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Sorghum
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Panicoideae
Genus: Sorghum
Species:
S. bicolor
Binomial name
Sorghum bicolor
Synonyms[1]
List
    • Agrostis nigricans(Ruiz & Pav.) Poir.
    • Andropogon besseriKunth
    • Andropogon bicolor(L.) Roxb.
    • Andropogon caffrorum(Thunb.) Kunth
    • Andropogon compactusBrot.
    • Andropogon dulcisBurm.f.
    • Andropogon niger(Ard.) Kunth
    • Andropogon saccharatrusKunth
    • Andropogon saccharatus(L.) Raspail
    • Andropogon sorghum(L.) Brot.
    • Andropogon subglabrescensSteud.
    • Andropogon truchmenorumWalp.
    • Andropogon usorumSteud.
    • Andropogon vulgare(Pers.) Balansa
    • Andropogon vulgarisRaspail
    • Holcus arduiniiJ.F.Gmel.
    • Holcus bicolorL.
    • Holcus caferArd.
    • Holcus caffrorum(Retz.) Thunb.
    • Holcus cernuusArd.
    • Holcus cernuusMuhl. nom. illeg.
    • Holcus cernuusWilld. nom. illeg.
    • Holcus compactusLam.
    • Holcus dochnaForssk.
    • Holcus doraMieg
    • Holcus dunaJ.F.Gmel.
    • Holcus durraForssk.
    • Holcus nigerArd.
    • Holcus nigerrimusArd.
    • Holcus rubensGaertn.
    • Holcus saccharatusvar.technicus(Körn.) Farw.
    • Holcus sorghumL.
    • Holcus sorghumBrot. nom. illeg.
    • Milium bicolor(L.) Cav.
    • Milium compactum(Lam.) Cav.
    • Milium maximumCav.
    • Milium nigricansRuiz & Pav.
    • Milium sorghum(L.) Cav.
    • Panicum caffrorumRetz.
    • Panicum frumentaceumSalisb. nom. illeg.
    • Rhaphis sorghum(L.) Roberty
    • Sorghum abyssinicum(Hack.) Chiov. nom. illeg.
    • Sorghum ankolib(Hack.) Stapf
    • Sorghum anomalumDesv.
    • Sorghum arduinii(Gmel.) J.Jacq.
    • Sorghum basiplicatumChiov.
    • Sorghum basutorumSnowden
    • Sorghum caffrorum(Retz.) P.Beauv.
    • Sorghum campanumTen. & Guss.
    • Sorghum caudatum(Hack.) Stapf
    • Sorghum centroplicatumChiov.
    • Sorghum cernuum(Ard.) Host
    • Sorghum compactumLag.
    • Sorghum conspicuumSnowden
    • Sorghum coriaceumSnowden
    • Sorghum dochna(Forssk.) Snowden
    • Sorghum dora(Mieg) Cuoco
    • Sorghum dulcicauleSnowden
    • Sorghum duraGriseb.
    • Sorghum durra(Forssk.) Batt. & Trab.
    • Sorghum elegans(Körn.) Snowden
    • Sorghum eplicatumChiov.
    • Sorghum exsertumSnowden
    • Sorghum gambicumSnowden
    • Sorghum giganteumEdgew.
    • Sorghum glabrescens(Steud.) Schweinf. & Asch.
    • Sorghum glycychylumPass.
    • Sorghum guineenseStapf
    • Sorghum japonicum(Hack.) Roshev.
    • Sorghum margaritiferumStapf
    • Sorghum medioplicatumChiov.
    • Sorghum melaleucumStapf
    • Sorghum melanocarpumHuber
    • Sorghum mellitumSnowden
    • Sorghum membranaceumChiov.
    • Sorghum miliiforme(Hack.) Snowden
    • Sorghum nankinenseHuber
    • Sorghum nervosumBesser ex Schult. & Schult.f.
    • Sorghum nervosumChiov. nom. illeg.
    • Sorghum nigricans(Ruiz & Pav.) Snowden
    • Sorghum nigrum(Ard.) Roem. & Schult.
    • Sorghum notabileSnowden
    • Sorghum pallidumChiov. nom. illeg.
    • Sorghum papyrascensStapf
    • Sorghum rigidumSnowden
    • Sorghum rolliiChiov.
    • Sorghum roxburghiivar.hians(Hook.f.) Stapf
    • Sorghum saccharatumHost nom. illeg.
    • Sorghum saccharatum(L.) Pers. nom. illeg.
    • Sorghum sativum(Hack.) Batt. & Trab.
    • Sorghum schimperi(Hack.) Chiov. nom. illeg.
    • Sorghum simulansSnowden
    • Sorghum splendidum(Hack.) Snowden
    • Sorghum subglabrescens(Steud.) Schweinf. & Asch.
    • Sorghum tataricumHuber
    • Sorghum technicum(Körn.) Batt. & Trab.
    • Sorghum technicum(Körn.) Roshev.
    • Sorghum truchmenorumK.Koch
    • Sorghum usorumNees
    • Sorghum vulgarePers. nom. illeg.

