Socialist state

Asocialist state,socialist republic,orsocialist country,sometimes referred to as aworkers' stateorworkers' republic,is asovereign stateconstitutionally dedicated to the establishment ofsocialism.The termcommunist stateis often used synonymously in theWest,specifically when referring toone-partysocialist states governed byMarxist–Leninist communist parties,despite these countries being officially socialist states in the process of buildingsocialismand progressing toward a communist society. These countries never describe themselves ascommunistnor as having implemented acommunist society.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]Additionally, a number of countries that aremulti-party capitalist statesmakereferences to socialism in their constitutions,in most cases alluding to the building of a socialist society, naming socialism, claiming to be a socialist state, or including the termpeople's republicorsocialist republicin their country's full name, although this does not necessarily reflect the structure and development paths of these countries' political and economic systems. Currently, these countries includeAlgeria,^[5]Bangladesh,^[6]Guyana,^[7]India,^[8]Nepal,^[9]Nicaragua,^[10]Sri Lanka^[11]andTanzania.^[12]

The idea of a socialist state stems from the broader notion ofstate socialism,the political perspective that the working class needs to use state power and government policy to establish a socialised economic system. The term can vary in its use from meaning a political system to adopting terms of a welfare state. This may either mean a system where the means of production, distribution, and exchange are nationalised or under state ownership, or simply a system in which social values or workers' interests have economic priority.^[13]^[14]^[15]However, the concept of a socialist state is mainly advocated by Marxist–Leninists and most socialist states have been established by political parties adhering to Marxism–Leninism or some national variation thereof such asMaoism,Stalinism,TitoismorHo Chi Minh Thought.^[16]A state, whether socialist or not, is opposed the most by anarchists, who reject the idea that the state can be used to establish a socialist society due to itshierarchicaland arguably coercive nature, considering a socialist state or state socialism as anoxymoron.^[17]The concept of a socialist state is also considered unnecessary or counterproductive and rejected by someclassical,libertarian,andorthodoxMarxists,libertarian socialistsand other socialist political thinkers who view the modern state as a byproduct ofcapitalism,which would have no function in a socialist system.^[18]^[19]^[20]

A socialist state is to be distinguished from a multi-partyliberal democracygoverned by a self-describedsocialist party,where the state is not constitutionally bound to the construction of socialism. In such cases, thepolitical systemandmachinery of governmentis not specifically structured to pursue the development of socialism. Socialist states in the Marxist–Leninist sense are sovereign states under the control of avanguard partywhich is organizing the country's economic, political, and social development toward the realization of socialism. Economically, this involves the development of astate capitalisteconomy with state-directedcapital accumulationwith the long-term goal of building up the country'sproductive forceswhile simultaneously promotingworld communism.^[21]^[22]

Academics, political commentators, and other scholars tend to distinguish betweenauthoritarian socialistand democratic socialist states, with the first representing theSoviet Blocand the latter representingWestern Bloccountries which have been democratically governed by socialist parties such asBritain,France,Italy,and Western social democracies in general, among others, all of which operate within a capitalist mode of production.^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]

Overview

The first socialist state was theRussian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic,established in 1917.^[27]In 1922, it merged with theByelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic,theTranscaucasian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic,and theUkrainian Soviet Socialist Republicinto a single federal union called theUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR). The Soviet Union proclaimed itself a socialist state and proclaimed its commitment to building asocialist economyin its1936 constitutionand a subsequent1977 constitution.It was governed by theCommunist Party of the Soviet Unionas a single-party state, ostensibly with ademocratic centralismorganization, withMarxism–Leninismremaining itsofficial guiding ideologyuntil thedissolution of the Soviet Unionon 26 December 1991. The political systems of these Marxist–Leninist socialist states revolved around the central role of the party which holds ultimate authority. Internally, thecommunist partypracticed a form of democracy calleddemocratic centralism.^[28]

During the22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unionin 1961,Nikita Khrushchevannounced the completion of socialist construction and declared the optimistic goal of achievingcommunism in twenty years.^[29]TheEastern Blocwas a political and economic bloc ofSoviet-aligned socialist statesin Eastern and Central Europe which adhered to Marxism–Leninism, Soviet-stylegovernance,andeconomic planningin the form of theadministrative-command systemandcommand economy.China's socio-economic structure has been referred to as "nationalistic state capitalism" and the Eastern Bloc (Eastern Europe and theThird World) as "bureaucratic-authoritarian systems."^[30]^[31]

ThePeople's Republic of Chinawas founded on 1 October 1949, and proclaims itself to be a socialist state in its1982 constitution.TheDemocratic People's Republic of Korea(North Korea) used to adhere to orthodoxMarxism–Leninismsince its founding until mid-1950s, by which point the supreme leader of North Korea,Kim Il Sung,sought to develop a distinct Korean re-interpretation of the ideology in order to solidify his position within theWorkers' Party of Korea(WPK), known asJuche. Originally regarded as a variant of Marxism–Leninism,Juchewas declared to be fully distinct by his son and successor,Kim Jong Il,and was adopted as the official state ideology in the1972 constitution of North Korea.Further developed throughout the 1980s and 1990s,Juchemadesignificant ideological breakswith Marxism–Leninism, and in the country's 1992 constitution, all references to Marxism–Leninism and communism were removed from state and party materials.^[32]Scholars are divided over the classification of the modern-dayJuche,with some considering it to be a departure from Marxist–Leninist principles,^[33]given the primacy offamily lineageandnationalismoverclass struggle,and where social distinction and hierarchy are promoted overclassless societyandegalitarianism,^[34]and others considering it to still be a form of Marxism–Leninism, combined with nationalism and idolization, deification, and mystification of the Kim family.^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38]

Similarly, direct references tocommunismin theLao People's Democratic Republicare not included in itsfounding documents,although it gives direct power to the governing ruling party, the Marxist–LeninistLao People's Revolutionary Party.The preamble to theconstitutionof theSocialist Republic of Vietnamstates that Vietnam only entered a transition stage betweencapitalismandsocialismafter the country wasreunifiedunder theCommunist Party of Vietnamin 1976.^[39]The 1992constitutionof theRepublic of Cubastates that the role of theCommunist Party of Cubais to "guide the common effort toward the goals and construction of socialism (and the progress toward a communist society)".^[40]The 2019 constitution retains the aim to work towards the construction of socialism.^[41]

Constitutional references to socialism

A number of countries make references to socialism in their constitutions that are not single-party states embracing Marxism–Leninism and planned economies. In most cases, these are constitutional references to the building of a socialist society and political principles that have little to no bearing on the structure and guidance of these country'smachinery of governmentandeconomic system.The preamble to the 1976Constitution of Portugalstates that the Portuguese state has, as one of its goals, opening "the way to socialist society".^[42]Another broad example is that of Slovenia, which defines itself as a "state governed by the rule of law and a social state".^[43]Algeria, the Congo, India, and Sri Lanka have directly used the termsocialistin their official constitution and name. Croatia, Hungary, and Poland directly denounce "Communism" in their founding documents in reference to their past regimes.^[44]^{[need quotation to verify]}^[45]^{[need quotation to verify]}^[46]

In these cases, the intended meaning ofsocialismcan vary widely and sometimes the constitutional references to socialism are left over from a previous period in the country's history. In the case of many Middle Eastern states, the termsocialismwas often used in reference to anArab socialist/nationalistphilosophy adopted by specific regimes, such as that ofGamal Abdel Nasserand that of the variousBa'ath parties.Examples of countries directly using the termsocialistin their names include the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, while a number of countries make references to socialism in their constitutions, but not in their names. These include India^[47]and Portugal. In addition, countries such as Belarus, Colombia, France, Russia, and Spain use the varied termsocial state,leaving a more ambiguous meaning. In the constitutions of Croatia, Hungary, and Poland, direct condemnation is made to the respective past socialist regimes.^[48]Theautonomous regionofRojava,which operates under the principles ofdemocratic confederalism,has been described as a socialist state.^[49]

Other uses

During thepost-war consensus,nationalizationof large industries was relatively widespread and it was not uncommon for commentators to describe some European countries as democratic socialist states seeking to move their countries toward asocialist economy.^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]In 1956, leadingBritish Labour Partypolitician and authorAnthony Croslandclaimed that capitalism had been abolished in Britain, although others such as WelshmanAneurin Bevan,Minister of Health in the firstpost-war Labour governmentand the architect of theNational Health Service,disputed the claim that Britain was a socialist state.^[50]^[51]For Crosland and others who supported his views, Britain was a socialist state. According to Bevan, Britain had a socialistNational Health Servicewhich stood in opposition to thehedonismof Britain's capitalist society, making the following point:

The National Health service and the Welfare State have come to be used as interchangeable terms, and in the mouths of some people, as terms of reproach. Why this is so it is not difficult to understand, if you view everything from the angle of a strictly individualistic competitive society. A free health service is pure Socialism and as such, it is opposed to the hedonism of capitalist society.^[52]

Although, as in the rest of Europe, thelaws of capitalismstill operated fully andprivate enterprisedominated the economy,^[53]some political commentators claimed that during the post-war period, when socialist parties were in power, countries such as Britain and France were democratic socialist states and the same is now applied to theNordic countriesand theNordic model.^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]In the 1980s, the government of PresidentFrançois Mitterrandaimed to expanddirigismeand attempted to nationalize all French banks, but this attempt faced opposition of theEuropean Economic Communitybecause it demanded afree-market capitalisteconomy among its members.^[54]^[55]Nevertheless,public ownershipin France and the United Kingdom during the height of nationalization in the 1960s and 1970s never accounted for more than 15–20% ofcapital formation,further dropping to 8% in the 1980s and below 5% in the 1990s after the rise ofneoliberalism.^[53]

