theprofit motive.Socialist partiesand ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence, heading national governments in several countries. Socialist politics have beeninternationalistandnationalist;organised through political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions and other times independent and critical of them, and present in industrialised and developing nations.Social democracyoriginated within the socialist movement,supportingeconomicandsocial interventionsto promotesocial justice.While retaining socialism as a long-term goal,in the post-war period social democracy embraced amixed economybased onKeynesianismwithin a predominantly developed capitalistmarket economyandliberal democraticpolity that expands state intervention to includeincome redistribution,regulation,and awelfare state.

The socialistpolitical movementincludes political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 18th century and out of concern for thesocial problemsthat socialists associated with capitalism.By the late 19th century, after the work ofKarl Marxand his collaboratorFriedrich Engels,socialism had come to signifyanti-capitalismand advocacy for apost-capitalistsystem based on some form of social ownership of the means of production.By the early 1920s,communismand social democracy had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement,with socialism itself becoming the most influential secular movement of the 20th century.Many socialists also adopted the causes of other social movements, such asfeminism,environmentalism,andprogressivism.

While the emergence of theSoviet Unionas the world's first nominallysocialist stateled to socialism's widespread association with theSoviet economic model,academics have noted that some Western European countries have been governed by socialist parties or havemixed economiesthat are sometimes called "democratic socialist".Following therevolutions of 1989,many of these countries moved away from socialism as aneoliberalconsensus replaced the social democratic consensus in the advanced capitalist world,while many former socialist politicians and political parties embraced "Third Way"politics, remaining committed to equality and welfare, while abandoning public ownership and class-based politics.Socialism experienced a resurgence in popularity in the 2010s, most prominently in the form of democratic socialism.

Etymology

According to Andrew Vincent, "[t]he word 'socialism' finds its root in the Latinsociare,which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law wassocietas.This latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen ".

19th centuryutopian socialistpamphlet byRudolf Sutermeister

Initial use ofsocialismwas claimed byPierre Leroux,who alleged he first used the term in the Parisian journalLe Globein 1832.Leroux was a follower ofHenri de Saint-Simon,one of the founders of what would later be labelledutopian socialism.Socialism contrasted with the liberal doctrine ofindividualismthat emphasized the moral worth of the individual while stressing that people act or should act as if they are in isolation from one another. The original utopian socialists condemned this doctrine of individualism for failing to address social concerns during theIndustrial Revolution,including poverty, oppression, and vastwealth inequality.They viewed their society as harming community life by basing society on competition. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the shared ownership of resources.Saint-Simon proposedeconomic planning,scientific administration and the application of scientific understanding to the organisation of society. By contrast,Robert Owenproposed to organise production and ownership viacooperatives.Socialismis also attributed in France toMarie Roch Louis Reybaudwhile in Britain it is attributed to Owen, who became one of the fathers of thecooperative movement.

The definition and usage ofsocialismsettled by the 1860s, with the termsocialistreplacingassociationist,co-operative,mutualistandcollectivist,which had been used as synonyms, while the termcommunismfell out of use during this period.An early distinction betweencommunismandsocialismwas that the latter aimed to only socialise production while the former aimed to socialise bothproductionandconsumption(in the form of free access to final goods).By 1888,Marxistsemployedsocialismin place ofcommunismas the latter had come to be considered an old-fashioned synonym forsocialism.It was not until after theBolshevik Revolutionthatsocialismwas appropriated byVladimir Leninto mean a stage betweencapitalismand communism. He used it to defend the Bolshevik program from Marxist criticism that Russia'sproductive forceswere not sufficiently developed for communism.The distinction betweencommunismandsocialismbecame salient in 1918 after theRussian Social Democratic Labour Partyrenamed itself to theAll-Russian Communist Party,interpretingcommunismspecifically to mean socialists who supported the politics and theories ofBolshevism,Leninismand later that ofMarxism–Leninism,althoughcommunist partiescontinued to describe themselves as socialists dedicated to socialism.According toThe Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx,"Marx used many terms to refer to apost-capitalist society—positivehumanism,socialism, communism, realm of free individuality,free association of producers,etc. He used these terms completely interchangeably. The notion that 'socialism' and 'communism' are distinct historical stages is alien to his work and only entered the lexicon of Marxism after his death ".

InChristian Europe,communists were believed to have adoptedatheism.In Protestant England,communismwas too close to theRoman Catholiccommunion rite,hencesocialistwas the preferred term.Engels wrote that in 1848, whenThe Communist Manifestowas published, socialism was respectable in Europe while communism was not. TheOwenitesin England and theFourieristsin France were considered respectable socialists while working-class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change" denoted themselvescommunists.This branch of socialism produced the communist work ofÉtienne Cabetin France andWilhelm Weitlingin Germany.British moral philosopherJohn Stuart Milldiscussed a form of economic socialism within free market. In later editions of hisPrinciples of Political Economy(1848), Mill posited that "as far as economic theory was concerned, there is nothing in principle in economic theory that precludes an economic order based on socialist policies"and promoted substituting capitalist businesses withworker cooperatives.While democrats looked to theRevolutions of 1848as ademocratic revolutionwhich in the long run ensuredliberty, equality, and fraternity,Marxists denounced it as a betrayal of working-class ideals by abourgeoisieindifferent to theproletariat.

History

Main article:History of socialism

The history of socialism has its origins in theAge of Enlightenmentand the 1789French Revolution,along with the changes that brought, although it has precedents in earlier movements and ideas.The Communist Manifestowas written byKarl MarxandFriedrich Engelsin 1847-48 just before theRevolutions of 1848swept Europe, expressing what they termedscientific socialism.In the last third of the 19th century parties dedicated toDemocratic socialismarose in Europe, drawing mainly fromMarxism.TheAustralian Labor Partywas the first elected socialist party when it formed government in theColony of Queenslandfor a week in 1899.

New Harmony, a utopian attempt as proposed byRobert Owen

In the first half of the 20th century, theSoviet Unionand thecommunist partiesof theThird Internationalaround the world, came to represent socialism in terms of theSoviet model of economic developmentand the creation ofcentrally planned economiesdirected by a state that owns all themeans of production,although other trends condemned what they saw as the lack of democracy. The end ofWorld War IIsaw the establishment of new socialist party states, partly in Eastern Europe and the Far East. The establishment of thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1949, saw socialism introduced. China experienced land redistribution and theAnti-Rightist Movement,followed by the disastrousGreat Leap Forward.In the UK,Herbert Morrisonsaid that "socialism is what theLabourgovernment does "whereasAneurin Bevanargued socialism requires that the "main streams of economic activity are brought under public direction", with an economic plan and workers' democracy.Some argued that capitalism had been abolished.Socialist governments established themixed economywith partialnationalisationsand social welfare.

By 1968, the prolongedVietnam Wargave rise to theNew Left,socialists who tended to be critical of the Soviet Union andsocial democracy.Anarcho-syndicalistsand some elements of the New Left and others favoureddecentralisedcollective ownershipin the form ofcooperativesorworkers' councils.In 1989, the Soviet Union saw the end ofcommunism,marked by theRevolutions of 1989acrossEastern Europe,culminating in the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Socialists have adopted the causes of other social movements such asenvironmentalism,feminismandprogressivism.

Early 21st century

See also:Socialism of the 21st century

Socialism across the world.
Top-left: a picture of thered flagsfound by theMonument to the People's Heroes,China.
Top-right: a demonstration in Austin, Texas, US by theDemocratic Socialists of America.
Bottom-left: a demonstration by thePortuguese Socialist Youth.
Bottom-right: a rally for abortion rights inMelbourne, Victoria, Australiabeing led by members of theVictorian Socialists.

In 1990, theSão Paulo Forumwas launched by theWorkers' Party (Brazil),linking left-wing socialist parties in Latin America. Its members were associated with thePink tideof left-wing governments on the continent in the early 21st century. Member parties ruling countries included theFront for Victoryin Argentina, thePAIS Alliancein Ecuador,Farabundo Martí National Liberation Frontin El Salvador,Peru Winsin Peru, and theUnited Socialist Party of Venezuela,whose leaderHugo Chávezinitiated what he called "Socialism of the 21st century".

Many mainstream democratic socialist and social democratic parties continued to drift right-wards. On the right of the socialist movement, theProgressive Alliancewas founded in 2013 by current or former members of theSocialist International.The organisation states the aim of becoming the global network of "theprogressive,democratic,social-democratic,socialist andlabour movement".Mainstream social democratic and socialist parties are also networked in Europe in theParty of European Socialistsformed in 1992. Many of these parties lost large parts of their electoral base in the early 21st century. This phenomenon is known asPasokificationfrom the Greek partyPASOK,which saw a declining share of the vote in national elections—from 43.9% in 2009 to 13.2% in May 2012, to 12.3% in June 2012 and 4.7% in 2015—due to its poor handling of theGreek government-debt crisisand implementation of harshausteritymeasures.

In Europe, the share of votes for such socialist parties was at its 70-year lowest in 2015. For example, theSocialist Party,after winning the2012 French presidential election,rapidly lost its vote share, theSocial Democratic Party of Germany's fortunes declined rapidly from 2005 to 2019, and outside Europe theIsraeli Labor Partyfell from being the dominant force in Israeli politics to 4.43% of the vote in theApril 2019 Israeli legislative election,and thePeruvian Aprista Partywent from ruling party in 2011 to a minor party. The decline of these mainstream parties opened space for more radical and populist left parties in some countries, such as Spain'sPodemos,Greece'sSyriza(in government, 2015–19), Germany'sDie Linke,and France'sLa France Insoumise.In other countries, left-wing revivals have taken place within mainstream democratic socialist and centrist parties, as withJeremy Corbynin the United Kingdom andBernie Sandersin the United States.Few of these radical left parties have won national government in Europe, while some more mainstream socialist parties have managed to, such as Portugal'sSocialist Party.

