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Soviet empire

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The countries of theWarsaw Pact,the main block of Soviet imperialism
Greatest territorial extent of the Soviet empire (red) in 1959–1960; after theCuban Revolutionbut before theSino-Soviet split.This territory was politically, economically, and militarily dominated by theSoviet Unionamidst theCold War,covering an area of approximately 35,000,000 km2(14,000,000 sq mi).[a]

The term "Soviet empire"collectively refers[by whom?]to the world's territories that theSoviet Uniondominated politically, economically, and militarily. This phenomenon, particularly in the context of theCold War,is also calledSoviet imperialism[1][2]bySovietologiststo describe the extent of the Soviet Union's hegemony over theSecond World.

In a wider sense, the term refers toSoviet foreign policyduring the Cold War, which has been characterized asimperialist:the countries that comprised the Soviet empire were nominally independent with native governments that set their own policies, but those policies had to stay within certain limits decided by theSoviet government.These limits were enforced by the threat offorceful regime changeand/or by the threat of direct action by theSoviet Armed Forces(and later by the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact). Major Soviet military interventions of this nature took place inEast Germany in 1953,inHungary in 1956,inCzechoslovakia in 1968,inPoland from 1980 until 1983,and inAfghanistan from 1979 until 1989.Countries in theEastern Blocwere widely regarded asSoviet satellite statesrather than as independent allies of the Soviet Union.

Characteristics[edit]

Politics of the Soviet Union
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Congress of Soviets
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Flag of the Soviet Union

Although the Soviet Union was not ruled by an emperor, and declared itselfanti-imperialistand apeople's democracy,it exhibited tendencies common to historic empires.[3][4]The notion of "Soviet empire" often refers to a form of "classic" or "colonial" empire with communism only replacing conventional imperial ideologies such asChristianityormonarchy,rather than creating a revolutionary state. Academically the idea is seen as emerging withRichard Pipes' 1957 bookThe Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923;it has been reinforced, along with several other views, in continuing scholarship.[5]: 41 Several scholars hold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity containing elements common to both multinational empires andnation states.[3]The Soviet Union practicedcolonialismsimilar to conventional imperial powers.[4][6][7][8][9][10][11]

The Soviets pursuedinternal colonialisminCentral Asia.For example, the state's prioritized grain production over livestock inKyrgyzstan,which favoredSlavicsettlers over theKyrgyznatives, thus perpetuating the inequalities of thetsarist colonial era.[9]TheMaoistsargued that the Soviet Union had itself become an imperialist power while maintaining a socialist façade, orsocial imperialism.[12][13]While Maoists criticized post-Stalin USSR's imperialism from a hardline communist viewpoint,reformist socialistcritics of Soviet imperialism, such asJosip Broz TitoandMilovan Djilas,have referred theStalinist USSR's foreign policies, such as the occupation and economic exploitations ofEastern Europeand its aggressive and hostile policy towardsYugoslaviaas Soviet imperialism.[14][15]Another dimension of Soviet imperialism iscultural imperialism,theSovietizationof culture and education at the expense of local traditions.[16]Leonid Brezhnevcontinued a policy of culturalRussificationas part ofDeveloped Socialism,which sought to assert more central control.[17]Seweryn Bialerargued that the Soviet state had an imperial nationalism.[18]

A notable wave of Sovietization occurred during theRussian Civil Warin the territories captured by theRed Army.Later, the territories occupied by theRussian SFSRand the USSR were Sovietized.Mongoliawas invaded by the Soviet Union and Sovietized in the 1920s after it became a Soviet satellite state, and after the end of theSecond World War,Sovietization took place in the countries of theSoviet Bloc(EasternandCentral Europe:Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, the Baltic states etc.). In a broad sense, it included the involuntary creation of Soviet-style authorities, imitation of elections held under the control of the Bolsheviks with the removal of opposition candidates, nationalization of land and property, repression against representatives of "class enemies"(kulaks,orosadniks,for instance). Mass executions and imprisoning inGulaglabor campsandexile settlementsoften accompany that process. This was usually promoted and sped up bypropagandaaimed at creating a common way of life in all states within the Soviet sphere of influence. In modern history, Sovietization refers to the copying of models of Soviet life (the cult of the leader's personality, collectivist ideology, mandatory participation in propaganda activities, etc.).[19]

From the 1930s through the 1950s,Joseph Stalinorderedpopulation transfers in the Soviet Union,deporting people (often entire nationalities) to underpopulated remote areas, with their place being taken mostly by ethnicRussiansandUkrainians.The policy officially ended in theKhrushchev era,with some of the nationalities allowed to return in 1957. However,Nikita KhrushchevandLeonid Brezhnevrefused the right of return forCrimean Tatars,Russian GermansandMeskhetian Turks.[20]In 1991, theSupreme Soviet of Russiadeclared the Stalinist mass deportations to be a "policy of defamation and genocide".[21]