The socialist policies practiced by parties such as the SingaporeanPeople's Action Party(PAP) during its first few decades in power were of a pragmatic kind as characterized by its rejection of nationalization. Despite this, the PAP still claimed to be asocialist party,pointing out its regulation of the private sector, state intervention in the economy, and social policies as evidence of this.^[56]The Singaporean prime ministerLee Kuan Yewalso stated that he has been influenced by the democratic socialist British Labour Party.^[57]

Terminology

Because most existing socialist states operated alongMarxist–Leninistprinciples of governance, the termsMarxist–Leninist regimeandMarxist–Leninist stateare used by scholars, particularly when focusing on the political systems of these countries.^[28]Apeople's republicis a type of socialist state with a republican constitution. Although the term initially became associated withpopulistmovements in the 19th century such as the GermanVölkisch movementand theNarodniksin Russia, it is now associated with Communist Party ruled states. A number of the short-lived communist states which formed duringWorld War Iandits aftermathcalled themselvespeople's republics.Many of these sprang up in the territory of the formerRussian Empirefollowing theOctober Revolution.^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]^[62]Additional people's republics emerged following theAlliedvictory in World War II, mainly within theEastern Bloc.^[63]^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67]^[68]^[69]In Asia, China became a people's republic following theChinese Communist Revolution^[70]and North Korea also became a people's republic.^[71]During the 1960s,RomaniaandYugoslaviaceased to use the termpeople's republicin their official name, replacing it with the termsocialist republicas a mark of their ongoing political development.Czechoslovakiaalso added the termsocialist republicinto its name during this period. It had become a people's republic in 1948, but the country had not used that term in its official name.^[72]Albaniaused both terms in its official name from 1976 to 1991.^[73]

The termsocialist stateis widely used by Marxist–Leninist parties, theorists, and governments to mean a state under the control of avanguard partythat is organizing the economic, social, and political affairs of said state toward the construction of socialism. States run bycommunist partiesthat adhere to Marxism–Leninism, or some national variation thereof, refer to themselves as socialist states or workers' and peasants' states. They involve the direction of economic development toward the building up of theproductive forcesto underpin the establishment of a socialist economy and usually include that at least thecommanding heights of the economyare nationalized and understate ownership.^[22]^[74]This may or may not include the existence of a socialist economy, depending on the specific terminology adopted and level of development in specific countries. TheLeninistdefinition of a socialist state is a state representing the interests of the working class which presides over astate capitalisteconomy structured upon state-directedaccumulation of capitalwith the goal of building up the country'sproductive forcesand promoting worldwidesocialist revolution,while the realization of a socialist economy is held as the long-term goal.^[22]

In the Western world, particularly in mass media, journalism, and politics, these states and countries are often calledcommunist states(although they do not use this term to refer to themselves), despite the fact that these countries never claimed to have achieved communism in their countries—rather, they claim to be building and working toward the establishment of socialism and the development towards communism thereafter in their countries.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]Terms used by communist states includenational-democratic,people's democratic,people's republican,socialist-oriented,andworkers' and peasants'states.^[75]

Political theories

Marxist theory of the state

Karl Marxand subsequent thinkers in theMarxisttradition conceive of the state as representing the interests of the ruling class, partially out of material necessity for the smooth operation of the modes of production it presides over. Marxists trace the formation of the contemporary form of thesovereign stateto the emergence of capitalism as a dominant mode of production, with its organizational precepts and functions designed specifically to manage and regulate the affairs of a capitalist economy. Because this involves governance and laws passed in the interest of thebourgeoisieas a whole, and because government officials either come from the bourgeoisie or are dependent upon their interests, Marx characterized thecapitalist stateas adictatorship of the bourgeoisie.Extrapolating from this, Marx described a post-revolutionary government on the part of the working class or proletariat as adictatorship of the proletariatbecause the economic interests of the proletariat would have to guide state affairs and policy during a transitional state. Alluding further to the establishment of a socialist economy wheresocial ownershipdisplacesprivate ownershipand thus, class distinctions on the basis of private property ownership are eliminated, the modern state would have no function and would gradually "wither away" or be transformed into a new form of governance.^[76]^[77]

Influenced by the pre-Marxistutopian socialistphilosopherHenri de Saint-Simon,Friedrich Engelstheorized the nature of the state would change during the transition to socialism. Both Saint-Simon and Engels described a transformation of the state from an entity primarily concerned with political rule over people (via coercion and law creation) to a scientific "administration of things" that would be concerned with directing processes of production in a socialist society, essentially ceasing to be a state.^[78]^[79]^[80]Although Marx never referred to a socialist state, he argued that the working class would have to take control of the state apparatus and machinery of government in order to transition out of capitalism and to socialism. The dictatorship of the proletariat would represent this transitional state and would involve working class interests dominating government policy in the same manner that capitalist class interests dominate government policy under capitalism (the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie). Engels argued that as socialism developed, the state would change in form and function. Under socialism, it is not a "government of people, but the administration of things", thereby ceasing to be a state by the traditional definition.^[81]^[82]With the fall of theParis Commune,Marx cautiously argued inThe Civil War in Francethat "the working class cannot simply lay hold of the ready-made state machinery, and wield it for its own purposes. The centralized state power, with its ubiquitous organs of standing army, police, bureaucracy, clergy, and judicature—organs wrought after the plan of a systematic and hierarchic division of labor originates from the days of absolute monarchy, serving nascent middle class society as a mighty weapon in its struggle against feudalism".^[83]In other words, "the centralized state power inherited by the bourgeoisie from the absolute monarchy necessarily assumes, in the course of the intensifying struggles between capital and labor, 'more and more the character of the national power of capital over labour, of a public organized for social enslavement, of an engine of class despotism'".^[84]

One of the most influential modern visions of a transitional state representing proletarian interests was based on the Paris Commune, in which the workers and working poor took control of the city of Paris in 1871 in reaction to theFranco-Prussian War.Marx described the Paris Commune as the prototype for a revolutionary government of the future, "the form at last discovered" for the emancipation of the proletariat.^[83]Engels noted that "all officials, high or low, were paid only the wages received by other workers. [...] In this way, an effective barrier to place-hunting and careerism was set up".^[85]Commenting on the nature of the state, Engels continued: "From the outset, the Commune was compelled to recognize that the working class, once come to power, could not manage with the old state machine". In order not to be overthrown once having conquered power, Engels argues that the working class "must, on the one hand, do away with all the old repressive machinery previously used against it itself, and, on the other, safeguard itself against its own deputies and officials, by declaring them all, without exception, subject to recall at any moment". Engels argued such a state would be a temporary affair and suggested a new generation brought up in "new and free social conditions" will be able to "throw the entire lumber of the state on the scrap-heap".^[86]

Reform and revolution

Socialists that embracedreformism,exemplified byEduard Bernstein,took the view that both socialism and a socialist state will gradually evolve out of political reforms won in the organized socialist political parties and unions. These views are considered arevisionof Marxist thought. Bernstein stated: "The socialist movement is everything to me while what people commonly call the goal of Socialism is nothing".^[87]Following Marx,revolutionary socialistsinstead take the view that the working class grows stronger through its battle for reforms (such as in Marx's time, the ten-hours bill). In 1848, Marx and Engels wrote:

Now and then the workers are victorious, but only for a time. The real fruit of their battles lies, not in the immediate result, but in the ever expanding union of the workers. [...] [I]t ever rises up again, stronger, firmer, mightier. It compels legislative recognition of particular interests of the workers, by taking advantage of the divisions among the bourgeoisie itself. Thus, the ten-hours' bill in England was carried.^[88]

According to theorthodox Marxistconception, these battles eventually reach a point where a revolutionary movement arises. A revolutionary movement is required in the view of Marxists to sweep away the capitalist state and the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, which must be abolished and replaced with a dictatorship of the proletariat, to begin constructing a socialist society. In this view, only through revolution can a socialist state be established as written inThe Communist Manifesto:

In depicting the most general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to the point where that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat.^[88]

Other historic reformist or gradualist movements within socialism, as opposed to revolutionary approaches, includeFabian socialistandMenshevikgroupings.

Leninist theory of the state

Whereas Marx, Engels, andclassical Marxistthinkers had little to say about the organization of the state in a socialist society, presuming the modern state to be specific to the capitalist mode of production,Vladimir Leninpioneered the idea of a revolutionary state based on his theory of the revolutionaryvanguard partyand organizational principles ofdemocratic centralism.Adapted to the conditions of semi-feudal Russia, Lenin's concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat involved a revolutionary vanguard party acting as representatives of the proletariat and its interests. According to Lenin'sApril Theses,the goal of the revolution and vanguard party is not the introduction of socialism (it could only be established on a worldwide scale), but to bring production and the state under the control of thesovietsof workers' deputies. Following theOctober Revolutionin Russia, theBolsheviksconsolidated their power and sought to control and direct the social and economic affairs of the state and broader Russian society to safeguard against counterrevolutionary insurrection, foreign invasion, and to promote socialist consciousness among the Russian population while simultaneously promoting economic development.^[21]

These ideas were adopted by Lenin in 1917 just prior to the October Revolution in Russia and published inThe State and Revolution.With the failure of the worldwide revolution, or at least European revolution, envisaged by Lenin andLeon Trotsky,theRussian Civil Warand finally, Lenin's death, war measures that were deemed to be temporary, such as forced requisition of food and the lack of democratic control, became permanent and a tool to boostJoseph Stalin's power, leading to the emergence of Marxism–Leninism andStalinism,as well as the notion that socialism can be created and exist in a single state with theory ofsocialism in one country.

Lenin argued that as socialism is replaced by communism, the state would "wither away"^[89]as strong centralized control progressively reduces as local communities gain more empowerment. As he put it succinctly, "[s]o long as the state exists, there is no freedom. When there will be freedom, there will be no state".^[90]In this way, Lenin was thereby proposing a classically dynamic view of progressive social structure which, during his own short period of governance, emerged as a defensive and preliminary bureaucratic centralist stage. He regarded this structural paradox as the necessary preparation for and antithesis of the desiredworkers' statewhich he forecast would follow.