Bhaskar Sunkara,the founding editor of the American socialist magazineJacobin,argued that the appeal of socialism persists due to the inequality and "tremendous suffering" under current global capitalism, the use of wage labor "which rests on the exploitation and domination of humans by other humans," and ecological crises, such asclimate change.In contrast,Mark J. Perryof the conservativeAmerican Enterprise Institute(AEI) argued that despite socialism's resurgence, it is still "a flawed system based on completely faulty principles that aren't consistent with human behavior and can't nurture the human spirit.", adding that "While it promised prosperity, equality, and security, it delivered poverty, misery, and tyranny."Some in the scientific community have suggested that a contemporary radical response to social and ecological problems could be seen in the emergence of movements associated withdegrowth,eco-socialismandeco-anarchism.

Social and political theory

Main article:Types of socialism

Early socialist thought took influences from a diverse range of philosophies such as civicrepublicanism,Enlightenmentrationalism,romanticism,forms ofmaterialism,Christianity (both Catholic and Protestant),natural lawandnatural rights theory,utilitarianismand liberal political economy.Another philosophical basis for a great deal of early socialism was the emergence ofpositivismduring theEuropean Enlightenment.Positivism held that both the natural and social worlds could be understood through scientific knowledge and be analysed using scientific methods.

Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon,early French socialist

The fundamental objective of socialism is to attain an advanced level of material production and therefore greater productivity, efficiency and rationality as compared to capitalism and all previous systems, under the view that an expansion of human productive capability is the basis for the extension of freedom and equality in society.Many forms of socialist theory hold that human behaviour is largely shaped by the social environment. In particular, socialism holds that socialmores,values, cultural traits and economic practices are social creations and not the result of an immutable natural law.The object of their critique is thus not human avarice or human consciousness, but the material conditions and man-made social systems (i.e. the economic structure of society) which give rise to observed social problems and inefficiencies.Bertrand Russell,often considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, identified as a socialist. Russell opposed the class struggle aspects of Marxism, viewing socialism solely as an adjustment of economic relations to accommodate modern machine production to benefit all of humanity through the progressive reduction of necessary work time.

Socialists view creativity as an essential aspect of human nature and define freedom as a state of being where individuals are able to express their creativity unhindered by constraints of both material scarcity and coercive social institutions.The socialist concept of individuality is intertwined with the concept of individual creative expression. Karl Marx believed that expansion of the productive forces and technology was the basis for the expansion of human freedom and that socialism, being a system that is consistent with modern developments in technology, would enable the flourishing of "free individualities" through the progressive reduction of necessary labour time. The reduction of necessary labour time to a minimum would grant individuals the opportunity to pursue the development of their true individuality and creativity.

Criticism of capitalism

Main articles:Anti-capitalismandCriticism of capitalism

Socialists argue that the accumulation of capital generates waste through externalities that require costly corrective regulatory measures. They also point out that this process generates wasteful industries and practices that exist only to generate sufficient demand for products such as high-pressure advertisement to be sold at a profit, thereby creating rather than satisfying economic demand.Socialists argue that capitalism consists of irrational activity, such as the purchasing of commodities only to sell at a later time when their price appreciates, rather than for consumption, even if the commodity cannot be sold at a profit to individuals in need and therefore a crucial criticism often made by socialists is that "making money", or accumulation of capital, does not correspond to the satisfaction of demand (the production ofuse-values).The fundamental criterion for economic activity in capitalism is the accumulation of capital for reinvestment in production, but this spurs the development of new, non-productive industries that do not produce use-value and only exist to keep the accumulation process afloat (otherwise the system goes into crisis), such as the spread of thefinancial industry,contributing to the formation of economic bubbles.Such accumulation and reinvestment, when it demands a constant rate of profit, causes problems if the earnings in the rest of society do not increase in proportion.

Socialists viewprivate propertyrelations as limiting the potential ofproductive forcesin the economy. According to socialists, private property becomes obsolete when it concentrates into centralised, socialised institutions based on private appropriation of revenue—but based on cooperative work and internal planning in allocation of inputs—until the role of the capitalist becomes redundant.With no need forcapital accumulationand a class of owners, private property in the means of production is perceived as being an outdated form of economic organisation that should be replaced by afree associationof individuals based on public orcommon ownershipof these socialised assets.Private ownership imposes constraints on planning, leading to uncoordinated economic decisions that result in business fluctuations, unemployment and a tremendous waste of material resources during crisis ofoverproduction.

Excessive disparities in income distribution lead to social instability and require costly corrective measures in the form of redistributive taxation, which incurs heavy administrative costs while weakening the incentive to work, inviting dishonesty and increasing the likelihood of tax evasion while (the corrective measures) reduce the overall efficiency of the market economy.These corrective policies limit the incentive system of the market by providing things such asminimum wages,unemployment insurance,taxing profits and reducing thereserve army of labour,resulting in reduced incentives for capitalists to invest in more production. In essence, social welfare policies cripple capitalism and its incentive system and are thus unsustainable in the long run.Marxists argue that the establishment of asocialist mode of productionis the only way to overcome these deficiencies. Socialists and specifically Marxian socialists argue that the inherent conflict of interests between the working class and capital prevent optimal use of available human resources and leads to contradictory interest groups (labour and business) striving to influence the state to intervene in the economy in their favour at the expense of overall economic efficiency. Early socialists (utopian socialistsandRicardian socialists) criticised capitalism for concentratingpowerand wealth within a small segment of society.In addition, they complained that capitalism does not use available technology and resources to their maximum potential in the interests of the public.

Marxism

Main article:Marxism

At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or—this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms—with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. Then begins an era of social revolution. The changes in the economic foundation lead sooner or later to the transformation of the whole immense superstructure.

—Karl Marx,Critique of the Gotha Program

Karl MarxandFriedrich Engelsargued that socialism would emerge from historical necessity as capitalism rendered itself obsolete and unsustainable from increasing internal contradictions emerging from the development of theproductive forcesand technology. It was these advances in the productive forces combined with the oldsocial relations of productionof capitalism that would generate contradictions, leading to working-class consciousness.

The writings ofKarl Marxprovided the basis for the development ofMarxistpolitical theory andMarxian economics.

Marx and Engels held the view that the consciousness of those who earn a wage or salary (the working class in the broadest Marxist sense) would be moulded by their conditions ofwage slavery,leading to a tendency to seek their freedom oremancipationby overthrowing ownership of the means of production by capitalists and consequently, overthrowing the state that upheld this economic order. For Marx and Engels, conditions determine consciousness and ending the role of the capitalist class leads eventually to aclassless societyin which thestate would wither away.

Marx and Engels used the terms socialism andcommunisminterchangeably, but many later Marxists defined socialism as a specific historical phase that would displace capitalism and precede communism.

The major characteristics of socialism (particularly as conceived by Marx and Engels after theParis Communeof 1871) are that theproletariatwould control the means of production through aworkers' stateerected by the workers in their interests.

Fororthodox Marxists,socialism is the lower stage of communism based on the principle of "from each according to his ability,to each according to his contribution",while upper stage communism is based on the principle of"from each according to his ability, to each according to his need",the upper stage becoming possible only after the socialist stage further develops economic efficiency and the automation of production has led to a superabundance of goods and services.Marx argued that the material productive forces (in industry and commerce) brought into existence by capitalism predicated a cooperative society since production had become a mass social, collective activity of the working class to create commodities but with private ownership (the relations of production or property relations). This conflict between collective effort in large factories and private ownership would bring about a conscious desire in the working class to establish collective ownership commensurate with the collective efforts their daily experience.

Role of the state

See also:Anti-statism,Marx's theory of the state,andState socialism

Socialists have taken different perspectives on thestateand the role it should play in revolutionary struggles, in constructing socialism and within an established socialist economy.

In the 19th century, the philosophy of state socialism was first explicitly expounded by the German political philosopherFerdinand Lassalle.In contrast to Karl Marx's perspective of the state, Lassalle rejected the concept of the state as a class-based power structure whose main function was to preserve existing class structures. Lassalle also rejected the Marxist view that the state was destined to "wither away". Lassalle considered the state to be an entity independent of class allegiances and an instrument of justice that would therefore be essential for achieving socialism.

Preceding the Bolshevik-led revolution in Russia, many socialists includingreformists,orthodox Marxistcurrents such ascouncil communism,anarchists andlibertarian socialistscriticised the idea of using the state to conduct central planning and own the means of production as a way to establish socialism. Following the victory of Leninism in Russia, the idea of "state socialism" spread rapidly throughout the socialist movement and eventually state socialism came to be identified with theSoviet economic model.

Joseph Schumpeterrejected the association of socialism and social ownership with state ownership over the means of production because the state as it exists in its current form is a product of capitalist society and cannot be transplanted to a different institutional framework. Schumpeter argued that there would be different institutions within socialism than those that exist within modern capitalism, just asfeudalismhad its own distinct and unique institutional forms. The state, along with concepts likepropertyand taxation, were concepts exclusive to commercial society (capitalism) and attempting to place them within the context of a future socialist society would amount to a distortion of these concepts by using them out of context.