Sorghum bicolor,commonly calledsorghum[2](/ˈsɔːrɡəm/) and also known asgreat millet,[3]broomcorn,[4]guinea corn,[5]durra,[6]imphee,[7]jowar,[8]ormilo,[9]is a species in thegrassgenusSorghumcultivated for itsgrain.The grain is used for food for humans; the plant is used for animal feed and ethanol production. Sorghum originated in Africa, and is now cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regions.

Sorghum is the world's fifth-most importantcerealcrop afterrice,wheat,maize,andbarley.[according to whom?]Sorghum is typically an annual, but some cultivars are perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over 4 metres (13 ft) high. The grain is small, 2 to 4 millimetres (0.08 to 0.2 in) in diameter.Sweet sorghumsare cultivars primarily grown for forage, syrup production, and ethanol; they are taller than those grown for grain.

Description

[edit]
See also:Sorghum (genus)

Sorghum is a large stout grass that grows up to 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) tall. It has large bushy flowerheads orpaniclesthat provide an edible starchy grain with up to 3,000 seeds in each flowerhead. It grows in warm climates worldwide for food and forage.[10][11][12]Sorghum is native to Africa with many cultivated forms.[13][14]Most production uses annual cultivars, but some wild species ofSorghumare perennial, which may enablethe Land Instituteto develop a perennial cultivar for "repeated, sufficient grain harvests without resowing."[15][16]

  • Botanical illustration
    Botanical illustration
  • Maturing crop, Germany
    Maturing crop, Germany
  • Ripe panicle, India
    Ripepanicle,India
  • Grains
    Branch of panicle withspikelets

Evolution

[edit]

Phylogeny

[edit]

Sorghum is closely related tomaizeand themilletswithin thePACMAD cladeof grasses, and more distantly to thecerealsof theBOP cladesuch aswheatandbarley.[17]

(Part ofPoaceae)
BOP clade

Bambusoideae(bamboos)

Pooideae
other grasses

(fescue,ryegrass)

Triticeae

Hordeum(barley)

Triticum(wheat)

Secale(rye)

Oryza(rice)

PACMAD clade

Pennisetum(fountaingrasses,pearl millet)

Millets

Sorghum(sorghum)

Zea(maize)

History

[edit]

Domestication

[edit]
Further information:Domestication of plants
Piece of sorghum bread contained in basket,Predynastic Egypt,c.3100 BC (5,100 years ago).Egyptian Museum, Turin[18]

S. bicolorwasdomesticatedfrom its wild ancestor more than 5,000 years ago in EasternSudanin the area of the RiversAtbaraandGash.[19][20]It has been found at an archaeological site nearKassalain eastern Sudan, dating from 3500 to 3000 BC, and is associated with the neolithicButana Groupculture.[21]Sorghum bread from graves inPredynastic Egypt,some 5,100 years ago, is displayed in theEgyptian Museum, Turin,Italy.[18]

The first race to be domesticated wasbicolor;it had tight husks that had to be removed forcibly. Around 4,000 years ago, this spread to the Indian subcontinent; around 3,000 years ago it reached West Africa.[19]Four other races evolved through cultivation to have larger grains and to become free-threshing, making harvests easier and more productive. These werecaudatumin theSahel;durra,most likely in India;guineain West Africa (later reaching India), and from that racemageritiferumthat gave rise to the varieties of Southern Africa.[19]

Domestication and the five major races of sorghum[19]

Spread

[edit]
Making sweet sorghummolassesin ruralTennessee,1933

In the Middle Ages, theArab Agricultural Revolutionspread sorghum and other crops from Africa and Asia across the Arab world as far asAl-Andalusin Spain.[22]Sorghum remained the staple food of the medieval kingdom ofAlodiaand most Sub-Saharan cultures prior to European colonialism.[23]