Vladimir Lenin,founder of theSoviet Unionand the leader of theBolshevik party.

Leon Trotsky,founder of theRed Armyand a key figure in theOctober Revolution.

Trotskyist theory of the state

Following Stalin's consolidation of power in theSoviet Unionand static centralization of political power, Trotsky condemned the Soviet government's policies for lacking widespread democratic participation on the part of the population and for suppressingworkers' self-managementand democratic participation in the management of the economy. Because these authoritarian political measures were inconsistent with the organizational precepts of socialism, Trotsky characterized the Soviet Union as a deformed workers' state that would not be able to effectively transition to socialism. Ostensibly socialist states where democracy is lacking, yet the economy is largely in the hands of the state, are termed byorthodox Trotskyisttheories asdegeneratedordeformedworkers' states and not socialist states.^[91]

Criticism within left-wing movements

Anarchism and Marxism

Manydemocraticandlibertariansocialists, including anarchists,mutualists,andsyndicalists,criticize the concept of establishing a socialist state instead of abolishing thebourgeoisstate apparatus outright. They use the termstate socialismto contrast it with their own form of socialism, which involves eithercollective ownership(in the form ofworker cooperatives) orcommon ownershipof themeans of productionwithout statecentralized planning.Those socialists believe there is no need for a state in a socialist system because there would be no class to suppress and no need for an institution based on coercion and therefore, regard the state being a remnant of capitalism.^[18]^[19]^[20]They hold thatstatismis antithetical to true socialism,^[17]the goal of which is the eyes oflibertarian socialistssuch asWilliam Morris,who wrote as follows in aCommonwealarticle: "State Socialism? — I don't agree with it; in fact, I think the two words contradict one another, and that it is the business of Socialism to destroy the State and put Free Society in its place".^[92]

ClassicalandorthodoxMarxists also view state socialism as an oxymoron, arguing that while an association for managing production and economic affairs would exist in socialism, it would no longer be a state in theMarxist definition,which is based ondomination by one class.Preceding theBolshevik-ledrevolution in Russia,many socialist groups—including reformists, orthodox Marxist currents such ascouncil communism,and theMensheviks,as well as anarchists and other libertarian socialists—criticized the idea of using the state to conductplanningandnationalizationof the means of production as a way to establish socialism.^[93]Lenin himself acknowledged state capitalism as part of the transition from capitalism to socialism.^[94]^[95]

Critical of the economy and government of socialist states,left communistssuch as the ItalianAmadeo Bordigasaid that their socialism was a form of political opportunism which preserved rather than destroyedcapitalismbecause of the claim that the exchange of commodities would occur undersocialism;the use ofpopular frontorganisations by theCommunist International;^[96]and that apolitical vanguardorganized byorganic centralismwas more effective than a vanguard organized bydemocratic centralism.^[97]The American MarxistRaya Dunayevskayaalso dismissed it as a type of state capitalism^[98]becausestate ownershipof the means of production is a form of state capitalism;^[99]thedictatorship of the proletariatis a form of democracy andsingle-party ruleis undemocratic;^[100]andMarxism–Leninismis neitherMarxismnorLeninism,but rather, a composite ideology which socialist leaders likeJoseph Stalinused to expediently determine what iscommunismand what is not communism among theEastern Bloccountries.^[101]

Leninism

Although most Marxist–Leninists distinguish betweencommunismandsocialism,Bordiga, who did consider himself aLeninistand has been described as being "more Leninist than Lenin",^[102]did not distinguish between the two in the same way Marxist–Leninists do. Both Lenin and Bordiga did not see socialism as a separate mode of production from communism, but rather, just as how communism looks as it emerges out of capitalism before it has "developed on its own foundations".^[103]

This is coherent with Marx and Engels, who used the termscommunismandsocialisminterchangeably.^[104]^[105]Like Lenin, Bordiga usedsocialismto mean what Marx called thelower-phase communism.^[106]For Bordiga, both stages of socialist orcommunist society—with stages referring tohistorical materialism—were characterized by the gradual absence of money, the market, and so on, the difference between them being that earlier in the first stage, a system of rationing would be used to allocate goods to people, while in communism this could be abandoned in favour of full free access. This view distinguished Bordiga from Marxist–Leninists, who tended, and still tend, to telescope the first two stages and so have money and the other exchange categories surviving into socialism. But Bordiga would have none of this. For him, no society in which money, buying and selling, and the rest survived could be regarded as either socialist or communist—these exchange categories would die out before the socialist rather than the communist stage was reached.^[96]Stalin made the claim that theSoviet Unionhad reached the lower stage of communism and argued that thelaw of valuestill operated within a socialist economy.^[107]

Marx did not use the termsocialismto refer to this development and instead called it a communist society that has not yet reached its higher-stage.^[108]The termsocialismto mean the lower-state of communism was popularized during theRussian Revolutionby Lenin. This view is consistent with, and helped to inform early concepts of, socialism in which the law of value no longer directs economic activity, namely, that monetary relations in the form ofexchange-value,profit,interest, andwage labourwould not operate and apply to Marxist socialism.^[109]Unlike Stalin, who first claimed to have achieved socialism with theSoviet Constitution of 1936^[110]^[111]^[112]^[113]and then confirmed it in theEconomic Problems of Socialism in the USSR,^[114]^[115]^[116]^[117]^[118]Lenin did not call the Soviet Union a socialist state, nor did he claim that it had achieved socialism.^[119]He adopted state capitalist policies,^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]defending them from left-wing criticism,^[120]but arguing that they were necessary for the future development of socialism and not socialist in themselves.^[121]^[122]On seeing the Soviet Union's growing coercive power, Lenin was quoted as saying that Russia had reverted to "a bourgeois tsarist machine [...] barely varnished with socialism".^[123]

Libertarian socialism

A variety of non-state, libertarian communist and socialist positions reject the concept of a socialist state altogether, believing that the modern state is a byproduct of capitalism and cannot be used for the establishment of a socialist system. They reason that a socialist state is antithetical to socialism and that socialism will emerge spontaneously from thegrassrootslevel in anevolutionary manner,developing its own unique political and economic institutions for a highly organizedstateless society.Libertarian communists, includinganarchists,councillists,leftists,andMarxists,also reject the concept of a socialist state for being antithetical to socialism, but they believe that socialism can only be established through revolution and dissolving the existence of the state.^[17]^[19]^[20]Within the socialist movement, there is criticism towards the use of the term socialist states in relation to countries such as China and previously of Soviet Union and Eastern and Central European states before what some term the "collapse ofStalinism"in 1989.^[124]^[125]^[126]^[127]

Anti-authoritarian communists and socialists such as anarchists, other democratic and libertarian socialists, as well as revolutionary syndicalists and left communists^[128]claim that the so-called socialist states actually presided over state capitalist economies and cannot be called socialist.^[98]Those socialists who oppose any system of state control whatsoever believe in a more decentralized approach which puts the means of production directly into the hands of the workers rather than indirectly through state bureaucracies^[17]^[19]^[20]which they claim represent a new elite orclass.^[129]^[130]^[131]^[132]This leads them to consider state socialism a form of state capitalism^[96](an economy based on centralized management, capital accumulation and wage labor, but with the state owning the means of production)^[133]which Engels stated would be the final form of capitalism rather than socialism.^[134]

Trotskyism

SomeTrotskyistsfollowing on fromTony Cliffdeny that it is socialism, calling it state capitalism.^[135]Other Trotskyists agree that these states could not be described as socialist,^[136]but deny that they were state capitalist.^[137]They supportLeon Trotsky's analysis of pre-restoration Soviet Union as a workers' state that haddegeneratedinto abureaucratic dictatorshipwhich rested on a largely nationalized industry run according to a production plan^[138]^[139]^[140]and claimed that the former Stalinist states ofCentraland Eastern Europe weredeformed workers' statesbased on the same relations of production as the Soviet Union.^[141]Some Trotskyists such as theCommittee for a Workers' Internationalhave at times included African, Asian, and Middle Eastern socialist states when they have had anationalizedeconomy asdeformed workers' states.^[142]^[143]Other socialists argued that theneo-Ba'athistspromoted capitalists from within the party and outside their countries.^[144]