Utopian versus scientific

Main articles:Scientific socialismandUtopian socialism

Utopian socialism is a term used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work ofHenri de Saint-Simon,Charles FourierandRobert Owenwhich inspiredKarl Marxand other early socialists.Visions of imaginary ideal societies, which competed with revolutionary social democratic movements, were viewed as not being grounded in the material conditions of society and as reactionary.Although it is technically possible for any set of ideas or any person living at any time in history to be a utopian socialist, the term is most often applied to those socialists who lived in the first quarter of the 19th century who were ascribed the label "utopian" by later socialists as a negative term to imply naivete and dismiss their ideas as fanciful or unrealistic.

Religious sects whose members live communally such as theHutteritesare not usually called "utopian socialists", although their way of living is a prime example. They have been categorised asreligious socialistsby some. Similarly, modernintentional communitiesbased on socialist ideas could also be categorised as "utopian socialist". For Marxists, the development of capitalism in Western Europe provided a material basis for the possibility of bringing about socialism because according toThe Communist Manifesto"[w]hat the bourgeoisie produces above all is its own grave diggers",namely the working class, which must become conscious of the historical objectives set it by society.

Reform versus revolution

Main articles:ReformismandRevolutionary socialism

Revolutionary socialists believe that a social revolution is necessary to effect structural changes to the socioeconomic structure of society. Among revolutionary socialists there are differences in strategy, theory and the definition ofrevolution.Orthodox Marxists and left communists take animpossibiliststance, believing that revolution should be spontaneous as a result of contradictions in society due to technological changes in the productive forces. Lenin theorised that under capitalism the workers cannot achieve class consciousness beyond organising into trade unions and making demands of the capitalists. Therefore,Leninistsargue that it is historically necessary for avanguardof class conscious revolutionaries to take a central role in coordinating the social revolution to overthrow the capitalist state and eventually the institution of the state altogether.Revolutionis not necessarily defined by revolutionary socialists as violent insurrection,but as a complete dismantling and rapid transformation of all areas of class society led by the majority of the masses: the working class.

Reformism is generally associated withsocial democracyandgradualistdemocratic socialism.Reformism is the belief that socialists should stand in parliamentary elections within capitalist society and if elected use themachinery of governmentto pass political and social reforms for the purposes of ameliorating the instabilities and inequities of capitalism. Within socialism,reformismis used in two different ways. One has no intention of bringing about socialism or fundamental economic change to society and is used to oppose such structural changes. The other is based on the assumption that while reforms are not socialist in themselves, they can help rally supporters to the cause of revolution by popularizing the cause of socialism to the working class.

The debate on the ability for social democratic reformism to lead to a socialist transformation of society is over a century old. Reformism is criticized for being paradoxical as it seeks to overcome the existing economic system of capitalism while trying to improve the conditions of capitalism, thereby making it appear more tolerable to society. According toRosa Luxemburg,capitalism is not overthrown, "but is on the contrary strengthened by the development of social reforms".In a similar vein, Stan Parker of theSocialist Party of Great Britainargues that reforms are a diversion of energy for socialists and are limited because they must adhere to the logic of capitalism.French social theoristAndré Gorzcriticized reformism by advocating a third alternative to reformism and social revolution that he called "non-reformist reforms",specifically focused on structural changes to capitalism as opposed to reforms to improve living conditions within capitalism or to prop it up through economic interventions.

Culture

See also:Proletarian literature,Counterculture,New York Intellectuals,New Left,Surrealism,Russian Futurism,Constructivism (art),Constructivist architecture,andRussian avant-garde

Under Socialism, solidarity will be the basis of society. Literature and art will be tuned to a different key.

—Trotsky,Literature and Revolution,1924

In the Leninist conception, the role of the vanguard party was to politically educate the workers and peasants to dispel the societalfalse consciousnessof institutional religion and nationalism that constitute theculturalstatus quotaught by thebourgeoisieto the proletariat to facilitate their economicexploitationof peasants and workers. Influenced by Lenin, theCentral Committee of the Bolshevik Partystated that the development of the socialist workers' culture should not be "hamstrung from above" and opposed theProletkult(1917–1925) organisational control of the national culture.Similarly, Trotsky viewed the party as transmitters of culture to the masses for raising the standards ofeducation,as well as entry into the cultural sphere, but that the process of artistic creation in terms of language and presentation should be the domain of the practitioner. According to political scientist Baruch Knei-Paz in his bookThe Social and Political Thought of Leon Trotsky,this represented one of several distinctions between Trotsky's approach on cultural matters andStalin's policy in the 1930s.

Man, Controller of the Universeproduced by Mexican artistDiego Rivera

InLiterature and Revolution,Trotsky examined aesthetic issues in relation to class and the Russian revolution. Soviet scholar Robert Bird considered his work as the "first systematic treatment of art by a Communist leader" and a catalyst for later, Marxist cultural and critical theories.He would later co-author the 1938Manifesto for an Independent Revolutionary Artwith the endorsement of prominent artistsAndre BretonandDiego Rivera.Trotsky's writings on literature such as his 1923 survey which advocated tolerance, limited censorship and respect for literary tradition had strong appeal to theNew York Intellectuals.

Prior to Stalin's rule,literary, religious and national representativeshad some level of autonomy inSoviet Russiathroughout the 1920s but these groups were later rigorously repressed during theStalinist era.Socialist realismwas imposed under Stalin in artistic production and other creative industries such asmusic,filmalong withsportswere subject to extreme levels of political control.

Thecounter-culturalphenomenon which emerged in the 1960s shaped theintellectualand radical outlook of theNew Left;this movement placed a heavy emphasis onanti-racism,anti-imperialismanddirect democracyin opposition to thedominant cultureof advancedindustrial capitalism. Socialist groups have also been closely involved with a number of counter-cultural movements such asVietnam Solidarity Campaign,Stop the War Coalition,Love Music Hate Racism,Anti-Nazi LeagueandUnite Against Fascism.

Economics

Main article:Socialist economics

See also:Production for use

The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my opinion, the real source of the evil.... I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilised in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.

—Albert Einstein,"Why Socialism?",1949

Albert Einstein advocated for a socialistplanned economywith his 1949 article "Why Socialism?"

Socialist economics starts from the premise that "individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members".

The original conception of socialism was an economic system whereby production was organised in a way to directly produce goods and services for their utility (or use-value inclassicalandMarxian economics), with the direct allocation of resources in terms of physical units as opposed to financial calculation and the economic laws of capitalism (seelaw of value), often entailing the end of capitalistic economic categories such asrent,interest,profitand money.In a fully developed socialist economy, production and balancing factor inputs with outputs becomes a technical process to be undertaken by engineers.

Market socialismrefers to an array of different economic theories and systems that use the market mechanism to organise production and to allocate factor inputs among socially owned enterprises, with the economic surplus (profits) accruing to society in asocial dividendas opposed to private capital owners.Variations of market socialism includelibertarianproposals such asmutualism,based on classical economics, andneoclassicaleconomic models such as theLange model.Some economists, such asJoseph Stiglitz,Mancur Olson,and others not specifically advancing anti-socialists positions have shown that prevailing economic models upon which such democratic or market socialism models might be based have logical flaws or unworkable presuppositions.These criticisms have been incorporated into the models of market socialism developed byJohn RoemerandNicholas Vrousalis.

The ownership of themeans of productioncan be based on direct ownership by the users of the productive property throughworker cooperative;orcommonly ownedby all of society with management and control delegated to those who operate/use the means of production; orpublic ownershipby a state apparatus. Public ownership may refer to the creation ofstate-owned enterprises,nationalisation,municipalisationor autonomous collective institutions. Some socialists feel that in a socialist economy, at least the "commanding heights"of the economy must be publicly owned.Economic liberalsandright libertariansview private ownership of themeans of productionand the market exchange as natural entities or moral rights which are central to their conceptions of freedom and liberty and view the economic dynamics of capitalism as immutable and absolute, therefore they perceive public ownership of the means of production,cooperativesandeconomic planningas infringements upon liberty.

Management and control over the activities of enterprises are based on self-management and self-governance, with equal power-relations in the workplace to maximise occupational autonomy. A socialist form of organisation would eliminate controlling hierarchies so that only a hierarchy based on technical knowledge in the workplace remains. Every member would have decision-making power in the firm and would be able to participate in establishing its overall policy objectives. The policies/goals would be carried out by the technical specialists that form the coordinating hierarchy of the firm, who would establish plans or directives for the work community to accomplish these goals.

The role and use of money in a hypothetical socialist economy is a contested issue. Nineteenth century socialists includingKarl Marx,Robert Owen,Pierre-Joseph ProudhonandJohn Stuart Milladvocated various forms oflabour vouchersor labour credits, which like money would be used to acquire articles of consumption, but unlike money they are unable to becomecapitaland would not be used to allocate resources within the production process. Bolshevik revolutionaryLeon Trotskyargued that money could not be arbitrarily abolished following a socialist revolution. Money had to exhaust its "historic mission", meaning it would have to be used until its function became redundant, eventually being transformed into bookkeeping receipts for statisticians and only in the more distant future would money not be required for even that role.

Planned economy

Main article:Planned economy

A planned economy is a type of economy consisting of a mixture of public ownership of the means of production and the coordination of production and distribution througheconomic planning.A planned economy can be either decentralised or centralised.Enrico Baroneprovided a comprehensive theoretical framework for a planned socialist economy. In his model, assuming perfect computation techniques, simultaneous equations relating inputs and outputs to ratios of equivalence would provide appropriate valuations to balance supply and demand.

