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Somali nationalism

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Somali nationalism(Somali:Soomaalinimo) is a nationalist ideology advocating for the unification of allSomali peoplewho share a common ethnicity, language, and culture, under a single banner. Its earliest manifestations has its roots in theMiddle Ageswith theAdal Sultanateand theAjuran Sultanatewhilst in the contemporary era its often traced back to theSomali Youth League,a political organisation founded in 1943.[1]The Somali Youth League became one of the most influential political parties inSomaliaprior to independence.[2]The Somali guerilla militiaAl-Shababis also noteworthy for incorporating Somali nationalism into itsIslamistideology.[3][4]

History[edit]

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Prehistory
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Early Somali nationalism developed in the beginning of the 20th century with the concept of "Greater Somalia"that encompassed a theme,Somalisare a nation with a distinct identity and wanted to unite inhabited areas ofSomali clans.Pan-Somalismrefers to the vision of reunifying these areas to form a single Somali nation. The pursuit of this goal has led to conflict:Somaliaengaged afterWorld War IIin theOgaden WarwithEthiopiaover theOgaden region,and supported SomaliinsurgentsagainstKenya.

Prehistory[edit]

Somalia has been inhabited since at least thePaleolithic.During theStone Age,the Doian andHargeisancultures flourished here.[5]The oldest evidence of burial customs in theHorn of Africacomes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE.[6]The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artefacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West.[7]

According to linguists, the firstAfroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuingNeolithicperiod from the family's proposedurheimat( "original homeland" ) in theNile Valley,[8]or theNear East.[9]

TheLaas Geelcomplex on the outskirts ofHargeisainSomalilanddates back around 5,000 years, and hasrock artdepicting both wild animals and decorated cows.[10]Othercave paintingsare found in the northernDhambalinregion, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the distinctiveEthiopian-Arabianstyle, dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE.[11][12]Additionally, between the towns ofLas KhoreyandEl Ayoin Somaliland liesKarinhegane,the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.[13][14]

Antiquity and classical era[edit]

Main article:Somali Architecture
TheSilk Roadextending from China to southern Europe, Arabia, Somalia, Egypt, Persia, India, and Java

Ancient pyramidical structures, mausoleums, ruined cities and stone walls, such as theWargaade Wall,are evidence of an old civilization that once thrived in theSomali peninsula.[15][16]This civilization enjoyed a trading relationship withAncient EgyptandMycenaean Greecesince the second millennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions were the location of the ancientLand of Punt.[15][17]The Puntites tradedmyrrh,spices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory andfrankincensewith the Egyptians,Phoenicians,Babylonians,Indians,ChineseandRomansthrough their commercial ports. AnEgyptianexpedition sent toPuntby the 18th dynasty QueenHatshepsutis recorded on the temple reliefs atDeir el-Bahari,during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati.[15]

Queen Ati, wife of King Perahu of Punt, depicted on PharaohHatshepsut's temple atDeir el-Bahri.

The one-humped camel or dromedary is believed to have been domesticated between the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, possibly in Somalia.[18]In the classical period, the city-states ofMosylon,Opone,Mundus,Isis,Malao,Avalites,Essina,NikonandTabaedeveloped a lucrative trade network connecting with merchants from Phoenicia,Ptolemaic Egypt,Greece,Parthian Persia,Saba,Nabataea,and theRoman Empire.They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as thebedento transport their cargo.