References

^^a ^bWilczynski, J. (2008).The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945–1990.Aldine Transaction. p. 21.ISBN 978-0202362281.Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'whithering away' of the State.
^^a ^bSteele, David Ramsay (September 1999).From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation.Open Court. p. 45.ISBN 978-0875484495.Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all.
^^a ^bRosser, Mariana V.; Rosser, J. Barkley Jr. (23 July 2003).Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy.MIT Press. p. 14.ISBN 978-0262182348.Ironically, the ideological father of communism, Karl Marx, claimed that communism entailed the withering away of the state. The dictatorship of the proletariat was to be a strictly temporary phenomenon. Well aware of this, the Soviet Communists never claimed to have achieved communism, always labeling their own system socialist rather than communist and viewing their system as in transition to communism.
^^a ^bWilliams, Raymond (1983)."Socialism".Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society, revised edition.Oxford University Press. p.289.ISBN 978-0-19-520469-8.The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such associal democratordemocratic socialist,became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.
^Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria(28 November 1996): "Gathered in the national movement and later within the National Front of Liberation, the Algerian people have made great sacrifices to assume their collective destiny in the framework of recovered freedom and cultural identity and to build authentic people's democratic constitutional institutions. The National Front of Liberation crowned the sacrifices of the best sons of Algeria during the people's war of liberation with independence and built a modern and full sovereign State".
^Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh(4 November 1972): "Further pledging that it shall be a fundamental aim of the State to realise through the democratic process, a socialist society free from exploitation, a society in which the rule of law, fundamental human rights and freedoms, equality and justice, political, economic and social, will be secured for all citizens".
^Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana(20 February 1980): "Convinced that the organisation of the State and society on socialist principles is the only means of ensuring social and economic justice for all of the people of Guyana; and, therefore, being motivated and guided by the principles of socialism".
^Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the Republic of India(26 November 1949): "We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens".
^Article 4, Section 1 of theConstitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal(20 September 2015): "Nepal is an independent, indivisible, sovereign, secular, inclusive democratic, socialism-oriented federal democratic republican state".
^Article 5, Section 1 of theConstitution of the Republic of Nicaragua(1 January 1987): "Liberty, justice, respect for the dignity of the human person, political and social pluralism, the recognition of the distinct identity of the indigenous peoples and those of African descent within the framework of a unitary and indivisible state, the recognition of different forms of property, free international cooperation and respect for the free self-determination of peoples, Christian values, socialist ideals, and practices based on solidarity, and the values and ideals of the Nicaraguan culture and identity, are the principles of the Nicaraguan nation. [...] The socialist ideals promote the common good over individual egoism, seeking to create an ever more inclusive, just and fair society, promoting an economic democracy which redistributes national wealth and eliminates exploitation among human beings".
^Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka(7 September 1978): "[T]o constitute Sri Lanka into a democratic socialist republic whilst ratifying the immutable republican principles of representative democracy, and assuring to all peoples freedom, equality, justice, fundamental human rights and the independence of the judiciary".
^Article 3, Section 1 of the Constitution of theUnited Republic of Tanzania(25 April 1978): "The United Republic is a democratic, secular and socialist state which adheres to multi-party democracy".
^^a ^bLenin, Vladimir (1917).The State and Revolution."Chapter 5".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^^a ^bLenin, Vladimir (February—July 1918).Lenin Collected Works Vol. 27.Marxists Internet Archive. p. 293. Quoted byAufheben.Archived18 March 2004 at theWayback Machine.
^^a ^bLenin, Vladimir (1921)."The Tax in Kind".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^^a ^bPena, David S. (21 September 2007)."Tasks of Working-Class Governments under the Socialist-oriented Market Economy".Political Affairs.Archived5 September 2008 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^^a ^b ^c ^dMcKay, Iain, ed. (2008). "Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?".An Anarchist FAQ.Vol. I. Stirling: AK Press.ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6.OCLC 182529204.
^^a ^bSchumpeter, Joseph (2008) [1942].Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy.Harper Perennial. p. 169.ISBN 978-0-06-156161-0.But there are still others (concepts and institutions) which by virtue of their nature cannot stand transplantation and always carry the flavor of a particular institutional framework. It is extremely dangerous, in fact it amounts to a distortion of historical description, to use them beyond the social world or culture whose denizens they are. Now ownership or property – also, so I believe, taxation – are such denizens of the world of commercial society, exactly as knights and fiefs are denizens of the feudal world. But so is the state (a denizen of commercial society).
^^a ^b ^c ^dMcKay, Iain, ed. (2012). "Why do anarchists oppose state socialism?".An Anarchist FAQ.Vol. II. Edinburgh: AK Press.ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6.OCLC 182529204.
^^a ^b ^c ^dMcKay, Iain, ed. (2012). "What would an anarchist society look like?".An Anarchist FAQ.Vol. II. Edinburgh: AK Press.ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6.OCLC 182529204.
^^a ^bFleming, Richard Fleming (1989)."Lenin's Conception of Socialism: Learning from the early experiences of the world's first socialist revolution".Forward.9(1).Retrieved27 December2015.
^^a ^b ^cLenin Collected Works.27:293. Quoted byAufheben.Archived18 March 2004 at theWayback Machine.
^^a ^b ^cBarrett, William, ed. (1 April 1978)."Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy: A Symposium".Commentary.Retrieved 14 June 2020. "If we were to extend the definition of socialism to include Labor Britain or socialist Sweden, there would be no difficulty in refuting the connection between capitalism and democracy."
^^a ^b ^cHeilbroner, Robert L. (Winter 1991)."From Sweden to Socialism: A Small Symposium on Big Questions".Dissident.Barkan, Joanne; Brand, Horst; Cohen, Mitchell; Coser, Lewis; Denitch, Bogdan; Fehèr, Ferenc; Heller, Agnès; Horvat, Branko; Tyler, Gus. pp. 96–110. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
^^a ^b ^cKendall, Diana (2011).Sociology in Our Time: The Essentials.Cengage Learning. pp. 125–127.ISBN 9781111305505."Sweden, Great Britain, and France havemixed economies,sometimes referred to as democratic socialism—an economic and political system that combines private ownership of some of the means of production, governmental distribution of some essential goods and services, and free elections. For example, government ownership in Sweden is limited primarily to railroads, mineral resources, a public bank, and liquor and tobacco operations. "
^^a ^b ^cLi, He (2015).Political Thought and China's Transformation: Ideas Shaping Reform in Post-Mao China.Springer. pp. 60–69.ISBN 9781137427816."The scholars in camp of democratic socialism believe that China should draw on the Sweden experience, which is suitable not only for the West but also for China. In the post-Mao China, the Chinese intellectuals are confronted with a variety of models. The liberals favor the American model and share the view that the Soviet model has become archaic and should be totally abandoned. Meanwhile, democratic socialism in Sweden provided an alternative model. Its sustained economic development and extensive welfare programs fascinated many. Numerous scholars within the democratic socialist camp argue that China should model itself politically and economically on Sweden, which is viewed as more genuinely socialist than China. There is a growing consensus among them that in the Nordic countries the welfare state has been extraordinarily successful in eliminating poverty."
^Jones, R. J. Barry (2002).Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy, Volume 3.Routledge. p. 1461.ISBN 9781136927393.
^^a ^bFurtak, Robert K. (1986).Political Systems of the Socialist States: An Introduction to Marxist-Leninist Regimes.New York: St. Martin's Press.ISBN 978-0745000480.
^Tompson, William J. (1997).Khrushchev: A Political Life.New York City: St. Martin's Press. p. 238.
^Morgan, W. John (2001). "Marxism–Leninism: The Ideology of Twentieth-Century Communism". In Wright, James D., ed.International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences(2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 657–662.
^Andrai, Charles F. (1994).Comparative Political Systems: Policy Performance and Social Change.Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. pp. 24–25.
^Dae-Kyu, Yoon (2003)."The Constitution of North Korea: Its Changes and Implications".Fordham International Law Journal.27(4): 1289–1305.Retrieved10 August2020.
^Seth, Michael J. (18 December 2019).A Concise History of Modern Korea: From the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 159.ISBN 9781538129050.
^Shin, Gi-wook (2006).Ethnic Nationalism in Korea: Genealogy, Politics, and Legacy.Stanford University Press.p. 94.ISBN 9780804754088.
^Lee, Grace (Spring 2003))"The Political Philosophy of Juche".v.3, n.1.Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs.Quote: "The DPRK claims that juche is Kim Il Sung’s creative application of Marxist-Leninist principle to the modern political realities in North Korea."
^Myers, Brian (January 2006)"The Watershed Speech that Wasn't: Re-evaluating Kim Il Sung's 'Juche Speech" of 1955 ",v.9, n.1Acta Koreana.Quote: "A close reading of the text [of the speech] reveals... that the speech does not re-interpret Marxism-Leninism... In fact, it neither deviates from the Marxism-Leninism of its day nor does it exceed levels of patriotism that were then considered acceptable throughout the East Bloc."
^Oh, Kongdan Oh and Hassig, Ralph C. (2000)North Korea Through the Looking Glass.Chapter 2: "The Power and Poverty of Ideology"p.13. Washington, DC.: Brookings Institution Press.ISBN 0815764359.Quote: "Even though Marx's predictions have fallen wide of the mark, Marxism-Leninism remains a cornerstone of North Korean ideology."
^"Juche is Third Position ideology built on Marx – Not Marxist-Leninism".Free Media Productions – Editorials. 30 August 2009.Retrieved25 December2015.
^"VN Embassy – Constitution of 1992".Archived9 July 2011 at theWayback MachineFrom the Preamble: "On 2 July 1976, the National Assembly of reunified Vietnam decided to change the country's name to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam; the country entered a period of transition to socialism, strove for national construction, and unyieldingly defended its frontiers while fulfilling its internationalist duty."
^"Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1992".Cubanet.Archived9 July 2011 at theWayback MachineFrom Article 5: "The Communist Party of Cuba, a follower of Martí's ideas and of Marxism–Leninism, and the organized vanguard of the Cuban nation, is the highest leading force of society and of the state, which organizes and guides the common effort toward the goals of the construction of socialism and the progress toward a communist society".
^Reuters (22 July 2018)."Cuba ditches aim of building communism from draft constitution".The Guardian.Retrieved 5 August 2020.
^The"Preamble to the 1976 Constitution of Portugal"stated: "The Constituent Assembly affirms the Portuguese people's decision to defend their national independence, safeguard the fundamental rights of citizens, establish the basic principles of democracy, secure the primacy of the rule of law in a democratic state, and open the way to socialist society."
^"Slovenia 1991 (Rev. 2016) Constitution - Constitute".
^Tschentscher, Axel."Croatia Constitution".Servat.unibe.ch.Retrieved27 December2019.
^Tschentscher, Axel."Hungary Index".Servat.unibe.ch.Retrieved27 December2019.
^Tschentscher, Axel."Poland – Constitution".Servat.unibe.ch.Retrieved27 December2019.Article 13: Political parties and other organizations whose programmes are based upon totalitarian methods and the modes of activity of nazism, fascism and communism, as well as those whose programmes or activities sanction racial or national hatred, the application of violence for the purpose of obtaining power or to influence the State policy, or provide for the secrecy of their own structure or membership, shall be forbidden.
^The Preamble of the Constitution of India reads: "We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic [...]". SeePreamble to the Constitution of India.
^"Hungary 2011 (Rev. 2016) Constitution - Constitute".
^Wall, Derek (25 August 2014)."Rojava: a beacon of hope fighting Isis".Morning Star.Archived fromthe originalon 5 January 2016.Retrieved25 December2015.
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^Crosland, Anthony (2006) [1952].The Future of Socialism.Constable. pp. 9, 89.ISBN 978-1845294854.
^Bevan, Aneurin (1952).In Place of Fear.New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 106.
^^a ^bBatson, Andrew (March 2017)."The State of the State Sector"(PDF).Gavekal Dragonomics.Retrieved8 December2018.Even in the statist 1960s–70s, SOEs in France and the UK did not account for more than 15–20% of capital formation; in the 1980s the developed-nation average was around 8%, and it dropped below 5% in the 1990s.
^Cobham, David (November 1984). "The Nationalisation of the Banks in Mitterand's France: Rationalisations and Reasons". Journal of Public Policy. 4 (4).JSTOR 3998375.
^Cohen, Paul (Winter 2010)."Lessons from the Nationalization Nation: State-Owned Enterprises in France".Dissident.Retrieved 17 April 2020.
^Morley, James W. (1993).Driven by Growth: Political Change in the Asia-Pacific Region.Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe.
^Kerr, Roger (9 December 1999)."Optimism for the New Millennium".Rotary Club of Wellington North. Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2006.Retrieved10 May2006.
^Åslund, Anders (2009).How Ukraine Became a Market Economy and Democracy.Peterson Institute. p. 12.ISBN 9780881325461.
^Minahan, James (2013).Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States.Routledge. p. 296.ISBN 9781135940102.
^Tunçer-Kılavuz, Idil (2014).Power, Networks and Violent Conflict in Central Asia: A Comparison of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.Routledge advances in Central Asian studies. Vol. 5. Routledge. p. 53.ISBN 9781317805113.
^Khabtagaeva, Bayarma (2009).Mongolic Elements in Tuvan.Turcologica Series. Vol. 81. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 21.ISBN 9783447060950.
^Macdonald, Fiona; Stacey, Gillian; Steele, Philip (2004).Peoples of Eastern Asia.Vol. 8: Mongolia–Nepal. Marshall Cavendish. p. 413.ISBN 9780761475477.