The most prominent example of a planned economy was theeconomic system of the Soviet Unionand as such the centralised-planned economic model is usually associated with thecommunist statesof the 20th century, where it was combined with a single-party political system. In a centrally planned economy, decisions regarding the quantity of goods and services to be produced are planned in advance by a planning agency (see also theanalysis of Soviet-type economic planning). The economic systems of the Soviet Union and theEastern Blocare further classified as "command economies", which are defined as systems where economic coordination is undertaken by commands, directives and production targets.Studies by economists of various political persuasions on the actual functioning of the Soviet economy indicate that it was not actually a planned economy. Instead of conscious planning, the Soviet economy was based on a process whereby the plan was modified by localised agents and the original plans went largely unfulfilled. Planning agencies, ministries and enterprises all adapted and bargained with each other during the formulation of the plan as opposed to following a plan passed down from a higher authority, leading some economists to suggest that planning did not actually take place within the Soviet economy and that a better description would be an "administered" or "managed" economy.

Although central planning was largely supported byMarxist–Leninists,some factions within the Soviet Union before the rise ofStalinismheld positions contrary to central planning. Leon Trotsky rejected central planning in favour of decentralised planning. He argued that central planners, regardless of their intellectual capacity, would be unable to coordinate effectively all economic activity within an economy because they operated without the input and tacit knowledge embodied by the participation of the millions of people in the economy. As a result, central planners would be unable to respond to local economic conditions.State socialismis unfeasible in this view because information cannot be aggregated by a central body and effectively used to formulate a plan for an entire economy, because doing so would result indistorted or absent price signals.

Self-managed economy

Main articles:Decentralised planning,Economic democracy,Workers' self-management,andSocialist self-management

Socialism, you see, is a bird with two wings. The definition is 'social ownership and democratic control of the instruments and means of production.'

—Upton Sinclair

TheSoviet of Workers' Deputies of St. Petersburgin 1905, Trotsky in the center. Thesovietswere an early example of aworkers council.

A self-managed, decentralised economy is based on autonomous self-regulating economic units and a decentralised mechanism of resource allocation and decision-making. This model has found support in notable classical and neoclassical economists includingAlfred Marshall,John Stuart MillandJaroslav Vanek.There are numerous variations of self-management, including labour-managed firms and worker-managed firms. The goals of self-management are to eliminate exploitation and reducealienation.Guild socialismis a political movement advocatingworkers' controlof industry through the medium of trade-relatedguilds"in an implied contractual relationship with the public".It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century.It was strongly associated withG. D. H. Coleand influenced by the ideas ofWilliam Morris.

Project Cybersynwas an early form of computationaleconomic planning

One such system is the cooperative economy, a largely freemarket economyin which workers manage the firms and democratically determine remuneration levels and labour divisions. Productive resources would be legally owned by thecooperativeand rented to the workers, who would enjoyusufructrights.Another form of decentralised planning is the use ofcybernetics,or the use of computers to manage the allocation of economic inputs. The socialist-run government ofSalvador Allendein Chile experimented withProject Cybersyn,a real-time information bridge between the government, state enterprises and consumers.This had been preceded by similar efforts to introduce a form of cybernetic economic planning as seen with the proposedOGASsystem in the Soviet Union. The OGAS project was conceived to oversee a nationwideinformation networkbut was never implemented due to conflicting,bureaucratic interests.Another, more recent variant isparticipatory economics,wherein the economy is planned by decentralised councils of workers and consumers. Workers would be remunerated solely according to effort and sacrifice, so that those engaged in dangerous, uncomfortable and strenuous work would receive the highest incomes and could thereby work less.A contemporary model for a self-managed, non-market socialism isPat Devine's model of negotiated coordination. Negotiated coordination is based upon social ownership by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with decisions made by those at the most localised level of production.

Michel Bauwensidentifies the emergence of the open software movement andpeer-to-peer productionas a new alternativemode of productionto the capitalist economy and centrally planned economy that is based on collaborative self-management, common ownership of resources and the production of use-values through the free cooperation of producers who have access to distributed capital.

Anarcho-communismis a theory ofanarchismwhich advocates the abolition of thestate,private propertyand capitalism in favour ofcommon ownershipof themeans of production.Anarcho-syndicalismwas practised inCataloniaand other places in theSpanish Revolutionduring the Spanish Civil War.Sam Dolgoffestimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution.

The economy of the formerSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslaviaestablished asystembased on market-based allocation, social ownership of the means of production and self-management within firms. This system substituted Yugoslavia's Soviet-type central planning with a decentralised, self-managed system after reforms in 1953.

TheMarxian economistRichard D. Wolffargues that "re-organising production so that workers become collectively self-directed at their work-sites" not only moves society beyond both capitalism andstate socialismof the last century, but would also mark another milestone in human history, similar to earlier transitions out of slavery and feudalism.As an example, Wolff claims thatMondragonis "a stunningly successful alternative to the capitalist organisation of production".

State-directed economy

Main article:State socialism

See also:Dirigisme,Nationalization,Public ownership,State capitalism,andSteady-state economy

State socialism can be used to classify any variety of socialist philosophies that advocates the ownership of themeans of productionby thestate apparatus,either as a transitional stage between capitalism and socialism, or as an end-goal in itself. Typically, it refers to a form of technocratic management, whereby technical specialists administer or manage economic enterprises on behalf of society and the public interest instead of workers' councils or workplace democracy.

A state-directed economy may refer to a type of mixed economy consisting of public ownership over large industries, as promoted by various Social democratic political parties during the 20th century. This ideology influenced the policies of the British Labour Party during Clement Attlee's administration. In the biography of the 1945 United Kingdom Labour Party Prime MinisterClement Attlee,Francis Beckettstates: "[T]he government... wanted what would become known as a mixed economy."

Nationalisation in the United Kingdom was achieved through compulsory purchase of the industry (i.e. with compensation).British Aerospacewas a combination of major aircraft companiesBritish Aircraft Corporation,Hawker Siddeleyand others.British Shipbuilderswas a combination of the major shipbuilding companies includingCammell Laird,Govan Shipbuilders,Swan HunterandYarrow Shipbuilders,whereas the nationalisation of the coal mines in 1947 created a coal board charged with running the coal industry commercially so as to be able to meet the interest payable on the bonds which the former mine owners' shares had been converted into.

Market socialism

Main article:Market socialism

Market socialism consists of publicly owned or cooperatively owned enterprises operating in amarket economy.It is a system that uses the market andmonetary pricesfor the allocation and accounting of themeans of production,thereby retaining the process ofcapital accumulation.The profit generated would be used to directly remunerate employees, collectively sustain the enterprise or finance public institutions.In state-oriented forms of market socialism, in which state enterprises attempt to maximise profit, the profits can be used to fund government programs and services through asocial dividend,eliminating or greatly diminishing the need for various forms of taxation that exist in capitalist systems.Neoclassical economistLéon Walrasbelieved that a socialist economy based on state ownership of land and natural resources would provide a means of public finance to make income taxes unnecessary.Yugoslaviaimplemented a market socialist economy based on cooperatives and worker self-management.Some of the economic reforms introduced during thePrague SpringbyAlexander Dubček,theleaderofCzechoslovakia,included elements of market socialism.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,main theorist ofmutualismand influential French socialist thinker

Mutualismis aneconomic theoryandanarchist school of thoughtthat advocates a society where each person might possess ameans of production,either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labour in thefree market.Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration.Mutualism is based on alabour theory of valuethat holds that when labour or its product is sold, in exchange it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labour necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility".

The current economic system in China is formally referred to as asocialist market economy with Chinese characteristics.It combines a large state sector that comprises the commanding heights of the economy, which are guaranteed their public ownership status by law,with aprivate sectormainly engaged in commodity production and light industry responsible from anywhere between 33%to over 70% of GDP generated in 2005.Although there has been a rapid expansion of private-sector activity since the 1980s, privatisation of state assets was virtually halted and were partially reversed in 2005.The current Chinese economy consists of 150corporatisedstate-owned enterprises that report directly to China's central government.By 2008, these state-owned corporations had become increasingly dynamic and generated large increases in revenue for the state,resulting in a state-sector led recovery during the 2009 financial crises while accounting for most of China's economic growth.The Chinese economic model is widely cited as a contemporary form of state capitalism, the major difference between Western capitalism and the Chinese model being the degree of state-ownership of shares in publicly listed corporations. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam has adopted a similar model after theDoi Moieconomic renovation but slightly differs from the Chinese model in that the Vietnamese government retains firm control over the state sector and strategic industries, but allows for private-sector activity in commodity production.

Politics

See also:Labour movement,The labor problem,andTrade union

Socialists inUnion Square,New York City onMay Day1912

While major socialist political movements include anarchism, communism, the labour movement, Marxism, social democracy, and syndicalism, independent socialist theorists,utopian socialistauthors, and academic supporters of socialism may not be represented in these movements. Some political groups have called themselvessocialistwhile holding views that some consider antithetical to socialism.Socialisthas been used by members of thepolitical rightas an epithet, including against individuals who do not consider themselves to be socialists and against policies that are not considered socialist by their proponents. While there are many variations of socialism, and there is no single definition encapsulating all of socialism, there have been common elements identified by scholars.