After theRoman conquest of the Nabataean Empireand theRoman navalpresence atAdento curb piracy, Arab and Somali merchants agreed with the Romans to bar Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of theArabian peninsula[19]to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the lucrative commerce between theRedandMediterraneanSeas.[20]However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from Roman interference.[21]

For centuries, Indian merchants brought large quantities of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia fromCeylonand theSpice Islands.The source of the cinnamon and other spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with the Roman andGreekworld; the Romans and Greeks believed the source to have been the Somali peninsula.[22]The collusive agreement among Somali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon in North Africa, theNear East,andEurope,and made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across sea and land routes.[20]

Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages[edit]

Main articles:Somali aristocratic and court titles,Ifat Sultanate,Walashma dynasty,Sultanate of Mogadishu,Adal Sultanate,andAjuran Sultanate

Islamwas introduced to the area early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after thehijra.Zeila's two-mihrabMasjid al-Qiblatayndates to the 7th century, and is the oldestmosquein the city.[23]In the late 9th century,Al-Yaqubiwrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.[24]He also mentioned that theAdal kingdomhad its capital in the city,[24][25]suggesting that theAdal SultanatewithZeilaas its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th centuries. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting ofSomalizedArabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly establishedSultanate of Mogadishuin theBenadirregion to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouringAbyssinia.[25]At its height, the Adal kingdom controlled large parts of modern-day Somaliland, Ethiopia,Djibouti,andEritrea.

TheSultanate of Mogadishu's medievalcurrency.

In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was slain in a military campaign aimed at haltingAbyssinian emperorAmda Seyon I's march toward the city.[26]When the lastSultan of Ifat,Sa'ad ad-Din II,was also killed by EmperorDawit Iin Zeila in 1410, his children escaped toYemen,before returning in 1415.[27]In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town ofDakkar,whereSabr ad-Din II,the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.[28][29]

Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time southward toHarar.From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by ImamAhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi(Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran"; both meaning "the left-handed" ) that invaded the Abyssinian empire.[29]This 16th-century campaign is historically known as theConquest of Abyssinia(Futuh al-Habash). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by theOttoman Empire,which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and theirPortugueseallies led byCristóvão da Gama.[30]Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of firearms such as thematchlockmusket,cannon, and thearquebusover traditional weapons.[31]

Somali merchants from Mogadishu established a colony inMozambiqueto extract gold from the mines inSofala.[32]

During theAjuran period,the sultanates and republics ofMerca,Mogadishu,Barawa,Hobyoand their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce, with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India,Venetia,[33]Persia,Egypt, Portugal, and as far away as China.Vasco da Gama,who passed byMogadishuin the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses several storeys high and large palaces in its centre, in addition to many mosques with cylindrical minarets.[34]

In the 16th century,Duarte Barbosanoted that many ships from theKingdom of Cambayain modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.[35]Mogadishu, the center of a thriving textile industry known astoob benadir(specialized for the markets in Egypt, among other places[36]), together withMercaandBarawa,also served as a transit stop forSwahilimerchants fromMombasaandMalindiand for the gold trade fromKilwa.[37]Jewishmerchants from theHormuzbrought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange forgrainand wood.[38]

Trading relations were established withMalaccain the 15th century,[39]with cloth, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade.[40]Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to theMing Empire of China,which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between theAsiaandAfrica[41]and influenced theChinese languagewith theSomali languagein the process.[citation needed]Hindumerchants fromSuratandSoutheast Africanmerchants fromPate,seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade andOmaniinterference, used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.[42]

Early Modern Era and the Scramble for Africa[edit]

Main articles:Geledi sultanate,Majeerteen Sultanate,Sultanate of Hobyo,andDervish movement (Somali)

In theearly modernperiod, successor states of theAdal,AjuranandHiraab Imamate,Hiraabbegan to flourish in Somalia. These included the Warsangali Sultanate, theBari Dynasties,theSultanate of Geledi(Gobroon dynasty), theMajeerteen Sultanate(Migiurtinia), and theSultanate of Hobyo(Obbia). They continued the tradition of castle-building and seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires.

SultanYusuf Mahamud Ibrahim,the third Sultan of theHouse of Gobroon,started the golden age of the Gobroon Dynasty. His army came out victorious during theBardheereJihad,which restored stability in the region and revitalized theEast Africanivory trade.He also received presents from and had cordial relations with the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as theOmani,Wituand Yemeni Sultans.