^Gjevori, Elvin (2018).Democratisation and Institutional Reform in Albania.Springer. p. 21.ISBN 9783319730714.
^Stankova, Marietta (2014).Bulgaria in British Foreign Policy, 1943–1949.Anthem Series on Russian, East European and Eurasian Studies. Anthem Press. p. 148.ISBN 9781783082353.
^Müller-Rommel, Ferdinand; Mansfeldová, Zdenka (2001). "Chapter 5: Czech Republic". In Blondel, Jean; Müller-Rommel, Ferdinand (eds.).Cabinets in Eastern Europe.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 62.doi:10.1057/9781403905215_6.ISBN 978-1-349-41148-1.
^Hajdú, József (2011).Labour Law in Hungary.Kluwer Law International. p. 27.ISBN 9789041137920.
^Frankowski, Stanisław; Stephan, Paul B. (1995).Legal Reform in Post-Communist Europe: The View from Within.Martinus Nijhoff. p. 23.ISBN 9780792332183.
^Paquette, Laure (2001).NATO and Eastern Europe After 2000: Strategic Interactions with Poland, the Czech Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria.Nova. p. 55.ISBN 9781560729693.
^Lampe, John R. (2000).Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country.Cambridge University Press. p. 233.ISBN 9780521774017.
^"The Chinese Revolution of 1949".Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs.United States Department of State.
^Kihl, Young Whan; Kim, Hong Nack (2014).North Korea: The Politics of Regime Survival.Routledge. p. 8.ISBN 9781317463764.
^Webb, Adrian (2008).The Routledge Companion to Central and Eastern Europe Since 1919.Routledge Companions to History. Routledge. pp. 80, 88.ISBN 9781134065219.
^Da Graça, John V (2000).Heads of State and Government(2nd ed.). St. Martin's Press. p. 56.ISBN 978-1-56159-269-2.
^Atkins, C. J. (1 April 2009)."The Problem of Transition: Development, Socialism and Lenin's NEP".Political Affairs.Retrieved 30 July 2009.
^Nation, R. Craig (1992).Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917–1991.Cornell University Press. pp.85–6.ISBN 978-0801480072.Retrieved19 December2014.
^Engels, Friedrich (1962). Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus bein ZK der SED (ed.).Die Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe.Karl Marx-Friedrich Engels: Welke (in German). Vol. 20. Berlin: Dietz Verlag.
^Engels, Friedrich (1962). Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus bein ZK der SED (ed.).Die Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe.Karl Marx-Friedrich Engels: Welke (in German). Vol. 21. Berlin: Dietz Verlag.
^Engels, Friedrich (1880)."The Development of Utopian Socialism".Socialism: Utopian and Scientific.Marxists.org.Retrieved12 January2016.In 1816, he declares that politics is the science of production, and foretells the complete absorption of politics by economics. The knowledge that economic conditions are the basis of political institutions appears here only in embryo. Yet what is here already very plainly expressed is the idea of the future conversion of political rule over men into an administration of things and a direction of processes of production.
^"Henri de Saint-Simon".Encyclopædia Britannica Online.Retrieved 27 December 2019.
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^"Withering away of the state". InScruton, Roger(2007).The Palgrave Macmillan Dictionary of Political Thought(3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
^"Withering Away of the State". In Kurian, George Thomas, ed. (2011).The Encyclopedia of Political Science.Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.
^^a ^bMarx, Karl (1871).The Civil War in France."The Paris Commune".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
^Van Den Berg, Axel (2018) [1988].The Immanent Utopia: From Marxism on the State to the State of Marxism.Transaction Publishers. p. 71.ISBN 9781412837330.
^Engels, Friedrich (1891)."On the 20th Anniversary of the Paris Commune".In Marx, Karl (1871).The Civil War in France.Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^Engels, Friedrich (18 March 1891)."The Civil War in France (1891 Introduction)".Marxists Internert Archive.Retrieved27 December2019.
^Steger, Manfred(1996).Selected Writings Of Eduard Bernstein, 1920–1921.New Jersey: Humanities Press.
^^a ^bMarx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1848).The Communist Manifesto."Chapter I. Bourgeois and Proletarians".Marxists Internert Archive. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
^Lenin, Vladimir (1917).The State and Revolution.p. 70. cf. "Chapter V, The economic basis for the withering away of the state".
^Freeden, Michael; Sargent, Lyman Tower; Stears, Marc, eds. (15 August 2013).The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 371.ISBN 9780199585977.
^Trotsky, Leon (1935)."The Workers' State, Thermidor and Bonapartism".New International.2(4): 116–122. "Trotsky argues that the Soviet Union was, at that time, a" deformed workers' state "or degenerated workers' state, and not a socialist republic or state, because the" bureaucracy wrested the power from the hands of mass organizations, "thereby necessitating only political revolution rather than a completely new social revolution, for workers' political control (i.e. state democracy) to be reclaimed. He argued that it remained, at base, a workers' state because the capitalists and landlords had been expropriated". Retrieved 27 December 2019.
^William Morris (17 May 1890)."The 'Eight Hours' and the Demonstration".Commonweal.6(227). p. 153. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
^Screpanti, Ernesto; Zamagni, Stefano (2005).An Outline on the History of Economic Thought(2nd ed.). Oxford. p. 295.It should not be forgotten, however, that in the period of the Second International, some of the reformist currents of Marxism, as well as some of the extreme left-wing ones, not to speak of the anarchist groups, had already criticised the view that State ownership and central planning is the best road to socialism. But with the victory of Leninism in Russia, all dissent was silenced, and socialism became identified with 'democratic centralism', 'central planning', and State ownership of the means of production.
^Lenin, Vladimir (1921)."The Tax in Kind".
^Pena, David S. (21 September 2007)."Tasks of Working-Class Governments under the Socialist-oriented Market Economy".Political Affairs.Archived5 September 2008 at theWayback Machine.
^^a ^b ^cBordiga, Amadeo (1952)."Dialogue With Stalin".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
^Bordiga, Amadeo."Theses on the Role of the Communist Party in the Proletarian Revolution".Communist International.Retrieved25 March2019.
^^a ^bHoward, M. C.; King, J. E."State capitalism" in the Soviet Union ".Archived2 November 2018 at theWayback Machine.
^Lichtenstein, Nelson (2011).American Capitalism: Social Thought and Political Economy in the Twentieth Century.University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 160–161.
^Ishay, Micheline (2007).The Human Rights Reader: Major Political Essays, Speeches, and Documents from Ancient Times to the Present.Taylor & Francis. p. 245.
^Todd, Allan (2012).History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976–89.Cambridge University Press. p. 16.ASIN B01B997S8W.
^Piccone, Paul (1983).Italian Marxism.University of California Press.p. 134.
^Lenin, Vladimir (1917).The State and Revolution."Chapther 5".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
^Steele, David (1992).From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation.Open Court Publishing Company. pp. 44–45.ISBN 978-0-87548-449-5.By 1888, the term 'socialism' was in general use among Marxists, who had dropped 'communism', now considered an old fashioned term meaning the same as 'socialism'. [...] At the turn of the century, Marxists called themselves socialists. [...] The definition of socialism and communism as successive stages was introduced into Marxist theory by Lenin in 1917 [...], the new distinction was helpful to Lenin in defending his party against the traditional Marxist criticism that Russia was too backward for a socialist revolution.
^Hudis, Peter; Vidal, Matt, Smith, Tony; Rotta, Tomás; Prew, Paul, eds. (September 2018 – June 2019).The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx."Marx's Concept of Socialism".Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0190695545.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190695545.001.0001.
^Marx, Karl (1875).Critique of the Gotha Program."Part I".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^Stalin, Joseph (1951)."Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
^Marx, Karl (1875)."Part I".Critique of the Gotha Program.Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
^Bockman, Johanna (2011).Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism.Stanford University Press. p. 20.ISBN 978-0-8047-7566-3.According to nineteenth-century socialist views, socialism would function without capitalist economic categories, such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent. Rather, it would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognized the need for money and prices (at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism), socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilize the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money.
^Reinalda, Bob (2009).Routledge History of International Organizations: From 1815 to the Present Day.Routledge. p. 765.ISBN 9781134024056.
^Laidler, Harry W. (2013).History of Socialism: An Historical Comparative Study of Socialism, Communism, Utopia.Routledge. p. 412.ISBN 9781136231438.
^Smith, S. A. (2014).The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism.Oxford University Press. p. 126.ISBN 9780191667527.The 1936 Constitution described the Soviet Union for the first time as a 'socialist society', rhetorically fulfilling the aim of building socialism in one country, as Stalin had promised.
^Fu, Hualing; Gillespie, John; Nicholason, Penelope; Partlett, William Edmund, eds. (2018).Socialist Law in Socialist East Asia.Cambridge University Press. p. 58.ISBN 9781108424813.
^Ramana, R. (June 1983). "Reviewed Work: China's Socialist Economy byXue Muqiao".Social Scientist.11(6): 68–74.doi:10.2307/3516910.JSTOR 3516910.
^McCarthy, Greg (1985). Brugger, Bill (ed.).Chinese Marxism in Flux, 1978–1984: Essays on Epistemology, Ideology, and Political Economy.M. E. Sharpe. pp. 142–143.ISBN 0873323238.
^Evans, Alfred B. (1993).Soviet Marxism–Leninism: The Decline of an Ideology.ABC-CLIO. p. 48.ISBN 9780275947637.
^Pollock, Ethan (2006).Stalin and the Soviet Science Wars.Princeton University Press. p. 210.ISBN 9780691124674.
^Mommen, André (2011).Stalin's Economist: The Economic Contributions of Jenö Varga.Routledge. pp. 203–213.ISBN 9781136793455.
^Lenin, Vladimir (21 April 1921)."The Tax in Kind".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 10 February 2020. "No one, I think, in studying the question of the economic system of Russia, has denied its transitional character. Nor, I think, has any Communist denied that the term Soviet Socialist Republic implies the determination of the Soviet power to achieve the transition to socialism, and not that the existing economic system is recognised as a socialist order."
^Lenin, Vladimir (June 1920)."Left-Wing" Communism: An Infantile Disorder."Contents".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
^Lenin, Vladimir (29 April 1918)."Session of the All-Russia C.E.C."Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 10 February 2020. "Reality tells us that state capitalism would be a step forward. If in a small space of time we could achieve state capitalism in Russia, that would be a victory."
^Lenin, Vladimir (21 April 1921)."The Tax in Kind".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 10 February 2020. "State capitalism would be a step forward as compared with the present state of affairs in our Soviet Republic. If in approximately six months' time state capitalism became established in our Republic, this would be a great success and a sure guarantee that within a year socialism will have gained a permanently firm hold and will have become invincible in this country."
^Serge, Victor (1937).From Lenin to Stalin.New York: Pioneer Publishers. p. 55.
^Committee for a Workers' International (June 1992)."The Collapse of Stalinism".Marxist.net. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
^Ted Grant (1996)."The Collapse of Stalinism and the Class Nature of the Russian State".Retrieved 4 November 2019.
^Anthony Arnove (Winter 2000)."The Fall of Stalinism: Ten Years On".International Socialist Review.10.Retrieved 4 November 2019.
^Walter Daum (Fall 2002)."Theories of Stalinism's Collapse".Proletarian Revolution.65.Retrieved 4 November 2019.
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^Đilas, Milovan(1983) [1957].The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System(paperback ed.). San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.ISBN 0-15-665489-X.
^Đilas, Milovan (1969).The Unperfect Society: Beyond the New Class.Translated by Cooke, Dorian. New York City: Harcourt, Brace & World.ISBN 0-15-693125-7.
^Đilas, Milovan(1998).Fall of the New Class: A History of Communism's Self-Destruction(hardcover ed.). Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN 0-679-43325-2.
^Trotsky, Leon(1991) [1937].The Revolution Betrayed: What is the Soviet Union and Where is it Going?(paperback ed.). Detroit: Labor Publications.ISBN 0-929087-48-8.
^Williams, Raymond(1985) [1976]."Capitalism".Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society.Oxford paperbacks (revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p.52.ISBN 9780195204698.Retrieved30 April2017.A new phrase, state-capitalism, has been widely used in mC20, with precedents from eC20, to describe forms of state ownership in which the original conditions of the definition – centralized ownership of the means of production, leading to a system of wage-labour – have not really changed.
^Engels, Friedrich (1880).Socialism: Utopian and Scientific."III: Historical Materialism".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^Cliff, Tony (1948)."The Theory of Bureaucratic Collectivism: A Critique".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^Mandel, Ernest (1979)."Why The Soviet Bureaucracy is not a New Ruling Class".Ernest Mandel Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^Taaffe, Peter (1995).The Rise of Militant."Preface"."Trotsky and the Collapse of Stalinism". Bertrams. "The Soviet bureaucracy and Western capitalism rested on mutually antagonistic social systems".ISBN 978-0906582473.
^Trotsky, Leon (1936).The Revolution Betrayed.Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
^Trotsky, Leon (1938)."The USSR and Problems of the Transitional Epoch".InThe Transitional Program.Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
^"The ABC of Materialist Dialectics".From "A Petty-Bourgeois Opposition in the Socialist Workers Party" (1939). Marxists Internet Archive. In Trotsky, Leon (1942).In Defense of Marxism.Retrieved 8 February 2020.
^Frank, Pierre(November 1951)."Evolution of Eastern Europe".Fourth International.Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
^Grant, Ted (1978)."The Colonial Revolution and the Deformed Workers' States".The Unbroken Thread.Retrieved 21 June 2020.
^Jayasuriya, Siritunga."About Us".United Socialist Party. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
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[The_Economics_of_Socialism_after_World_War_Two:_1945-1990-1] Wilczynski, J. (2008).The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945–1990.Aldine Transaction. p. 21.ISBN 978-0202362281.Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'whithering away' of the State.