In hisDictionary of Socialism(1924), Angelo S. Rappoport analysed forty definitions of socialism to conclude that common elements of socialism include general criticism of the social effects ofprivate ownershipand control of capital—as being the cause of poverty, low wages, unemployment, economic and social inequality and a lack of economic security; a general view that the solution to these problems is a form of collective control over themeans of production,distributionandexchange(the degree and means of control vary among socialist movements); an agreement that the outcome of this collective control should be a society based uponsocial justice,including social equality, economic protection of people and should provide a more satisfying life for most people.

InThe Concepts of Socialism(1975),Bhikhu Parekhidentifies four core principles of socialism and particularly socialist society, namely sociality, social responsibility, cooperation and planning.In his studyIdeologies and Political Theory(1996),Michael Freedenstates that all socialists share five themes: the first is that socialism posits that society is more than a mere collection of individuals; second, that it considers human welfare a desirable objective; third, that it considers humans by nature to be active and productive; fourth, it holds the belief of human equality; and fifth, that history is progressive and will create positive change on the condition that humans work to achieve such change.

Anarchism

Main article:Anarchism

Anarchism advocatesstateless societiesoften defined asself-governedvoluntary institutions,but that several authors have defined as more specific institutions based on non-hierarchicalfree associations.While anarchism holds thestateto be undesirable, unnecessary or harmful,it is not the central aspect.Anarchism entails opposingauthorityorhierarchical organisationin the conduct of human relations, including the state system.Mutualistssupport market socialism,collectivist anarchistsfavourworkers cooperativesand salaries based on the amount of time contributed to production,anarcho-communistsadvocate a direct transition from capitalism tolibertarian communismand agift economyandanarcho-syndicalistsprefer workers'direct actionand thegeneral strike.

The authoritarian–libertarianstruggles and disputes within the socialist movement go back to the First International and the expulsion in 1872 of the anarchists, who went on to lead theAnti-authoritarian Internationaland then founded their own libertarian international, theAnarchist St. Imier International.In 1888, theindividualist anarchistBenjamin Tucker,who proclaimed himself to be an anarchistic socialist andlibertarian socialistin opposition to the authoritarianstate socialismand the compulsory communism, included the full text of a "Socialistic Letter" byErnest Lesignein his essay on "State Socialism and Anarchism". According to Lesigne, there are two types of socialism: "One is dictatorial, the other libertarian".Tucker's two socialisms were the authoritarian state socialism which he associated to the Marxist school and the libertarian anarchist socialism, or simply anarchism, that he advocated. Tucker noted that the fact that the authoritarian "State Socialism has overshadowed other forms of Socialism gives it no right to a monopoly of the Socialistic idea".According to Tucker, what those two schools of socialism had in common was thelabor theory of valueand the ends, by which anarchism pursued different means.

According to anarchists such as the authors ofAn Anarchist FAQ,anarchism is one of the many traditions of socialism. For anarchists and other anti-authoritarian socialists, socialism "can only mean a classless and anti-authoritarian (i.e. libertarian) society in which people manage their own affairs, either as individuals or as part of a group (depending on the situation). In other words, it implies self-management in all aspects of life", including at the workplace.Michael Newman includes anarchism as one of many socialist traditions.Peter Marshallargues that "[i]n general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism.... Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine."

Democratic socialism and social democracy

Main articles:Democratic socialismandSocial democracy

You can't talk about ending the slums without first saying profit must be taken out of slums. You're really tampering and getting on dangerous ground because you are messing with folk then. You are messing with captains of industry. Now this means that we are treading in difficult water, because it really means that we are saying that something is wrong with capitalism. There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism.

—Martin Luther King Jr.,1966

Democratic socialism represents any socialist movement that seeks to establish an economy based oneconomic democracyby and for the working class. Democratic socialism is difficult to define and groups of scholars have radically different definitions for the term. Some definitions simply refer to all forms of socialism that follow an electoral, reformist or evolutionary path to socialism rather than a revolutionary one.According to Christopher Pierson, "[i]f the contrast which 1989 highlights is not that between socialism in the East and liberal democracy in the West, the latter must be recognised to have been shaped, reformed and compromised by a century of social democratic pressure". Pierson further claims that "social democratic and socialist parties within the constitutional arena in the West have almost always been involved in a politics of compromise with existing capitalist institutions (to whatever far distant prize its eyes might from time to time have been lifted)". For Pierson, "if advocates of the death of socialism accept that social democrats belong within the socialist camp, as I think they must, then the contrast between socialism (in all its variants) and liberal democracy must collapse. Foractually existingliberal democracy is, in substantial part, a product of socialist (social democratic) forces ".

Social democracy is a socialist tradition of political thought.Many social democrats refer to themselves as socialists or democratic socialists and some such asTony Blairemploy these terms interchangeably.Others found "clear differences" between the three terms and prefer to describe their own political beliefs by using the termsocial democracy.The two main directions were to establish democratic socialism or to build first a welfare state within the capitalist system. The first variant advances democratic socialism throughreformistandgradualistmethods.In the second variant, social democracy is a policy regime involving a welfare state,collective bargainingschemes, support for publicly financed public services and a mixed economy. It is often used in this manner to refer to Western and Northern Europe during the later half of the 20th century.It was described byJerry Manderas "hybrid economics", an active collaboration of capitalist and socialist visions.Some studies and surveys indicate that people tend to live happier and healthier lives in social democratic societies rather thanneoliberalones.

Eduard Bernstein

Social democrats advocate a peaceful, evolutionary transition of the economy to socialism throughprogressivesocial reform.It asserts that the only acceptable constitutional form of government isrepresentative democracyunder the rule of law.It promotes extending democratic decision-making beyond political democracy to includeeconomic democracyto guarantee employees and other economic stakeholders sufficient rights ofco-determination.It supports amixed economythat opposes inequality, poverty and oppression while rejecting both a totally unregulatedmarket economyor a fullyplanned economy.Common social democratic policies include universal social rights and universally accessible public services such as education, health care, workers' compensation and other services, including child care and elder care.Social democracy supports the trade union labour movement and supports collective bargaining rights for workers.Most social democratic parties are affiliated with theSocialist International.

Modern democratic socialism is a broad political movement that seeks to promote the ideals of socialism within the context of a democratic system. Some democratic socialists support social democracy as a temporary measure to reform the current system while others reject reformism in favour of more revolutionary methods. Modern social democracy emphasises a program of gradual legislative modification of capitalism to make it more equitable and humane while the theoretical end goal of building a socialist society is relegated to the indefinite future. According toSheri Berman,Marxism is loosely held to be valuable for its emphasis on changing the world for a more just, better future.

The two movements are widely similar both in terminology and in ideology, although there are a few key differences. The major difference between social democracy and democratic socialism is the object of their politics in that contemporary social democrats support a welfare state and unemployment insurance as well as other practical, progressive reforms of capitalism and are more concerned to administrate and humanise it. On the other hand, democratic socialists seek to replace capitalism with a socialist economic system, arguing that any attempt to humanise capitalism through regulations and welfare policies would distort the market and create economic contradictions.

Ethical and liberal socialism

Main articles:Ethical socialismandLiberal socialism

R. H. Tawney,founder of ethical socialism

Ethical socialism appeals to socialism on ethical and moral grounds as opposed to economic, egoistic, and consumeristic grounds. It emphasizes the need for a morally conscious economy based upon the principles of altruism, cooperation, and social justice while opposing possessive individualism.Ethical socialism has been the official philosophy of mainstream socialist parties.

Liberal socialism incorporates liberal principles to socialism.It has been compared topost-war social democracyfor its support of amixed economythat includes both public and private capital goods.Whiledemocratic socialismandsocial democracyareanti-capitalistpositions insofar ascriticism of capitalismis linked to theprivate ownershipof themeans of production,liberal socialism identifies artificial and legalistic monopolies to be the fault ofcapitalismand opposes an entirely unregulatedmarket economy.It considers bothlibertyandsocial equalityto be compatible and mutually dependent.

Principles that can be described as ethical or liberal socialist have been based upon or developed by philosophers such asJohn Stuart Mill,Eduard Bernstein,John Dewey,Carlo Rosselli,Norberto Bobbio,andChantal Mouffe.Other important liberal socialist figures include Guido Calogero,Piero Gobetti,Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse,John Maynard KeynesandR. H. Tawney.Liberal socialism has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics.

Leninism and precedents

Main articles:Authoritarian socialism,Blanquism,Leninism,Trotskyism,andMarxism–Leninism

Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theoristVladimir Leninin 1920

Blanquism is a conception of revolution named forLouis Auguste Blanqui.It holds that socialist revolution should be carried out by a relatively small group of highly organised and secretive conspirators.Upon seizing power, the revolutionaries introduce socialism.Rosa LuxemburgandEduard Bernsteincriticised Lenin, stating that his conception of revolution was elitist and Blanquist.Marxism–Leninism combines Marx'sscientific socialistconcepts and Lenin'santi-imperialism,democratic centralism,vanguardismand the principle of "He who does not work, neither shall he eat".

