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Soil contamination,soil pollution,orland pollutionas a part ofland degradationis caused by the presence ofxenobiotic(human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal ofwaste.The most common chemicals involved arepetroleumhydrocarbons,polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons(such as naphthalene andbenzo(a)pyrene),solvents,pesticides,lead,and otherheavy metals.Contamination is correlated with the degree ofindustrializationand intensity of chemical substance. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapour from the contaminants, or from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil.[1]Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting clean ups aretime-consumingand expensive tasks, and require expertise ingeology,hydrology,chemistry,computer modelling,andGIS in Environmental Contamination,as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.[2]

InNorth AmericaandWestern Europethe extent ofcontaminated landis best known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem. Developing countries tend to be less tightly regulated despite some of them having undergone significantindustrialization.

Causes

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Soil pollution can be caused by the following (non-exhaustive list):

The most common chemicals involved arepetroleumhydrocarbons,solvents,pesticides,lead,and otherheavy metals.

Any activity that leads to other forms ofsoil degradation(erosion,compaction,etc.) may indirectly worsen the contamination effects in thatsoil remediationbecomes more tedious.

E-waste processing inAgbogbloshie,Ghana. Improper disposal of manufactured goods and industrial wastes, often means that communities in the global south have to process goods. Especially without proper protections, heavy metals and other contaminates can seep into the soil, and createwater pollutionandair pollution.

Historical deposition ofcoal ashused for residential, commercial, and industrial heating, as well as for industrial processes such asore smelting,were a common source of contamination in areas that wereindustrializedbefore about 1960. Coal naturally concentrates lead and zinc during its formation, as well as other heavy metals to a lesser degree. When the coal is burned, most of these metals become concentrated in the ash (the principal exception being mercury). Coal ash andslagmay contain sufficient lead to qualify as a "characteristichazardous waste",defined in the US as containing more than 5 mg/L of extractable lead using theTCLPprocedure. In addition to lead, coal ash typically contains variable but significant concentrations ofpolynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs; e.g., benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(cd)pyrene, phenanthrene, anthracene, and others). These PAHs are known humancarcinogensand the acceptable concentrations of them in soil are typically around 1 mg/kg. Coal ash and slag can be recognised by the presence of off-white grains in soil, gray heterogeneous soil, or (coal slag) bubbly, vesicular pebble-sized grains.

Treatedsewage sludge,known in the industry asbiosolids,has becomecontroversialas a "fertilizer".As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains more contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil.[3]

In the European Union, theUrban Waste Water Treatment Directiveallows sewage sludge to be sprayed onto land. The volume is expected to double to 185,000 tons of dry solids in 2005. This has good agricultural properties due to the highnitrogenandphosphatecontent. In 1990/1991, 13% wet weight was sprayed onto 0.13% of the land; however, this is expected to rise 15 fold by 2005.[needs update]Advocates[who?]say there is a need to control this so thatpathogenicmicroorganismsdo not get into water courses and to ensure that there is no accumulation ofheavy metalsin the top soil.[4]

Pesticides and herbicides

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Apesticideis a substance used to kill a pest. A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other organisms.[5][6]

Herbicidesare used to kill weeds, especially on pavements and railways. They are similar to auxins and most are biodegradable by soil bacteria. However, one group derived fromtrinitrotoluene(2:4 D and 2:4:5 T) have the impurity dioxin, which is very toxic and causes fatality even in low concentrations. Another herbicide isParaquat.It is highly toxic but it rapidly degrades in soil due to the action of bacteria and does not kill soil fauna.[7]

Insecticides are used to rid farms of pests which damage crops. The insects damage not only standing crops but also stored ones and in the tropics it is reckoned that one third of the total production is lost during food storage. As withfungicides,the first insecticides used in the nineteenth century were inorganic e.g.Paris Greenand other compounds ofarsenic.Nicotine has also been used since 1690.[8]

There are now two main groups of synthetic insecticides:

1.OrganochlorinesincludeDDT,Aldrin,Dieldrinand BHC. They are cheap to produce, potent and persistent. DDT was used on a massive scale from the 1930s, with a peak of 72,000 tonnes used 1970. Then usage fell as the harmfulenvironmental effectswere realized. It was found worldwide in fish and birds and was even discovered in the snow in theAntarctic.It is only slightly soluble in water but is very soluble in the bloodstream. It affects the nervous and endocrine systems and causes the eggshells of birds to lack calcium causing them to be easily breakable. It is thought to be responsible for the decline of the numbers of birds of prey likeospreysandperegrine falconsin the 1950s – they are now recovering.[9]As well as increased concentration via the food chain, it is known to enter via permeable membranes, so fish get it through their gills. As it has low water solubility, it tends to stay at the water surface, so organisms that live there are most affected. DDT found in fish that formed part of the human food chain caused concern, but the levels found in the liver, kidney and brain tissues was less than 1 ppm and in fat was 10 ppm, which was below the level likely to cause harm. However, DDT was banned in the UK and the United States to stop the further buildup of it in the food chain. U.S. manufacturers continued to sell DDT to developing countries, who could not afford the expensive replacement chemicals and who did not have such stringent regulations governing the use of pesticides.[10]

2.Organophosphates,e.g.parathion,methyl parathion and about 40 other insecticides are available nationally. Parathion is highly toxic, methyl-parathion is less so andMalathionis generally considered safe as it has low toxicity and is rapidly broken down in the mammalian liver. This group works by preventing normal nerve transmission as cholinesterase is prevented from breaking down the transmitter substance acetylcholine, resulting in uncontrolled muscle movements.[11]

Agents of war

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The disposal of munitions, and a lack of care in manufacture of munitions caused by the urgency of production, can contaminate soil for extended periods. There is little published evidence on this type of contamination largely because of restrictions placed by governments of many countries on the publication of material related to war effort. However,mustard gasstored during World War II has contaminated some sites for up to 50 years[12]and the testing ofAnthraxas a potentialbiological weaponcontaminated the whole island ofGruinard.[13]

Human health

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Exposure pathways

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Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation of soil contaminants that have vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into groundwateraquifersused for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparent source of above-ground contamination. Toxic metals can also make their way up the food chain through plants that reside in soils containing high concentrations of heavy metals.[14]This tends to result in the development ofpollution-related diseases.

Most exposure is accidental, and exposure can happen through:[15]

  • Ingesting dust or soil directly
  • Ingesting food or vegetables grown in contaminated soil or with foods in contact with contaminants
  • Skin contact with dust or soil
  • Vapors from the soil
  • Inhaling clouds of dust while working in soils or windy environments

However, some studies estimate that 90% of exposure is through eating contaminated food.[15]

Consequences

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Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, the pathway of attack, and the vulnerability of the exposed population. Researchers suggest that pesticides and heavy metals in soil may harm cardiovascular health, including inflammation and change in the body's internal clock.[16]

Chronic exposure tochromium,lead,and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can causecongenital disorders,or can cause other chronic health conditions. Industrial or human-made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such asnitrateandammoniaassociated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified ashealth hazardsin soil and groundwater.[citation needed]

Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with a higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury andcyclodienesare known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage and some irreversible diseases. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity.Organophosphatesandcarbonatescan cause a chain of responses leading toneuromuscular blockage.Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes, and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants ingroundwater contaminatedthrough soil.[citation needed]

TheScottish Governmenthas commissioned theInstitute of Occupational Medicineto undertake a review of methods to assess risk to human health from contaminated land. The overall aim of the project is to work up guidance that should be useful to Scottish Local Authorities in assessing whether sites represent a significant possibility of significant harm (SPOSH) to human health. It is envisaged that the output of the project will be a short document providing high level guidance on health risk assessment with reference to existing published guidance and methodologies that have been identified as being particularly relevant and helpful. The project will examine how policy guidelines have been developed for determining the acceptability of risks to human health and propose an approach for assessing what constitutes unacceptable risk in line with the criteria for SPOSH as defined in the legislation and the Scottish Statutory Guidance.[citation needed]

Ecosystem effects

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This area is contaminated with stagnant water and refuse, making the environment unhygienic.

Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems.[17]There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration ofmetabolismof endemicmicroorganismsandarthropodsresident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn could have major consequences forpredatoror consumer species. Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of thefood chainmay ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chickmortalityand potential extinction of species.[18]

Effects occur toagriculturallands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, often causing a reduction in crop yields. This has a secondary effect uponsoil conservation,since the languishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil fromerosion.Some of these chemical contaminants have longhalf-livesand in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.[19]

Potential effects of contaminants to soil functions

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Heavy metals and other soil contaminants can adversely affect the activity, species composition and abundance of soil microorganisms, thereby threatening soil functions such as biochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen.[20]However, soil contaminants can also become less bioavailable by time, and microorganisms and ecosystems can adapt to altered conditions. Soil properties such as pH, organic matter content and texture are very important and modify mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of pollutants in contaminated soils.[21]The same amount of contaminant can be toxic in one soil but totally harmless in another soil. This stresses the need for soil-specific risks assessment and measures.