Tall varieties of sorghum with a high sugar content are called sweet sorghum; these are useful for producing a sugar-rich syrup and as forage.[24][25]Sweet sorghum was important to thesugartrade in the 19th century.[26]The price of sugar was rising because of decreased production in the BritishWest Indiesand more demand forconfectioneryandfruit preserves,and the United States was actively searching for a sugar plant that could be produced in northern states. The "Chinese sugar-cane", sweet sorghum, was viewed as a plant that would be productive in the West Indies.[27]

The name sorghum derives from Italiansorgo,which in turn most likely comes from 12th centuryMedieval Latinsurgumorsuricum.This in turn may be from Latinsyricum,meaning "[grass] of Syria".[28]

Cultivation

[edit]

Agronomy

[edit]

Most varieties of sorghum aredrought- and heat-tolerant,nitrogen-efficient,[29]and are grown particularly inaridandsemi-aridregions where the grain is one of thestaplesfor poor and rural people. These varieties provideforagein many tropical regions.S. bicoloris afood cropin Africa,Central America,andSouth Asia,and is the fifth most common cereal crop grown in the world.[30][31]It is most often grown without application of fertilizers or other inputs by small-holder farmers in developing countries.[32]They benefit from sorghum's ability to compete effectively with weeds, especially when it is planted in narrow rows. Sorghumactively suppresses weedsby producing sorgoleone, analkylresorcinol.[33]

Sorghum grows in a wide range of temperatures. It can tolerate high altitude and toxic soils, and can recover growth after some drought.[24]Optimum growth temperature range is 12–34 °C (54–93 °F), and the growing season lasts for around 115–140 days.[34]It can grow on a wide range of soils, such as heavy clay to sandy soils with the pH tolerance ranging from 5.0 to 8.5.[35]It requires an arable field that has been left fallow for at least two years or wherecrop rotationwith legumes has taken place in the previous year.[36]Diversified 2- or 4-year crop rotation can improve sorghum yield, additionally making it more resilient to inconsistent growth conditions.[37]In terms of nutrient requirements, sorghum is comparable to other cereal grain crops with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium required for growth.[38]

TheInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropicshas improved sorghum using traditional genetic improvement and integrated genetic and natural resources management practices.[39]Some 194 improved cultivars are now planted worldwide.[citation needed]InIndia,increases in sorghum productivity resulting from improved cultivars have freed up 7 million hectares (17 million acres) of land, enabling farmers to diversify into high-income cash crops and boost their livelihoods.[40]Sorghum is used primarily as poultry feed, and secondarily as cattle feed and in brewing applications.[41]

  • Sorghum harvest at the shore of Lake Hayq, Ethiopia, 2012
    Sorghum harvest at the shore ofLake Hayq,Ethiopia, 2012
  • Harvesting sorghum in Oklahoma, USA, with a combine harvester
    Harvesting sorghum in Oklahoma, USA, with a combine harvester
  • Drying sorghum in the open air, Uganda, 2020
    Drying sorghum in the open air, Uganda, 2020
  • Women drying sorghum seeds by tossing them in trays, 2022
    Women drying sorghum seeds by tossing them in trays, 2022

Pests and diseases

[edit]
Further information:List of sorghum diseases

Insect damage is a major threat to sorghum plants. Over 150 species damage crop plants at different stages of development, resulting in significant biomass loss.[42]Stored sorghum grain is attacked by other insect pests such as thelesser grain borerbeetle.[43] Sorghum is a host of the parasitic plantStriga hermonthica,purple witchweed; that can reduce production.[44] Sorghum is subject to a variety ofplant pathogens.The fungusColletotrichum sublineolumcausesanthracnose.[45] The toxicergotfungus parasitises the grain, risking harm to humans and livestock.[46] Sorghum produceschitinasesasdefensive compoundsagainstfungal diseases.Transgenesisof additionalchitinasesincreases the crop's disease resistance.[47]

Genetics and genomics

[edit]

The genome ofS. bicolorwas sequenced between 2005 and 2007.[48][49]It is generally considered diploid and contains 20 chromosomes,[50]however, there is evidence to suggest a tetraploid origin forS. bicolor.[51]The genome size is approximately 800 Mbp.[52]

Patersonet al.,2009 provides agenome assemblyof 739megabase.The most commonly used genome database isSorGSDmaintained by Luoet al.,2016. A gene expression atlas is available from Shakooret al.,2014 with 27,577genes.Formolecular breeding(or other purposes) anSNP arrayhas been created by Bekeleet al.,2013, a 3K SNP Infinium fromIllumina, Inc.[53]

Agrobacteriumtransformationcan be used on sorghum, as shown in a 2018 report of such a transformation system.[54]A 2013 study developed and validated anSNP arrayformolecular breeding.[53][55]