Hal Draperdefinedsocialism from aboveas the philosophy which employs an eliteadministrationto run thesocialist state.The other side of socialism is a more democraticsocialism from below.The idea of socialism from above is much more frequently discussed in elite circles than socialism from below—even if that is the Marxist ideal—because it is more practical.Draper viewed socialism from below as being the purer, moreMarxistversion of socialism.According to Draper,Karl MarxandFriedrich Engelswere devoutly opposed to any socialist institution that was "conducive to superstitious authoritarianism". Draper makes the argument that this division echoes the division between "reformist or revolutionary, peaceful or violent, democratic or authoritarian, etc." and further identifies six major varieties of socialism from above, among them "Philanthropism", "Elitism", "Pannism", "Communism", "Permeationism" and "Socialism-from-Outside". According to Arthur Lipow, Marx and Engels were "the founders of modern revolutionary democratic socialism", described as a form of "socialism from below" that is "based on a mass working-class movement, fighting from below for the extension of democracy and human freedom". Thistype of socialismis contrasted to that of the "authoritarian, anti-democratic creed" and "the various totalitarian collectivist ideologies which claim the title of socialism" as well as "the many varieties of 'socialism from above' which have led in the twentieth century to movements and state forms in which a despotic 'new class' rules over a stratified economy in the name of socialism ", a division that" runs through the history of the socialist movement ". Lipow identifiesBellamyismandStalinismas two prominent authoritarian socialist currents within the history of the socialist movement.

Trotsky viewed himself to be an adherent of Leninism but opposed thebureaucraticand authoritarian methods of Stalin.A number of scholars and Western socialists have regarded Leon Trotsky as ademocraticalternativerather than a forerunner to Stalin with particular emphasis drawn to his activities in thepre-Civil War periodand as leader of theLeft Opposition.More specifically, Trotsky advocated for adecentralisedform of economic planning,masssovietdemocratization,worker's control of production,elected representation of Sovietsocialist parties,the tactic of aunited frontagainst far-right parties, culturalautonomy for artistic movements,voluntarycollectivisation,atransitional program,and socialistinternationalism.

Several scholars state that in practice, the Soviet model functioned as a form ofstate capitalism.

Libertarian socialism

Main article:Libertarian socialism

The first anarchist journal to use the termlibertarianwasLe Libertaire,Journal du Mouvement Social,published in New York City between 1858 and 1861 by Frenchlibertarian communistJoseph Déjacque,the first recorded person to describe himself aslibertarian.

Libertarian socialism, sometimes calledleft-libertarianism,social anarchismandsocialist libertarianism,is ananti-authoritarian,anti-statistandlibertariantradition within socialism that rejects centralised state ownership and controlincluding criticism ofwage labourrelationships (wage slavery)as well as the state itself.It emphasisesworkers' self-managementanddecentralisedstructures of political organisation.Libertarian socialism asserts that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control production.Libertarian socialists generally preferdirect democracyandfederalorconfederalassociations such aslibertarian municipalism,citizens' assemblies,trade unions andworkers' councils.

Anarcho-syndicalistGaston Levalexplained:

We therefore foresee a Society in which all activities will be coordinated, a structure that has, at the same time, sufficient flexibility to permit the greatest possible autonomy for social life, or for the life of each enterprise, and enough cohesiveness to prevent all disorder.... In a well-organised society, all of these things must be systematically accomplished by means of parallel federations, vertically united at the highest levels, constituting one vast organism in which all economic functions will be performed in solidarity with all others and that will permanently preserve the necessary cohesion ".

All of this is typically done within a general call forlibertarianandvoluntaryfree associationsthrough the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life.

As part of the larger socialist movement, it seeks to distinguish itself from Bolshevism, Leninism and Marxism–Leninism as well as social democracy.Past and present political philosophies and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist includeanarchism(anarcho-communism,anarcho-syndicalism,collectivist anarchism,individualist anarchismandmutualism),autonomism,Communalism,participism,libertarian Marxism(council communismandLuxemburgism),revolutionary syndicalismandutopian socialism(Fourierism).

Religious socialism

Main article:Religious socialism

Christian socialismis a broad concept involving an intertwining of Christian religion with socialism.

Arabic letters "Lam" and "Alif" reading "Lā" (Arabic for "No!" ) are a symbol of Islamic Socialism inTurkey.

Islamic socialismis a morespiritualform of socialism. Muslim socialists believe that the teachings of theQuranandMuhammadare not only compatible with, but actively promoting the principles ofequalityandpublic ownership,drawing inspiration from the earlyMedina welfare statehe established. Muslim socialists are more conservative than their Western contemporaries and find their roots inanti-imperialism,anti-colonialismand sometimes, if in an Arab speaking country,Arab nationalism.Islamic socialists believe in deriving legitimacy from politicalmandateas opposed to religious texts.

Social movements

Main articles:Eco-socialism,Socialism and LGBT rights,andSocialist feminism

See also:Anarcha-feminism,Anarcho-naturism,Environmentalism,Green anarchism,Green politics,Progressivism,andQueer anarchism

Socialist feministClara Zetkinand Rosa Luxemburg in 1910

Socialist feminism is a branch offeminismthat argues thatliberationcan only be achieved by working to end both economic andculturalsources of women'soppression.Marxist feminism's foundation was laid by Engels inThe Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State(1884).August Bebel'sWoman under Socialism(1879), is the "single work dealing with sexuality most widely read by rank-and-file members of theSocial Democratic Party of Germany(SPD) ".In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, bothClara ZetkinandEleanor Marxwere against thedemonisationof men and supported aproletariatrevolution that would overcome as many male-female inequalities as possible.As their movement already had the most radical demands in women's equality, most Marxist leaders, including Clara ZetkinandAlexandra Kollontai,counterposed Marxism againstliberal feminismrather than trying to combine them. Anarcha-feminism began with late 19th- and early 20th-century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Goldman andVoltairine de Cleyre.In theSpanish Civil War,an anarcha-feminist group,Mujeres Libres( "Free Women" ) linked to theFederación Anarquista Ibérica,organised to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas.In 1972, theChicago Women's Liberation Unionpublished "Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women's Movement", which is believed to be the first published use of the term "socialist feminism".

Edward Carpenter,philosopher and activist who was instrumental in the foundation of theFabian Societyand theLabour Partyas well as in the earlyLGBTIwestern movements

Many socialists were early advocates ofLGBT rights.For early socialistCharles Fourier,true freedom could only occur without suppressing passions, as the suppression of passions is not only destructive to the individual, but to society as a whole. Writing before the advent of the term "homosexuality", Fourier recognised that both men and women have a wide range of sexual needs and preferences which may change throughout their lives, including same-sex sexuality andandrogénité.He argued that all sexual expressions should be enjoyed as long as people are not abused and that "affirming one's difference" can actually enhance social integration.InOscar Wilde'sThe Soul of Man Under Socialism,he advocates anegalitariansociety where wealth is shared by all, while warning of the dangers of social systems that crush individuality.Edward Carpenteractively campaigned for homosexual rights. His workThe Intermediate Sex:A Study of Some Transitional Types of Men and Womenwas a 1908 book arguing forgay liberation.who was an influential personality in the foundation of theFabian Societyand theLabour Party.After theRussian Revolutionunder the leadership of Lenin and Trotsky, the Soviet Union abolished previous laws against homosexuality.Harry Haywas an early leader in the American LGBT rights movement as well as a member of theCommunist Party USA.He is known for his involvement in the founding of gay organisations, including theMattachine Society,the first sustained gay rights group in the United States which in its early days reflected a strong Marxist influence. TheEncyclopedia of Homosexualityreports that "[a]s Marxists the founders of the group believed that the injustice and oppression which they suffered stemmed from relationships deeply embedded in the structure of American society".Emerging from events such as the May 1968 insurrection in France, theanti-Vietnam war movementin the US and theStonewall riotsof 1969, militant gay liberation organisations began to spring up around the world. Many sprang from left radicalism more than established homophile groups,although theGay Liberation Fronttook ananti-capitaliststance and attacked thenuclear familyand traditionalgender roles.

Eco-socialism is a political strain merging aspects of socialism, Marxism or libertarian socialism with green politics, ecology andalter-globalisation.Eco-socialists generally claim that the expansion of the capitalist system is the cause of social exclusion, poverty, war and environmental degradation throughglobalisationandimperialismunder the supervision of repressivestatesand transnational structures.Contrary to the depiction ofKarl Marxby some environmentalists,social ecologistsand fellow socialistsas aproductivistwho favoured the domination of nature, eco-socialists revisited Marx's writings and believe that he "was a main originator of the ecological world-view".Marx discussed a "metabolic rift" between man and nature, stating that "private ownership of the globe by single individuals will appear quite absurd as private ownership of one man by another" and his observation that a society must "hand it [the planet] down to succeeding generations in an improved condition".English socialistWilliam Morrisis credited with developing principles of what was later called eco-socialism.During the 1880s and 1890s, Morris promoted his ideas within theSocial Democratic FederationandSocialist League.Green anarchism blends anarchism withenvironmental issues.An important early influence wasHenry David Thoreauand his bookWaldenas well asÉlisée Reclus.

In the late 19th century, anarcho-naturism fused anarchism andnaturistphilosophies withinindividualist anarchistcircles in France, Spain, Cubaand Portugal.Murray Bookchin's first bookOur Synthetic Environmentwas followed by his essay "Ecology and Revolutionary Thought" which introduced ecology as a concept in radical politics.In the 1970s,Barry Commoner,claimed that capitalist technologies were chiefly responsible forenvironmental degradationas opposed topopulation pressures.In the 1990s socialist/feminists Mary MellorandAriel Sallehadopt an eco-socialist paradigm. An "environmentalism of the poor" combining ecological awareness andsocial justicehas also become prominent.Pepper critiqued the current approach of many withingreen politics,particularlydeep ecologists.