Cleanup options

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Cleanup orenvironmental remediationis analyzed byenvironmental scientistswho utilize field measurement ofsoil chemicalsand also applycomputer models(GIS in Environmental Contamination) for analyzing transport[22]and fate of soil chemicals. Various technologies have been developed for remediation of oil-contaminated soil and sediments[23]There are several principal strategies for remediation:

  • Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging ofbay mudscontaining toxins.
  • Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creatingair pollution)
  • Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently high to volatilize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapor extraction. Technologies include ISTD,electrical resistance heating (ERH),and ET-DSP.
  • Bioremediation,involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniques used in bioremediation includelandfarming,biostimulationandbioaugmentatingsoil biotawith commercially available microflora.
  • Extraction ofgroundwateror soilvaporwith an activeelectromechanicalsystem, with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract.
  • Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).
  • Phytoremediation,or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals.
  • Mycoremediation,or usingfungusto metabolize contaminants and accumulate heavy metals.
  • Remediation of oil contaminated sediments with self-collapsing airmicrobubbles.[24]
  • Surfactant leaching
  • Interfacial solar evaporation to extract heavy metal ions from moist soil[25]

By country

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Various national standards for concentrations of particular contaminants include the United States EPA Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (U.S. PRGs), the U.S. EPA Region 3 Risk Based Concentrations (U.S. EPA RBCs) and National Environment Protection Council of Australia Guideline on Investigation Levels in Soil and Groundwater.

People's Republic of China

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The immense and sustained growth of thePeople's Republic of Chinasince the 1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. TheMinistry of Ecology and Environmentbelieves it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific sampling, 150 millionmu(100,000 square kilometres) of China's cultivated land have been polluted, withcontaminated waterbeing used to irrigate a further 32.5 million mu (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mu (1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of China's cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billionyuan($2.57 billionUSD).[26]Recent survey shows that 19% of the agricultural soils are contaminated which contains heavy metals and metalloids. And the rate of these heavy metals in the soil has been increased dramatically.[27]

European Union

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According to the received data from Member states, in theEuropean Unionthe number of estimated potential contaminated sites is more than 2.5 million[28]and the identified contaminated sites around 342 thousand. Municipal and industrial wastes contribute most to soil contamination (38%), followed by the industrial/commercial sector (34%). Mineral oil and heavy metals are the main contaminants contributing around 60% to soil contamination. In terms of budget, the management of contaminated sites is estimated to cost around 6 billionEuros(€) annually.[28]

United Kingdom

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Generic guidance commonly used in theUnited Kingdomare the Soil Guideline Values published by theDepartment for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs(DEFRA) and theEnvironment Agency.These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal acceptable level of a substance. Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk of harm to human health. These have been derived using the Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment Model (CLEA UK). Certain input parameters such as Health Criteria Values, age and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probabilistic output.[29]

Guidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL)[30]has been formally withdrawn byDEFRA,for use as a prescriptive document to determine the potential need for remediation or further assessment.

The CLEA model published by DEFRA and theEnvironment Agency(EA) in March 2002 sets a framework for the appropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as required by Part IIA of theEnvironmental Protection Act 1990.As part of this framework, genericSoil Guideline Values (SGVs)have currently been derived for ten contaminants to be used as "intervention values".[31]These values should not be considered as remedial targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be considered; seeDutch standards.

Three sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses, namely

  • residential (with and without plant uptake)
  • allotments
  • commercial/industrial

It is intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values. The CLEA SGVs relate to assessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the protection of ground workers during construction, or other potential receptors such as groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems. The CLEA SGVs are not directly applicable to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no direct exposure route to contaminated soils.[32]

To date, the first ten of fifty-five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following: arsenic,cadmium,chromium, lead, inorganic mercury, nickel, selenium ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene. Draft SGVs for benzene, naphthalene and xylene have been produced but their publication is on hold. Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these contaminants as well as for benzo[a]pyrene, benzene, dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs, naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1,1,2,2 tetrachloroethane and 1,1,1,2 tetrachloroethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,2-dichloroethane, trichloroethene and xylene. The SGVs for ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene are dependent on thesoil organic matter(SOM) content (which can be calculated from the total organic carbon (TOC) content). As an initial screen the SGVs for 1% SOM are considered to be appropriate.[33]