The historical relationship between Russia (the dominant republic in the Soviet Union) and these Eastern European countries helps explain their longing to eradicate the remnants of Soviet culture. Poland and the Baltic states epitomize the Soviet attempt to build uniform cultures and political systems. According to Dag Noren, Russia was seeking to constitute and reinforce a buffer zone between itself and Western Europe so as to protect itself from potential future attacks from hostile Western European countries.[18]The Soviet Union had lost approximately 20 million people over the course of the Second World War, although Russian sources are keen on further inflating that figure.[22]To prevent a recurrence of such costly warfare, Soviet leaders believed that they needed to establish a hierarchy of political and economic dependence between neighboring states and the USSR.[18]

During the Brezhnev era, the policy of "Developed Socialism"declared the Soviet Union to be the most complete socialist country—other countries were" socialist ", but the USSR was"developedsocialist "—explaining its dominant role and hegemony over the other socialist countries.[23]This and the interventionistBrezhnev Doctrine,permitting the invasion of other socialist countries, led to characterisation of the USSR as an empire.[17]

Soviet influence in the "socialist-leaning countries"was mainly political and ideological rather than economically exploitative: the Soviet Union pumped enormous amounts of" international assistance "into them in order to secure influence,[24]ultimately to the detriment of its own economy. The Soviet Union sought a group of countries which would rally to its cause in the event of an attack from Western countries, and support it in the context of the Cold War.[25]After thedissolution of the Soviet Union,the Russian Federationwas recognizedas its successor state, inheriting $103 billion of Soviet foreign debt and $140 billion of Soviet assets abroad.[24]

Economic expansion did, however, play a significant role in Soviet motivation to spread influence in its satellite territories. These new territories would ensure an increase in the global wealth which the Soviet Union would have a grasp on.[25]

Soviet officials from theRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republicintertwined this economic opportunity with a potential for migration. They saw in these Eastern European countries the potential of a great workforce. They offered a welcome to them upon the only condition that they work hard and achieve social success. This ideology was shaped on the model of the meritocratic, 19th-century American foreign policy.[25]

Formal or informal empire?[edit]

Scholars discussing Soviet empire have discussed it as a formal empire orinformal empire.In a more formal interpretation of "Soviet empire", this meant absolutism, resembling Lenin's description of thetsarist empireas a "prison of the peoples"except that this" prison of the peoples "had been actualized during Stalin's regime after Lenin's death. Thomas Winderl wrote" The USSR became in a certain sense more a prison-house of nations than the old Empire had ever been. "[5]: 41–42 

Another view sees the Soviet empire as constituting an "informal empire" over nominally sovereign states in theWarsaw Pactdue to Soviet pressure and military presence.[26]The Soviet informal empire depended on subsidies from Moscow.[27]The informal empire in the wider Warsaw Pact also included linkages between Communist Parties.[28]Some historians consider a more multinational-oriented Soviet Union emphasizing its socialist initiatives, such asIan Bremmer,who describes a "matryoshka-nationalism" where a pan-Soviet nationalism included other nationalisms.[5]: 48 Eric Hobsbawnargued that the Soviet Union had effectively designed nations by drawing borders.[5]: 45 Dmitri Treninwrote that by 1980, the Soviet Union had formed both a formal and informal empire.[29]

The informal empire would have included Soviet economic investments,military occupation,andcovert actionin Soviet-aligned countries. The studies of informal empire have included Soviet influence onEast Germany[28]and 1930sXinjiang.[30][31]From the 1919Karakhan Manifestoto 1927, diplomats of the Soviet Union would promise to revoke concessions in China, but the Soviets secretly kept tsarist concessions such as theChinese Eastern Railway,as well as consulates, barracks, and churches.[32][33]After theSino-Soviet conflict (1929),the Soviet Union regained theRussian Empire's concession of theChinese Eastern Railwayand held it until itsreturn to China in 1952.[33]

Alexander Wendtsuggested that by the time of Stalin'sSocialism in one countryalignment, socialist internationalism "evolved into an ideology of control rather than revolution under the rubric of socialist internationalism" internally within the Soviet Union. By the start of the Cold War it evolved into a "coded power language" that was once again international, but applied to the Soviet informal empire. At times the USSR signaled toleration of policies of satellite states indirectly, by declaring them consistent or inconsistent with socialist ideology, essentially recreating a hegemonic role. Wendt argued that a "hegemonic ideology" could continue to motivate actions after the original incentives were removed, and argued this explains the "zeal ofEast German Politburomembers who chose not to defend themselves against trumped-up charges during the 1950s purges. "[28]: 704 