Syndicalism

Main article:Syndicalism

See also:Anarcho-syndicalism

Syndicalism operates through industrial trade unions. It rejectsstate socialismand the use of establishment politics. Syndicalists reject state power in favour of strategies such as thegeneral strike.Syndicalists advocate a socialist economy based on federated unions or syndicates of workers who own and manage the means of production. Some Marxist currents advocate syndicalism, such asDe Leonism.Anarcho-syndicalism views syndicalism as a method for workers incapitalist societyto gain control of an economy. TheSpanish Revolutionwas largely orchestrated by the anarcho-syndicalist trade unionCNT.TheInternational Workers' Associationis an international federation of anarcho-syndicalist labour unions and initiatives.

Public views

A multitude of polls have found significant levels of support for socialism among modern populations.

A 2018IPSOSpoll found that 50% of the respondents globally strongly or somewhat agreed that present socialist values were of great value for societal progress. In China this was 84%, India 72%, Malaysia 62%, Turkey 62%, South Africa 57%, Brazil 57%, Russia 55%, Spain 54%, Argentina 52%, Mexico 51%, Saudi Arabia 51%, Sweden 49%, Canada 49%, Great Britain 49%, Australia 49%, Poland 48%, Chile 48%, South Korea 48%, Peru 48%, Italy 47%, Serbia 47%, Germany 45%, Belgium 44%, Romania 40%, United States 39%, France 31%, Hungary 28% and Japan 21%.

A 2021 survey conducted by theInstitute of Economic Affairs(IEA) found that 67% of young British (16–24) respondents wanted to live in asocialist economic system,72% supported there-nationalisationof various industries such asenergy,wateralong withrailwaysand 75% agreed with the view thatclimate changewas a specificallycapitalistproblem.

A 2023 IPSOS poll found that a majority of British public favoured public ownership ofutilitiesincluding water, rail andelectricity.Specifically, 68% of respondents favoured the nationalisation of water services, 65% supporting the nationalisation of the railways, 63% supporting the public ownership ofpower networksand 39% favouringbroadband accesswhich is operated by the government. The poll also found broad levels of support among traditional Labour and Conservative voters.

The results of a 2019Axiospoll found that 70% of USmillennialswere willing to vote for a socialist candidate and 50% of this same demographic had a somewhat or very unfavourable view of capitalism.Subsequently, another 2021 Axios poll found that 51% of 18-34 US adults had a positive view of socialism. Yet, 41% of Americans more generally had a positive view of socialism compared to 52% of those who viewing socialism more negatively.

In 2023, theFraser Institutepublished findings which found that 42% of Canadians viewed socialism as the ideal system compared to 43% of British respondents, 40% Australian respondents and 31% American respondents. Overall support for socialism ranged from 50% of Canadians 18-24 year olds to 28% of Canadians over 55.

Criticism

Main article:Criticism of socialism

L–R:Milton Friedman,Ludwig von MisesandFriedrich Hayek,economists belonging to theChicagoandAustrianschools of economics and critics of socialism in the 20th century

According toanalytical MarxistsociologistErik Olin Wright,"The Right condemned socialism as violating individual rights to private property and unleashing monstrous forms of state oppression", while "the Left saw it as opening up new vistas of social equality, genuine freedom and the development of human potentials."

Because of socialism's many varieties, most critiques have focused on a specific approach. Proponents of one approach typically criticise others. Socialism has been criticised in terms of itsmodels of economic organizationas well as its political and social implications. Other critiques are directed at thesocialist movement,parties,or existingstates.

Some forms of criticism occupy theoretical grounds, such as in theeconomic calculation problempresented by proponents of theAustrian Schoolas part of thesocialist calculation debate,while others support their criticism by examining historical attempts to establish socialist societies. The economic calculation problem concerns the feasibility and methods of resource allocation for aplanned socialist system.Central planning is also criticized by elements of the radical left. Libertarian socialist economistRobin Hahnelnotes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom.

Economic liberalsandright-libertariansargue thatprivate ownershipof themeans of productionand market exchange are natural entities or moral rights which are central to freedom and liberty and argue that the economic dynamics ofcapitalismare immutable and absolute. As such, they also argue thatpublic ownershipof the means of production andeconomic planningare infringements upon liberty.

Critics of socialism have argued that in any society where everyone holds equal wealth, there can be no material incentive to work because one does not receive rewards for a work well done. They further argue that incentives increase productivity for all people and that the loss of those effects would lead to stagnation. Some critics of socialism argue that income sharing reduces individual incentives to work and therefore incomes should be individualized as much as possible.

Some philosophers have also criticized the aims of socialism, arguing that equality erodes away at individual diversities and that the establishment of an equal society would have to entail strong coercion.

Milton Friedmanargued that the absence of private economic activity would enable political leaders to grant themselves coercive powers, powers that, under a capitalist system, would instead be granted by a capitalist class, which Friedman found preferable.

Many commentators on the political right point to themass killings under communist regimes,claiming them as an indictment of socialism.Opponents of this view, including supporters of socialism, state that these killings were aberrations caused by specific authoritarian regimes, and not caused by socialism itself, and draw comparisons to killings, famines and excess deaths under capitalism,colonialismandanti-communist authoritarian governments.

See also

• Anarchism and socialism
• Critique of work
• List of socialist parties with national parliamentary representation
• List of socialist economists
• List of communist ideologies
• List of socialist songs
• List of socialist states
• Paris Commune
• Socialist democracy
• Scientific socialism
• Socialism by country(category)
• Spanish Revolution of 1936
• Marxian critique of political economy
• Types of socialism
• Zenitism

References

Bibliography

• Aarons, Mark(2007)."Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide".InBlumenthal, David A.;McCormack, Timothy L. H. (eds.).The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law).Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.ISBN978-9004156913.Archived fromthe originalon 5 January 2016.
• Arneson, Richard J.(April 1992). "Is Socialism Dead? A Comment on Market Socialism and Basic Income Capitalism".Ethics.102(3): 485–511.doi:10.1086/293421.S2CID154502214.
• Arnold, N. Scott (1994).The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism: A Critical Study.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195088274.
• Badie, Bertrand;Berg-Schlosser, Dirk;Morlino, Leonardo,eds. (2011).International Encyclopedia of Political Science.SAGE Publications.doi:10.4135/9781412994163.ISBN978-1-4129-5963-6.
• Bailey, David J. (2009).The Political Economy of European Social Democracy: A Critical Realist Approach.Routledge.ISBN978-04156-04253.
• Barrett, William,ed. (1 April 1978)."Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy: A Symposium".Commentary.Archived fromthe originalon 19 October 2019.Retrieved14 June2020.
• Beckett, Francis(2007).Clem Attlee.Politico.ISBN978-1842751923.
• Berlau, A. Joseph (1949).The German Social Democratic Party, 1914–1921.New York:Columbia University Press.
• Berman, Sheri(1998).The Social Democratic Moment.Harvard University Press.ISBN978-067444261-0.
• Best, Steven;Kahn, Richard; Nocella II, Anthony J.;McLaren, Peter,eds. (2011). "Introduction: Pathologies of Power and the Rise of the Global Industrial Complex".The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination.Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-0739136980.
• Bevins, Vincent(2020).The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World.PublicAffairs.pp. 238–240.ISBN978-1541742406.
• Bockman, Johanna (2011).Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism.Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0804775663.
• Brandal, Nik;Bratberg, Øivind[in Norwegian];Thorsen, Dag Einar (2013).The Nordic Model of Social Democracy.Palgrave MacMillan.ISBN978-1137013262.
• Brus, Wlodzimierz(2015).The Economics and Politics of Socialism.Routledge.ISBN978-0415866477.
• Busky, Donald F.(2000).Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey.Westport, Connecticut:Praeger.ISBN978-0275968861.
• Caulcutt, Clea (13 January 2022)."The end of the French left".POLITICO.Retrieved20 April2022.
• Engel-DiMauro, Salvatore (2 January 2021). "Anti-Communism and the Hundreds of Millions of Victims of Capitalism".Capitalism Nature Socialism.32(1): 1–17.doi:10.1080/10455752.2021.1875603.ISSN1045-5752.S2CID233745505.
• Esposito, John L.(1995).Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World.New York:Oxford University Press.p.19.ISBN978-0195066135.OCLC94030758.
• Gaus, Gerald F.;Kukathas, Chandran(2004).Handbook of Political Theory.Sage.ISBN978-0761967873.
• Ghodsee, Kristen(2017).Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism.Duke University Press.ISBN978-0822369493.
• Ghodsee, Kristen R.;Sehon, Scott(22 March 2018)."Anti-anti-communism".Aeon.Retrieved26 September2018.A 2009 poll in eight east European countries asked if the economic situation for ordinary people was 'better, worse or about the same as it was under communism'. The results stunned observers: 72 per cent of Hungarians, and 62 per cent of both Ukrainians and Bulgarians believed that most people were worse off after 1989. In no country did more than 47 per cent of those surveyed agree that their lives improved after the advent of free markets. Subsequent polls and qualitative research across Russia and eastern Europe confirm the persistence of these sentiments as popular discontent with the failed promises of free-market prosperity has grown, especially among older people.
• Hanna, Sami A.; Gardner, George H. (1969).Arab Socialism: A Documentary Survey.Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 273–274 – viaGoogle Books.
• Hanna, Sami A. (1969)."al-Takaful al-Ijtimai and Islamic Socialism".The Muslim World.59(3–4): 275–286.doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1969.tb02639.x.Archived fromthe originalon 13 September 2010.
• Heilbroner, Robert L.(1991)."From Sweden to Socialism: A Small Symposium on Big Questions".Dissident.Retrieved17 April2020.
• Horvat, Branko(1982).The Political Economy of Socialism.
• Horvat, Branko(2000)."Social ownership".InMichie, Jonathan(ed.).Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences.Vol. 1. London and New York:Routledge.pp. 1515–1516.ISBN978-1135932268.Retrieved15 October2021– viaGoogle Books.
• Kendall, Diana (2011).Sociology in Our Time: The Essentials.Cengage Learning.ISBN978-1111305505.
• Kotz, David M. (December 2006)."Socialism and Capitalism: Are They Qualitatively Different Socioeconomic Systems?"(PDF).University of Massachusetts.Retrieved19 February2011.
• Krause-Jackson, Flavia (28 December 2019)."Socialism declining in Europe as populism support grows".The Independent.Retrieved20 April2022.
• Lamb, Peter; Docherty, J. C. (2006).Historical Dictionary of Socialism(2nd ed.). Lanham:The Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0810855601.
• Lamb, Peter (2015).Historical Dictionary of Socialism(3rd ed.).Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-1442258266.
• Li, He (2015).Political Thought and China's Transformation: Ideas Shaping Reform in Post-Mao China.Springer.ISBN978-1137427816.
• McLaughlin, Paul (2007).Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism.Ashgate Publishing.ISBN978-0754661962– viaGoogle Books.
• Meyer, Thomas (2013).The Theory of Social Democracy.Wiley.ISBN978-0745673523.OCLC843638352.
• Newman, Michael (2005).Socialism: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0192804310.
• Nove, Alexander (1991).The Economics of Feasible Socialism Revisited.Routledge.ISBN978-0044460152.
• Orlow, Dietrich (2000).Common Destiny: A Comparative History of the Dutch, French, and German Social Democratic Parties, 1945–1969.New York City: Berghahn Books.ISBN978-1571811851.
• "Abu Dharr al-Ghifari".Oxford Islamic Studies Online.Oxford University.Archived fromthe originalon 10 March 2022.Retrieved23 January2010.
• Prychitko, David L.(2002).Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism.Edward Elgar Publishing.ISBN978-1840645194.
• Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018).The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-1400888863.Archivedfrom the original on 19 April 2019.Retrieved1 August2018.
• Roemer, John E. (1994).A Future for Socialism.Harvard University Press.ISBN978-067433946-0.
• Roosa, John (2006).Pretext for Mass Murder: 30 September Movement and Suharto's Coup d'État in Indonesia.Madison, Wisconsin: TheUniversity of Wisconsin Press.ISBN978-0299220341.
• Rosser, Marina V.; Barkley, J. Jr. (2003).Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy.MIT Press.pp.53.ISBN978-0262182348.
• Sanandaji, Nima (27 October 2021)."Nordic Countries Aren't Actually Socialist".Foreign Policy.Retrieved20 April2022.
• Schweickart, David;Lawler, James;Ticktin, Hillel;Ollman, Bertell(1998). "The Difference Between Marxism and Market Socialism".Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists.Routledge.ISBN978-0415919678.
• Simpson, Bradley (2010).Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968.Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0804771825.
• Sinclair, Upton(1918).Upton Sinclair's: A Monthly Magazine: for Social Justice, by Peaceful Means If Possible– viaGoogle Books.
• Steele, David Ramsay(1999).From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation.Open Court.ISBN978-0875484495.
• Sullivan, Dylan;Hickel, Jason(2 December 2022)."How British colonialism killed 100 million Indians in 40 years".Al Jazeera.Archived fromthe originalon 15 January 2023.Retrieved8 February2023.While the precise number of deaths is sensitive to the assumptions we make about baseline mortality, it is clear that somewhere in the vicinity of 100 million people died prematurely at the height of British colonialism. This is among the largest policy-induced mortality crises in human history. It is larger than the combined number of deaths that occurred during all famines in the Soviet Union, Maoist China, North Korea, Pol Pot's Cambodia, and Mengistu's Ethiopia.
• Weisskopf, Thomas E. (1992). "Toward a Socialism for the Future, in the Wake of the Demise of the Socialism of the Past".Review of Radical Political Economics.24(3–4): 1–28.doi:10.1177/048661349202400302.hdl:2027.42/68447.S2CID20456552.
• Woodcock, George(1962).Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements.
• Zimbalist, Andrew; Sherman, Howard J.; Brown, Stuart (1988).Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach.Harcourt College Pub. p.7.ISBN978-0155124035.