[Ramsay-2] Steele, David Ramsay (September 1999).From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation.Open Court. p. 45.ISBN 978-0875484495.Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all.

[Rosser-3] Rosser, Mariana V.; Rosser, J. Barkley Jr. (23 July 2003).Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy.MIT Press. p. 14.ISBN 978-0262182348.Ironically, the ideological father of communism, Karl Marx, claimed that communism entailed the withering away of the state. The dictatorship of the proletariat was to be a strictly temporary phenomenon. Well aware of this, the Soviet Communists never claimed to have achieved communism, always labeling their own system socialist rather than communist and viewing their system as in transition to communism.

[Williams_1983_289-4] Williams, Raymond (1983)."Socialism".Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society, revised edition.Oxford University Press. p.289.ISBN 978-0-19-520469-8.The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such associal democratordemocratic socialist,became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.

[5] Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria(28 November 1996): "Gathered in the national movement and later within the National Front of Liberation, the Algerian people have made great sacrifices to assume their collective destiny in the framework of recovered freedom and cultural identity and to build authentic people's democratic constitutional institutions. The National Front of Liberation crowned the sacrifices of the best sons of Algeria during the people's war of liberation with independence and built a modern and full sovereign State".

[6] Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh(4 November 1972): "Further pledging that it shall be a fundamental aim of the State to realise through the democratic process, a socialist society free from exploitation, a society in which the rule of law, fundamental human rights and freedoms, equality and justice, political, economic and social, will be secured for all citizens".

[7] Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana(20 February 1980): "Convinced that the organisation of the State and society on socialist principles is the only means of ensuring social and economic justice for all of the people of Guyana; and, therefore, being motivated and guided by the principles of socialism".

[8] Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the Republic of India(26 November 1949): "We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens".

[9] Article 4, Section 1 of theConstitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal(20 September 2015): "Nepal is an independent, indivisible, sovereign, secular, inclusive democratic, socialism-oriented federal democratic republican state".

[10] Article 5, Section 1 of theConstitution of the Republic of Nicaragua(1 January 1987): "Liberty, justice, respect for the dignity of the human person, political and social pluralism, the recognition of the distinct identity of the indigenous peoples and those of African descent within the framework of a unitary and indivisible state, the recognition of different forms of property, free international cooperation and respect for the free self-determination of peoples, Christian values, socialist ideals, and practices based on solidarity, and the values and ideals of the Nicaraguan culture and identity, are the principles of the Nicaraguan nation. [...] The socialist ideals promote the common good over individual egoism, seeking to create an ever more inclusive, just and fair society, promoting an economic democracy which redistributes national wealth and eliminates exploitation among human beings".

[11] Article Preamble, Section Preamble of theConstitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka(7 September 1978): "[T]o constitute Sri Lanka into a democratic socialist republic whilst ratifying the immutable republican principles of representative democracy, and assuring to all peoples freedom, equality, justice, fundamental human rights and the independence of the judiciary".

[12] Article 3, Section 1 of the Constitution of theUnited Republic of Tanzania(25 April 1978): "The United Republic is a democratic, secular and socialist state which adheres to multi-party democracy".

[Lenin_1917-13] Lenin, Vladimir (1917).The State and Revolution."Chapter 5".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.

[Lenin_1918-14] Lenin, Vladimir (February—July 1918).Lenin Collected Works Vol. 27.Marxists Internet Archive. p. 293. Quoted byAufheben.Archived18 March 2004 at theWayback Machine.