Sultan Ibrahim's sonAhmed Yusufsucceeded him and was one of the most important figures in 19th-century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and creating alliances with important Muslim families on the East African coast. In northern Somalia, the Gerad Dynasty conducted trade with Yemen and Persia and competed with the merchants of theBari Dynasty.The Gerads and the Bari Sultans built impressive palaces and fortresses and had close relations with many different empires in the Near East.

In the late 19th century, after theBerlin conferenceof 1884, European powers began theScramble for Africa,whereupon the Darawiish builtDhulbahante garesasto counter colonialism. Darawiish social structure included theharoun(i.e. Darawiish government) underFaarax Sugulle,the Darawiish & Dhulbahante kingDiiriye Guureand its emir Sayid Mohamed, which collectively carved out a powerful state inCiid-Nugaalwhich was subdivided into 13 administrative divisions of which the four largest,Shiikhyaale,Dooxato,Golaweyne,Miinanlewere near exclusivelyDhulbahante.The other administrative divisions,Taargooye,Dharbash,Indhabadan,Burcadde-Godwein,Garbo (Darawiish),Ragxun,Gaarhaye,Bah-udgoonandShacni-caliwere collectively also overwhelminglyDhulbahante.[43]The Dervish movement successfully repulsed theBritish Empirefour times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.[44]

TheDarawiishdefeated the colonial powers on numerous occasions, most notably, the 1903 victory at Cagaarweyne commanded bySuleiman Aden Galaydh[45]or the killing of generalRichard CorfieldbyIbraahin Xooranein 1913,[46]and theses repulsions forcing theBritish Empireto retreat to the coastal region in the late 1900s.[47]The only two notable defeats of the Darawiish were both commanded byHaji Yusuf Barre,the first time atJidbaali in 1904,and the second time at thelast stand at Talehwhen the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 byBritishairpower.[48]

The dawn offascismin the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy forItaly,as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries ofLa Grande Somaliaaccording to the plan ofFascist Italy.With the arrival of GovernorCesare Maria De Vecchion 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of Somaliland known asItalian Somaliland.Italy had access to these areas under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule.

TheFascist governmenthad direct rule only over the Benadir territory.Fascist Italy,underBenito Mussolini,attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, with an aim to colonize it. The invasion was condemned by theLeague of Nations,but little was done to stop it or to liberate occupied Ethiopia. On 3 August 1940, Italian troops, including Somali colonial units, crossed from Ethiopia toinvade British Somaliland,and by 14 August, succeeded in takingBerberafrom the British.

A British force, including troops from several African countries, launched thecampaign in January 1941from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland and Italian-occupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February, most of Italian Somaliland was captured and in March, British Somaliland was retaken from the sea. The forces of the British Empire operating in Somaliland comprised the three divisions ofSouth African,West African,and East African troops. They were assisted by Somali forces led byAbdulahi Hassanwith Somalis of theIsaaq,Dhulbahante,andWarsangaliclans prominently participating.

Ogaden campaign[edit]

Main article:Ogaden War

In July 1977, theOgaden WaragainstEthiopiabroke out afterBarre's governmentsought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabitedOgadenregion into a Pan-SomaliGreater Somalia.In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on theEthiopian armyand followed them as far asSidamo.By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such asJijigaand put heavy pressure onDire Dawa,threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege ofHarar,a massive unprecedentedSovietintervention consisting of 20,000Cubanforces and several thousand Soviet advisers came to the aid of Ethiopia's communistDergregime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviet Union'sCold Wararch-rival, theUnited States,which had been courting theSomali governmentfor some time. All in all, Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.[49]