Canada

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As of February 2021, there are a total of 2,500 plus contaminated sites inCanada.[34]One infamous contaminated sited is located near a nickel-copper smelting site in Sudbury,Ontario.A study investigating the heavy metal pollution in the vicinity of the smelter reveals that elevated levels of nickel and copper were found in the soil; values going as high as 5,104ppmNi,and 2,892 ppmCuwithin a 1.1 km range of the smelter location. Other metals were also found in the soil; such metals include iron, cobalt, and silver. Furthermore, upon examining the different vegetation surrounding the smelter it was evident that they too had been affected; the results show that the plants contained nickel, copper and aluminium as a result of soil contamination.[35]

Further information:Pollution in Canada § Soil pollution

India

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In March 2009, the issue ofuranium poisoning in Punjabattracted press coverage. It was alleged to be caused byfly ashponds ofthermal powerstations, which reportedly lead to severe birth defects in children in theFaridkotandBhatindadistricts ofPunjab.The news reports claimed the uranium levels were more than 60 times the maximum safe limit.[36][37]In 2012, the Government of India confirmed[38]that the ground water in Malwa belt of Punjab has uranium metal that is 50% above the trace limits set by the United Nations'World Health Organization(WHO). Scientific studies, based on over 1000 samples from various sampling points, could not trace the source to fly ash and any sources from thermal power plants or industry as originally alleged. The study also revealed that the uranium concentration in ground water of Malwa district is not 60 times the WHO limits, but only 50% above the WHO limit in 3 locations. This highest concentration found in samples was less than those found naturally in ground waters currently used for human purposes elsewhere, such asFinland.[39]Research is underway to identify natural or other sources for the uranium.

See also

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References

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  5. ^MedlinePlus Encyclopedia:Pesticides
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  7. ^MedlinePlus Encyclopedia:Paraquat poisoning
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  25. ^Wu, Pan; Wu, Xuan; Xu, Haolan; Owens, Gary (2021-09-05)."Interfacial solar evaporation driven lead removal from a contaminated soil".EcoMat.3(5).doi:10.1002/eom2.12140.S2CID239680091.
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  27. ^Zhao, Fang-Jie; Ma, Yibing; Zhu, Yong-Guan; Tang, Zhong; McGrath, Steve P. (20 January 2015). "Soil Contamination in China: Current Status and Mitigation Strategies".Environmental Science & Technology.49(2): 750–759.Bibcode:2015EnST...49..750Z.doi:10.1021/es5047099.PMID25514502.
  28. ^abPanagos, Panos; Liedekerke, Marc Van; Yigini, Yusuf; Montanarella, Luca (2013)."Contaminated Sites in Europe: Review of the Current Situation Based on Data Collected through a European Network".Journal of Environmental and Public Health.2013:158764.doi:10.1155/2013/158764.PMC3697397.PMID23843802.
  29. ^Jannik, T.; Stagich, B. (25 May 2017). Land and Water Use Characteristics and Human Health Input Parameters for use in Environmental Dosimetry and Risk Assessments at the Savannah River Site 2017 Update (Report).doi:10.2172/1365658.
  30. ^"www.ContaminatedLAND.co.uk - ICRCL 59/83 Trigger Concentrations".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-10-09.Retrieved2016-05-04.
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  33. ^Sun, Yiming; Wang, Jicai; Guo, Guanlin; Li, Hong; Jones, Kevin (January 2020). "A comprehensive comparison and analysis of soil screening values derived and used in China and the UK".Environmental Pollution.256:113404.Bibcode:2020EPoll.25613404S.doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113404.PMID31735398.
  34. ^"Federal Contaminated Sites Inventory: Find Sites by Province or Territory".Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat.January 1994.
  35. ^Hutchinson, T. C.; Whitby, L. M. (1974). "Heavy-metal Pollution in the Sudbury Mining and Smelting Region of Canada, I. Soil and Vegetation Contamination by Nickel, Copper, and Other Metals".Environmental Conservation.1(2): 123–132.Bibcode:1974EnvCo...1..123H.doi:10.1017/S0376892900004240.S2CID86686979.
  36. ^Yadav, Priya (2 April 2009)."Uranium deforms kids in Faridkot".The Times of India.
  37. ^Jolly, Asit (2 April 2009)."Punjab disability 'uranium link'".BBC News.
  38. ^Uranium in Ground WaterMinistry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India (2012)
  39. ^Atomic Energy Report – Malwa Punjab Uranium Q&AArchived2014-02-28 at theWayback MachineLok Sabha, Government of India (2012)

Further reading

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