[Lenin_1921-15] Lenin, Vladimir (1921)."The Tax in Kind".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.

[Pena_2007-16] Pena, David S. (21 September 2007)."Tasks of Working-Class Governments under the Socialist-oriented Market Economy".Political Affairs.Archived5 September 2008 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 8 February 2020.

[McKay_2008-17] McKay, Iain, ed. (2008). "Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?".An Anarchist FAQ.Vol. I. Stirling: AK Press.ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6.OCLC 182529204.

[Schumpeter-18] Schumpeter, Joseph (2008) [1942].Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy.Harper Perennial. p. 169.ISBN 978-0-06-156161-0.But there are still others (concepts and institutions) which by virtue of their nature cannot stand transplantation and always carry the flavor of a particular institutional framework. It is extremely dangerous, in fact it amounts to a distortion of historical description, to use them beyond the social world or culture whose denizens they are. Now ownership or property – also, so I believe, taxation – are such denizens of the world of commercial society, exactly as knights and fiefs are denizens of the feudal world. But so is the state (a denizen of commercial society).

[AFAQ_H-19] McKay, Iain, ed. (2012). "Why do anarchists oppose state socialism?".An Anarchist FAQ.Vol. II. Edinburgh: AK Press.ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6.OCLC 182529204.

[AFAQ_I-20] McKay, Iain, ed. (2012). "What would an anarchist society look like?".An Anarchist FAQ.Vol. II. Edinburgh: AK Press.ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6.OCLC 182529204.

[marxists1989-21] Fleming, Richard Fleming (1989)."Lenin's Conception of Socialism: Learning from the early experiences of the world's first socialist revolution".Forward.9(1).Retrieved27 December2015.

[marxists293-22] Lenin Collected Works.27:293. Quoted byAufheben.Archived18 March 2004 at theWayback Machine.

[Barrett_1978-23] Barrett, William, ed. (1 April 1978)."Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy: A Symposium".Commentary.Retrieved 14 June 2020. "If we were to extend the definition of socialism to include Labor Britain or socialist Sweden, there would be no difficulty in refuting the connection between capitalism and democracy."

[Dissident_1991-24] Heilbroner, Robert L. (Winter 1991)."From Sweden to Socialism: A Small Symposium on Big Questions".Dissident.Barkan, Joanne; Brand, Horst; Cohen, Mitchell; Coser, Lewis; Denitch, Bogdan; Fehèr, Ferenc; Heller, Agnès; Horvat, Branko; Tyler, Gus. pp. 96–110. Retrieved 17 April 2020.

[Kendall_2011-25] Kendall, Diana (2011).Sociology in Our Time: The Essentials.Cengage Learning. pp. 125–127.ISBN 9781111305505."Sweden, Great Britain, and France havemixed economies,sometimes referred to as democratic socialism—an economic and political system that combines private ownership of some of the means of production, governmental distribution of some essential goods and services, and free elections. For example, government ownership in Sweden is limited primarily to railroads, mineral resources, a public bank, and liquor and tobacco operations. "

[Li_2015-26] Li, He (2015).Political Thought and China's Transformation: Ideas Shaping Reform in Post-Mao China.Springer. pp. 60–69.ISBN 9781137427816."The scholars in camp of democratic socialism believe that China should draw on the Sweden experience, which is suitable not only for the West but also for China. In the post-Mao China, the Chinese intellectuals are confronted with a variety of models. The liberals favor the American model and share the view that the Soviet model has become archaic and should be totally abandoned. Meanwhile, democratic socialism in Sweden provided an alternative model. Its sustained economic development and extensive welfare programs fascinated many. Numerous scholars within the democratic socialist camp argue that China should model itself politically and economically on Sweden, which is viewed as more genuinely socialist than China. There is a growing consensus among them that in the Nordic countries the welfare state has been extraordinarily successful in eliminating poverty."

[27] Jones, R. J. Barry (2002).Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy, Volume 3.Routledge. p. 1461.ISBN 9781136927393.

[Furtak,_Robert_K._1986-28] Furtak, Robert K. (1986).Political Systems of the Socialist States: An Introduction to Marxist-Leninist Regimes.New York: St. Martin's Press.ISBN 978-0745000480.

[29] Tompson, William J. (1997).Khrushchev: A Political Life.New York City: St. Martin's Press. p. 238.

[30] Morgan, W. John (2001). "Marxism–Leninism: The Ideology of Twentieth-Century Communism". In Wright, James D., ed.International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences(2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 657–662.

[31] Andrai, Charles F. (1994).Comparative Political Systems: Policy Performance and Social Change.Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. pp. 24–25.

[Dae-Kyu_2003_1289–1305-32] Dae-Kyu, Yoon (2003)."The Constitution of North Korea: Its Changes and Implications".Fordham International Law Journal.27(4): 1289–1305.Retrieved10 August2020.

[33] Seth, Michael J. (18 December 2019).A Concise History of Modern Korea: From the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 159.ISBN 9781538129050.

[34] Shin, Gi-wook (2006).Ethnic Nationalism in Korea: Genealogy, Politics, and Legacy.Stanford University Press.p. 94.ISBN 9780804754088.

[lee-35] Lee, Grace (Spring 2003))"The Political Philosophy of Juche".v.3, n.1.Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs.Quote: "The DPRK claims that juche is Kim Il Sung’s creative application of Marxist-Leninist principle to the modern political realities in North Korea."

[myers-36] Myers, Brian (January 2006)"The Watershed Speech that Wasn't: Re-evaluating Kim Il Sung's 'Juche Speech" of 1955 ",v.9, n.1Acta Koreana.Quote: "A close reading of the text [of the speech] reveals... that the speech does not re-interpret Marxism-Leninism... In fact, it neither deviates from the Marxism-Leninism of its day nor does it exceed levels of patriotism that were then considered acceptable throughout the East Bloc."

[looking-37] Oh, Kongdan Oh and Hassig, Ralph C. (2000)North Korea Through the Looking Glass.Chapter 2: "The Power and Poverty of Ideology"p.13. Washington, DC.: Brookings Institution Press.ISBN 0815764359.Quote: "Even though Marx's predictions have fallen wide of the mark, Marxism-Leninism remains a cornerstone of North Korean ideology."

[freemediaproductions.info-38] "Juche is Third Position ideology built on Marx – Not Marxist-Leninism".Free Media Productions – Editorials. 30 August 2009.Retrieved25 December2015.

[39] "VN Embassy – Constitution of 1992".Archived9 July 2011 at theWayback MachineFrom the Preamble: "On 2 July 1976, the National Assembly of reunified Vietnam decided to change the country's name to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam; the country entered a period of transition to socialism, strove for national construction, and unyieldingly defended its frontiers while fulfilling its internationalist duty."

[40] "Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1992".Cubanet.Archived9 July 2011 at theWayback MachineFrom Article 5: "The Communist Party of Cuba, a follower of Martí's ideas and of Marxism–Leninism, and the organized vanguard of the Cuban nation, is the highest leading force of society and of the state, which organizes and guides the common effort toward the goals of the construction of socialism and the progress toward a communist society".

[41] Reuters (22 July 2018)."Cuba ditches aim of building communism from draft constitution".The Guardian.Retrieved 5 August 2020.

[42] The"Preamble to the 1976 Constitution of Portugal"stated: "The Constituent Assembly affirms the Portuguese people's decision to defend their national independence, safeguard the fundamental rights of citizens, establish the basic principles of democracy, secure the primacy of the rule of law in a democratic state, and open the way to socialist society."

[43] "Slovenia 1991 (Rev. 2016) Constitution - Constitute".

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[45] Tschentscher, Axel."Hungary Index".Servat.unibe.ch.Retrieved27 December2019.

[46] Tschentscher, Axel."Poland – Constitution".Servat.unibe.ch.Retrieved27 December2019.Article 13: Political parties and other organizations whose programmes are based upon totalitarian methods and the modes of activity of nazism, fascism and communism, as well as those whose programmes or activities sanction racial or national hatred, the application of violence for the purpose of obtaining power or to influence the State policy, or provide for the secrecy of their own structure or membership, shall be forbidden.

[47] The Preamble of the Constitution of India reads: "We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic [...]". SeePreamble to the Constitution of India.

[48] "Hungary 2011 (Rev. 2016) Constitution - Constitute".

[49] Wall, Derek (25 August 2014)."Rojava: a beacon of hope fighting Isis".Morning Star.Archived fromthe originalon 5 January 2016.Retrieved25 December2015.

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[51] Crosland, Anthony (2006) [1952].The Future of Socialism.Constable. pp. 9, 89.ISBN 978-1845294854.

[52] Bevan, Aneurin (1952).In Place of Fear.New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 106.

[Batson_2017-53] Batson, Andrew (March 2017)."The State of the State Sector"(PDF).Gavekal Dragonomics.Retrieved8 December2018.Even in the statist 1960s–70s, SOEs in France and the UK did not account for more than 15–20% of capital formation; in the 1980s the developed-nation average was around 8%, and it dropped below 5% in the 1990s.

[54] Cobham, David (November 1984). "The Nationalisation of the Banks in Mitterand's France: Rationalisations and Reasons". Journal of Public Policy. 4 (4).JSTOR 3998375.

[55] Cohen, Paul (Winter 2010)."Lessons from the Nationalization Nation: State-Owned Enterprises in France".Dissident.Retrieved 17 April 2020.

[56] Morley, James W. (1993).Driven by Growth: Political Change in the Asia-Pacific Region.Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe.

[57] Kerr, Roger (9 December 1999)."Optimism for the New Millennium".Rotary Club of Wellington North. Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2006.Retrieved10 May2006.

[58] Åslund, Anders (2009).How Ukraine Became a Market Economy and Democracy.Peterson Institute. p. 12.ISBN 9780881325461.

[59] Minahan, James (2013).Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States.Routledge. p. 296.ISBN 9781135940102.