Further reading

• Bellarmine, Robert(1902)."Socialism.".Sermons from the Latins.Benziger Brothers.
• Cohen, Gerald(2009).Why Not Socialism?.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0691143613.
• Cole, G. D. H.(2003) [1965].History of Socialist Thought, in 7 volumes(reprint ed.).Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN140390264X.
• Cole, George Douglas Howard (1922)."Socialism".In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica(12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.
• Ellman, Michael(2014).Socialist Planning(3rd ed.).Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1107427327.
• Frank, Peter; McAloon, Jim (2016).Labour: The New Zealand Labour Party, 1916–2016.Wellington, New Zealand:Victoria University Press.ISBN978-1776560745.Retrieved16 September2019.
• Fried, Albert; Sanders, Ronald, eds. (1964).Socialist Thought: A Documentary History.Garden City, NY:Doubleday Anchor.LCCN64011312.
• Ghodsee, Kristen(2018).Why Women Have Better Sex Under Socialism.Vintage Books.ISBN978-1568588902.
• Harrington, Michael(1972).Socialism.New York: Bantam.LCCN76154260.
• Harrington, Michael(2011).Socialism: Past and Future.Arcade Publishing.ISBN978-1611453355.
• Hayes, Carlton J. H. (1917). "The History of German Socialism Reconsidered".American Historical Review.23(1): 62–101.doi:10.2307/1837686.JSTOR1837686.
• Heilbroner, Robert(2008)."Socialism".InHenderson, David R.(ed.).The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics.Indianapolis, IN:Liberty Fund.pp. 466–468.ISBN978-0865976665.
• Imlay, Talbot (2018).The Practice of Socialist Internationalism: European Socialists and International Politics, 1914–1960.Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/oso/9780199641048.001.0001.ISBN978-0191774317.
• Itoh, Makoto (1995).Political Economy of Socialism.London:Macmillan.ISBN0333553373.
• Kitching, Gavin(1983).Rethinking Socialism.Meuthen.ISBN978-0416358407.
• Oskar, Lange(1938).On the Economic Theory of Socialism.Minneapolis, MN:University of Minnesota Press.LCCN38012882.
• Lebowitz, Michael (2006)."Build It Now: Socialism for the 21st century".Monthly Review Press.ISBN1583671455.
• Lichtheim, George (1970).A Short History of Socialism.Praeger Publishers.
• Maass, Alan (2010).The Case for Socialism(Updated ed.).Haymarket Books.ISBN978-1608460731.
• Marx & Engels,Selected works in one volume,Lawrence and Wishart (1968)ISBN978-0853151814.
• Martell, Luke (2023).Alternative Societies: For a Pluralist Socialism.Policy Press.ISBN978-1529229707.
• Muravchik, Joshua(2002).Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism.San Francisco: Encounter Books.ISBN1893554457.Archived fromthe originalon 19 October 2014.
• Navarro, V. (1992). "Has socialism failed? An analysis of health indicators under socialism".International Journal of Health Services.23(2): 583–601.doi:10.2190/B2TP-3R5M-Q7UP-DUA2.PMID1399170.S2CID44945095.
• Bertell Ollman,ed.,Market Socialism: The Debate among Socialists,Routledge, 1998.ISBN0415919673.
• Leo Panitch,Renewing Socialism: Democracy, Strategy, and Imagination.ISBN0813398215.
• Emile Perreau-Saussine,What remains of socialism?,in Patrick Riordan (dir.), Values in Public life: aspects of common goods (Berlin, LIT Verlag, 2007), pp. 11–34.
• Piketty, Thomas(2021).Time for Socialism: Dispatches from a World on Fire, 2016–2021.Yale University Press.ISBN978-0300259667.
• Pipes, Richard(2000).Property and Freedom.Vintage.ISBN0375704477.
• Prychitko, David L.(2008)."Socialism".InHamowy, Ronald(ed.).The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism.Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage;Cato Institute.pp. 474–476.doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n290.ISBN978-1412965804– viaGoogle Books.
• Rubel, Maximilien;Crump, John (8 August 1987).Non-Market Socialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.St. Martin's Press.ISBN0312005245.
• Sassoon, Donald (1998).One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twentieth Century.New Press.ISBN1565844866.
• Sunkara, Bhaskar,ed. (2016).The ABCs of Socialism.Verso Books.ISBN978-1784787264.
• Verdery, Katherine (1996).What Was Socialism, What Comes Next.Princeton:Princeton University Press.ISBN069101132X.
• Webb, Sidney(1889)."The Basis of Socialism – Historic".Library of Economics and Liberty.
• Weinstein, James(2003).Long Detour: The History and Future of the American Left(hardcover ed.).Westview Press.ISBN0813341043.
• Wilberg, Peter (2003).Deep Socialism: A New Manifesto of Marxist Ethics and Economics.New Gnosis Publications.ISBN1904519024.

External links

• Socialism– entry at theEncyclopædia Britannica
• SocialismatCurlie
• "Socialism".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Cuban Socialismfrom theDean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives.
• Kirkup, Thomas (1887)."Socialism".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. XXII (9th ed.).
• Ely, Richard T.;Adams, Thomas Sewall(1905)."Socialism".New International Encyclopedia.
• Bonar, James (1911)."Socialism".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 25 (11th ed.). pp. 301–308.
• Cole, G. D. H.(1922)."Socialism".Encyclopædia Britannica(12th ed.).