Gallery[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  3. ^Makhaus, Ken (August 2009)."Somalia: What went Wrong?".The RUSI Journal.154(4): 8.doi:10.1080/03071840903216395.S2CID219626653.
  4. ^Allen, William; Gakuo Mwangi, Oscar (25 March 2021). "Al-Shabaab".Oxford Research Encyclopedias: African History.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.785.ISBN978-0-19-027773-4.Archived fromthe originalon 29 December 2022.{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help)
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  7. ^H. W. Seton-Karr(1909)."Prehistoric Implements From Somaliland".9(106).Man:182–183.Retrieved30 January2011.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  8. ^Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research)
  9. ^Diamond J, Bellwood P (2003) "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions"Science300,doi:10.1126/science.1078208
  10. ^Bakano, Otto (24 April 2011)."Grotto galleries show early Somali life".Agence France-Presse. Archived fromthe originalon 21 September 2013.Retrieved11 May2013.
  11. ^Mire, Sada (2008)."The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland".African Archaeological Review.25(3–4): 153–168.doi:10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2.S2CID162960112.Archived fromthe originalon 27 June 2013.Retrieved22 June2013.
  12. ^Alberge, Dalya (17 September 2010)."UK archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites".The Guardian.Retrieved25 June2013.
  13. ^Hodd, Michael (1994).East African Handbook.Trade & Travel Publications. p. 640.ISBN0844289833.
  14. ^Ali, Ismail Mohamed (1970).Somalia Today: General Information.Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic. p. 295.
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  16. ^Dalal, Roshen (2011).The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World.The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 131.ISBN978-1448847976.
  17. ^Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed, Zahi A. Hawass (ed.) (2003).Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology.American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 432–433.ISBN9774246748.{{cite book}}:|first=has generic name (help)
  18. ^Suzanne Richard (2003)Near Eastern archaeology: a reader,EISENBRAUNS, p. 120ISBN1-57506-083-3.
  19. ^Warmington 1995,p. 54.
  20. ^abWarmington 1995,p. 229.
  21. ^Warmington 1995,p. 187.
  22. ^Warmington 1995,pp. 185–6.
  23. ^Briggs, Phillip (2012).Somaliland.Bradt Travel Guides. p. 7.ISBN978-1841623719.
  24. ^abEncyclopedia Americana, Volume 25.Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255.
  25. ^abI. M. Lewis (1955).Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho.International African Institute. p. 140.
  26. ^M. Th. Houtsma (1987).E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936.BRILL. pp. 125–126.ISBN9004082654.
  27. ^Nizar Hamzeh, A.; Hrair Dekmejian, R. (2010). "A Sufi Response to Political Islamism: Al-Abāsh of Lebanon".International Journal of Middle East Studies.28(2): 217–229.doi:10.1017/S0020743800063145.S2CID154765577.
  28. ^Briggs, Philip (2012).Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia.Bradt Travel Guides. p. 10.ISBN978-1841623719.
  29. ^abLewis, I. M. (1999).A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa.James Currey Publishers. p. 17.ISBN0852552807.
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  32. ^Terry H. Elkiss.The quest for an African Eldorado: Sofala.p. 4.
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  37. ^Nigel Harris (2003).The Return of Cosmopolitan Capital: Globalization, the State and War.I.B.Tauris. pp. 22–.ISBN978-1-86064-786-4.
  38. ^R. J. Barendse (2002).The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean world of the Seventeenth Century /c R.J. Barendse.M.E. Sharpe. pp. 343–.ISBN978-0-7656-0729-4.
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  40. ^Caroline Sassoon (1978)Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: Aspects of Trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV–XIX Centuries,Vol. 43–47, British Archaeological Reports, p. 2,ISBN0860540189.
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  43. ^Ciise, Jaamac (1976).Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan.p. 175.
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  45. ^"THE FIGHT IN SOMALILAND.|1904-01-02|Rhyl Record and Advertiser - Welsh Newspapers".
  46. ^Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan, Jaamac Cumar Ciise · 2005, PAGE 275
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  48. ^Samatar, Said Sheikh (1982).Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism.Cambridge University Press. pp.131,135.ISBN0-521-23833-1.
  49. ^Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse,Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations,(ABC-CLIO: 1999), p.222.
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