[60] Tunçer-Kılavuz, Idil (2014).Power, Networks and Violent Conflict in Central Asia: A Comparison of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.Routledge advances in Central Asian studies. Vol. 5. Routledge. p. 53.ISBN 9781317805113.

[61] Khabtagaeva, Bayarma (2009).Mongolic Elements in Tuvan.Turcologica Series. Vol. 81. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 21.ISBN 9783447060950.

[62] Macdonald, Fiona; Stacey, Gillian; Steele, Philip (2004).Peoples of Eastern Asia.Vol. 8: Mongolia–Nepal. Marshall Cavendish. p. 413.ISBN 9780761475477.

[63] Gjevori, Elvin (2018).Democratisation and Institutional Reform in Albania.Springer. p. 21.ISBN 9783319730714.

[64] Stankova, Marietta (2014).Bulgaria in British Foreign Policy, 1943–1949.Anthem Series on Russian, East European and Eurasian Studies. Anthem Press. p. 148.ISBN 9781783082353.

[65] Müller-Rommel, Ferdinand; Mansfeldová, Zdenka (2001). "Chapter 5: Czech Republic". In Blondel, Jean; Müller-Rommel, Ferdinand (eds.).Cabinets in Eastern Europe.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 62.doi:10.1057/9781403905215_6.ISBN 978-1-349-41148-1.

[66] Hajdú, József (2011).Labour Law in Hungary.Kluwer Law International. p. 27.ISBN 9789041137920.

[67] Frankowski, Stanisław; Stephan, Paul B. (1995).Legal Reform in Post-Communist Europe: The View from Within.Martinus Nijhoff. p. 23.ISBN 9780792332183.

[68] Paquette, Laure (2001).NATO and Eastern Europe After 2000: Strategic Interactions with Poland, the Czech Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria.Nova. p. 55.ISBN 9781560729693.

[69] Lampe, John R. (2000).Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country.Cambridge University Press. p. 233.ISBN 9780521774017.

[70] "The Chinese Revolution of 1949".Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs.United States Department of State.

[71] Kihl, Young Whan; Kim, Hong Nack (2014).North Korea: The Politics of Regime Survival.Routledge. p. 8.ISBN 9781317463764.

[72] Webb, Adrian (2008).The Routledge Companion to Central and Eastern Europe Since 1919.Routledge Companions to History. Routledge. pp. 80, 88.ISBN 9781134065219.

[73] Da Graça, John V (2000).Heads of State and Government(2nd ed.). St. Martin's Press. p. 56.ISBN 978-1-56159-269-2.

[74] Atkins, C. J. (1 April 2009)."The Problem of Transition: Development, Socialism and Lenin's NEP".Political Affairs.Retrieved 30 July 2009.

[75] Nation, R. Craig (1992).Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917–1991.Cornell University Press. pp.85–6.ISBN 978-0801480072.Retrieved19 December2014.

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[77] Engels, Friedrich (1962). Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus bein ZK der SED (ed.).Die Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe.Karl Marx-Friedrich Engels: Welke (in German). Vol. 21. Berlin: Dietz Verlag.

[78] Engels, Friedrich (1880)."The Development of Utopian Socialism".Socialism: Utopian and Scientific.Marxists.org.Retrieved12 January2016.In 1816, he declares that politics is the science of production, and foretells the complete absorption of politics by economics. The knowledge that economic conditions are the basis of political institutions appears here only in embryo. Yet what is here already very plainly expressed is the idea of the future conversion of political rule over men into an administration of things and a direction of processes of production.

[79] "Henri de Saint-Simon".Encyclopædia Britannica Online.Retrieved 27 December 2019.

[80] "Socialism".Encyclopædia Britannica Online.Retrieved 27 December 2019.

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[84] Van Den Berg, Axel (2018) [1988].The Immanent Utopia: From Marxism on the State to the State of Marxism.Transaction Publishers. p. 71.ISBN 9781412837330.

[85] Engels, Friedrich (1891)."On the 20th Anniversary of the Paris Commune".In Marx, Karl (1871).The Civil War in France.Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.

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[87] Steger, Manfred(1996).Selected Writings Of Eduard Bernstein, 1920–1921.New Jersey: Humanities Press.

[auto-88] Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1848).The Communist Manifesto."Chapter I. Bourgeois and Proletarians".Marxists Internert Archive. Retrieved 30 December 2019.

[89] Lenin, Vladimir (1917).The State and Revolution.p. 70. cf. "Chapter V, The economic basis for the withering away of the state".

[90] Freeden, Michael; Sargent, Lyman Tower; Stears, Marc, eds. (15 August 2013).The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 371.ISBN 9780199585977.

[91] Trotsky, Leon (1935)."The Workers' State, Thermidor and Bonapartism".New International.2(4): 116–122. "Trotsky argues that the Soviet Union was, at that time, a" deformed workers' state "or degenerated workers' state, and not a socialist republic or state, because the" bureaucracy wrested the power from the hands of mass organizations, "thereby necessitating only political revolution rather than a completely new social revolution, for workers' political control (i.e. state democracy) to be reclaimed. He argued that it remained, at base, a workers' state because the capitalists and landlords had been expropriated". Retrieved 27 December 2019.

[92] William Morris (17 May 1890)."The 'Eight Hours' and the Demonstration".Commonweal.6(227). p. 153. Retrieved 4 November 2019.

[93] Screpanti, Ernesto; Zamagni, Stefano (2005).An Outline on the History of Economic Thought(2nd ed.). Oxford. p. 295.It should not be forgotten, however, that in the period of the Second International, some of the reformist currents of Marxism, as well as some of the extreme left-wing ones, not to speak of the anarchist groups, had already criticised the view that State ownership and central planning is the best road to socialism. But with the victory of Leninism in Russia, all dissent was silenced, and socialism became identified with 'democratic centralism', 'central planning', and State ownership of the means of production.

[94] Lenin, Vladimir (1921)."The Tax in Kind".

[95] Pena, David S. (21 September 2007)."Tasks of Working-Class Governments under the Socialist-oriented Market Economy".Political Affairs.Archived5 September 2008 at theWayback Machine.

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[102] Piccone, Paul (1983).Italian Marxism.University of California Press.p. 134.

[103] Lenin, Vladimir (1917).The State and Revolution."Chapther 5".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 27 December 2019.

[104] Steele, David (1992).From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation.Open Court Publishing Company. pp. 44–45.ISBN 978-0-87548-449-5.By 1888, the term 'socialism' was in general use among Marxists, who had dropped 'communism', now considered an old fashioned term meaning the same as 'socialism'. [...] At the turn of the century, Marxists called themselves socialists. [...] The definition of socialism and communism as successive stages was introduced into Marxist theory by Lenin in 1917 [...], the new distinction was helpful to Lenin in defending his party against the traditional Marxist criticism that Russia was too backward for a socialist revolution.

[105] Hudis, Peter; Vidal, Matt, Smith, Tony; Rotta, Tomás; Prew, Paul, eds. (September 2018 – June 2019).The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx."Marx's Concept of Socialism".Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0190695545.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190695545.001.0001.

[106] Marx, Karl (1875).Critique of the Gotha Program."Part I".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 8 February 2020.

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[109] Bockman, Johanna (2011).Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism.Stanford University Press. p. 20.ISBN 978-0-8047-7566-3.According to nineteenth-century socialist views, socialism would function without capitalist economic categories, such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent. Rather, it would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognized the need for money and prices (at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism), socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilize the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money.

[110] Reinalda, Bob (2009).Routledge History of International Organizations: From 1815 to the Present Day.Routledge. p. 765.ISBN 9781134024056.

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[112] Smith, S. A. (2014).The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism.Oxford University Press. p. 126.ISBN 9780191667527.The 1936 Constitution described the Soviet Union for the first time as a 'socialist society', rhetorically fulfilling the aim of building socialism in one country, as Stalin had promised.

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[114] Ramana, R. (June 1983). "Reviewed Work: China's Socialist Economy byXue Muqiao".Social Scientist.11(6): 68–74.doi:10.2307/3516910.JSTOR 3516910.

[115] McCarthy, Greg (1985). Brugger, Bill (ed.).Chinese Marxism in Flux, 1978–1984: Essays on Epistemology, Ideology, and Political Economy.M. E. Sharpe. pp. 142–143.ISBN 0873323238.

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[117] Pollock, Ethan (2006).Stalin and the Soviet Science Wars.Princeton University Press. p. 210.ISBN 9780691124674.

[118] Mommen, André (2011).Stalin's Economist: The Economic Contributions of Jenö Varga.Routledge. pp. 203–213.ISBN 9781136793455.

[119] Lenin, Vladimir (21 April 1921)."The Tax in Kind".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 10 February 2020. "No one, I think, in studying the question of the economic system of Russia, has denied its transitional character. Nor, I think, has any Communist denied that the term Soviet Socialist Republic implies the determination of the Soviet power to achieve the transition to socialism, and not that the existing economic system is recognised as a socialist order."

[120] Lenin, Vladimir (June 1920)."Left-Wing" Communism: An Infantile Disorder."Contents".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 10 February 2020.

[121] Lenin, Vladimir (29 April 1918)."Session of the All-Russia C.E.C."Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 10 February 2020. "Reality tells us that state capitalism would be a step forward. If in a small space of time we could achieve state capitalism in Russia, that would be a victory."

[122] Lenin, Vladimir (21 April 1921)."The Tax in Kind".Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 10 February 2020. "State capitalism would be a step forward as compared with the present state of affairs in our Soviet Republic. If in approximately six months' time state capitalism became established in our Republic, this would be a great success and a sure guarantee that within a year socialism will have gained a permanently firm hold and will have become invincible in this country."

[123] Serge, Victor (1937).From Lenin to Stalin.New York: Pioneer Publishers. p. 55.

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