Production

[edit]
Sorghum production – 2021
Country (Millions oftonnes)
United States 11.4
India 4.8
Ethiopia 4.4
Mexico 4.4
Argentina 3.3
China 3.0
World 61.4
Source:FAOSTATof the United Nations[56]

In 2021, world production of sorghum was 61 milliontonnes,led by the United States with 19% of the total (table). India,Ethiopia,and Mexico were the largest secondary producers.[56]

Sorghum-growing areas of the US, the world's largest producer

International trade

[edit]

In 2013,Chinabegan purchasing American sorghum as a complementary livestock feed to its domestically grown maize. It imported around $1 billion worth per year until April 2018, when it imposed retaliatorytariffsas part ofa trade war.[57]By 2020, the tariffs had been waived, and trade volumes increased[58]before declining again as China began buying sorghum from other countries.[59]As of 2020, China is the world's largest sorghum importer, importing more than all other countries combined.[58]Mexico is also accounts for 7% of global sorghum production.[60]

Nutrition

[edit]
Sorghum grain
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,380 kJ (330 kcal)
72.1 g
Sugars2.53 g
Dietary fiber6.7 g
3.46 g
Saturated0.61 g
Monounsaturated1.13 g
Polyunsaturated1.56 g
10.6 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
0%
0 μg
Thiamine (B1)
28%
0.332 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
7%
0.096 mg
Niacin (B3)
23%
3.69 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
7%
0.367 mg
Vitamin B6
26%
0.443 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
20 μg
Vitamin C
0%
0 mg
Vitamin E
3%
0.5 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
13 mg
Copper
32%
0.284 mg
Iron
19%
3.36 mg
Magnesium
39%
165 mg
Manganese
70%
1.6 mg
Phosphorus
23%
289 mg
Potassium
12%
363 mg
Selenium
22%
12.2 μg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
15%
1.67 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water12.4 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[61]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[62]

The grain is edible and nutritious. It can be eaten raw when young and milky, but has to be boiled orgroundintoflourwhen mature.[63]

Sorghum grain is 72%carbohydratesincluding 7% dietary fiber, 11% protein, 3%fat,and 12% water (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), sorghum grain supplies 79caloriesand rich contents (20% or more of theDaily Value,DV) of several B vitamins and dietary minerals (table).

In the early stages of plant growth, some sorghum species may contain levels ofhydrogen cyanide,hordenine,andnitrateslethal to grazing animals.[64]Plants stressed by drought or heat can also contain toxic levels of cyanide and nitrates at later stages in growth.[65]

Use

[edit]

Sorghum is widely used for food and animal fodder. It is also used to makealcoholic beverages,andbiofuelssuch asethanol.[11]It can be made intocouscous,porridge, or flatbreads such as IndianJōḷada roṭṭior tortillas; and it can be burst in hot oil to make apopcorn,smaller than that of maize. Since it does not contain gluten, it can be used ingluten-free diets.[66]

InNigeria,the pulverized red leaf-sheaths of sorghum have been used to dye leather, while inAlgeria,sorghum has been used to dye wool.[67]

In South Africa, characteristically sourmalwa beeris made from sorghum or millet. The process involves souring themashed grainwithlactic acid bacteria,followed by fermenting by thewild yeaststhat were on the grain.[68] In China and Taiwan, sorghum is one of the main materials ofKaoliang liquor,a type of the colourless distilled alcoholic drinkBaijiu.[69][70]

In countries including the US, the stalks ofsweet sorghumvarieties are crushed in a cane juicer to extract the sweetmolasses-like juice. The juice is sold as syrup,[71][72][73]and used as afeedstockto make biofuel.[74]

In India, the panicle stalks are used as bristles forbrooms.[75]

In human culture

[edit]

In Australia, sorghum is personified as a spirit among theDagomanpeople ofNorthern Territory,as well as being used for food; the local species areS. intransandS. plumosum.[76]

In Korea, the origin tale "Brother and sister who became the Sun and Moon"is also called" The reason sorghum is red ".[77]In the tale, a tiger who is chasing a brother and sister follows them up a rotten rope as they climb into the sky, and become the sun and moon. The rope breaks, and the tiger falls to its death, impaling itself on a sorghum stalk, which becomes red with its blood.[78]

In Northeastern Italy in theearly modern period,sticks of sorghum were used byBenandantivisionaries of theFriulidistrict to fight off witches who were thought to threaten crops and people.[79]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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