Analyzing thedissolutionof the Soviet Union, Koslowski andKratochwilargued that a postwar Soviet "formal empire" represented by the Warsaw Pact, with Soviet military role and control over of member states' foreign relations, had evolved into an informalsuzeraintyor "Ottomanization" from the late 1970s to 1989. WithGorbachev's relinquishing of theBrezhnev Doctrinein 1989, the informal empire reduced in pressure to a more conventional sphere of influence, resemblingFinlandizationbut applied to the erstwhileEast Blocstates, until the Soviet fall in 1991. By contrast "Austrianization" would have been arealistmodel ofgreat power politicsby which the Soviets would have hypothetically relied on Western guarantees to keep an artificial Soviet sphere of influence. The speed of reform in the 1989 to 1991 period made both a repeat of Finlandization and Austrianization impossible for the Soviet Union.[34][35]

Communist states aligned with the Soviet Union[edit]

TheSoviet Unionis seen in red while states in light pink were satellites.Yugoslavia,a Soviet ally from 1945 to 1948 andnon-aligned statethereafter, is marked in purple.Albania,a state which ceased being allied to the Soviet Union in the 1960s after theSino-Soviet split,is marked in orange.

Warsaw Pact[edit]

These countries were the closest allies of the Soviet Union and were also members of theComecon,a Soviet-led economic community founded in 1949. The members of theWarsaw Pact,sometimes called theEastern Bloc,were widely viewed as Sovietsatellite states.These countries were occupied (or formerly occupied) by the Red Army, and their politics, military, foreign and domestic policies were dominated by the Soviet Union. The Warsaw Pact included the following states:[36][37]

In addition to having a permanent seat in theUnited Nations Security Council,the Soviet Union had two of itsunion republicsin theUnited Nations General Assembly:

Other Marxist–Leninist states[edit]

These countries were Marxist-Leninist states who were allied with the Soviet Union, but were not part of the Warsaw Pact.

Non-communist states aligned with the Soviet Union[edit]

Main article:Socialist-leaning countries
States that had communist governments in red, states that the Soviet Union believed at one point to bemoving toward socialismin orange, and states with constitutional references to socialism in yellow

Some countries in theThird Worldhad pro-Soviet governments during the Cold War. In the political terminology of the Soviet Union, these were "countries moving along the socialist road of development"as opposed to the more advanced" countries ofdeveloped socialism"which were mostly located in Eastern Europe, but that also included Cuba and Vietnam. They received some aid, eithermilitaryoreconomic,from the Soviet Union and were influenced by it to varying degrees. Sometimes, their support for the Soviet Union eventually stopped for various reasons and in some cases the pro-Soviet government lost power while in other cases the same government remained in power, but ultimately ended its alliance with the Soviet Union.[41]

Communist states opposed to the Soviet Union[edit]

Communist statealignments in 1980: pro-Soviet (red); pro-Chinese (yellow); and the non-alignedNorth Koreaand Yugoslavia (black);Somaliahad been pro-Soviet until 1977; andCambodia(Kampuchea) had been pro-China until 1979.

Somecommunist stateswere opposed to the Soviet Union and criticized many of its policies. Although they may have had many similarities to the USSR on domestic issues, they were not considered Soviet allies in international politics. Relations between them and the Soviet Union were often tense, sometimes even to the point of armed conflict.

Neutral states[edit]

Finland[edit]

The position ofFinlandwas complex. The Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, launching theWinter War.The Soviets intended to install theirFinnish Democratic Republicpuppet governmentintoHelsinkiand annex Finland into the Soviet Union.[44][45]Fierce Finnish resistance prevented the Soviets from achieving this objective, and theMoscow Peace Treatywas signed on 12 March 1940, with hostilities ending the following day.

Finland would re-enter the Second World War when theyinvadedthe Soviet Union alongside Germany in late June 1941. Finland reclaimed all territory lost in the Winter War, and would proceed tooccupyadditional territory inEast Karelia.The SovietVyborg–Petrozavodsk offensiveof 1944 pushed Finland out of this territory, but Finland halted the offensive at theBattle of Tali-Ihantala.TheMoscow Armisticebrought the Continuation War to an end. Finland retained most of its territory and its market economy, trading on the Western markets and ultimately joining the Westerncurrency system.

Nevertheless, although Finland was considered neutral, theFinno-Soviet Treaty of 1948significantly limited Finnish freedom of operation in foreign policy. It required Finland to defend the Soviet Union from attacks through its territory, which in practice prevented Finland from joiningNATO,and effectively gave the Soviet Union a veto in Finnish foreign policy. Thus, the Soviet Union could exercise "imperial"hegemonicpower even towards a neutral state.[46]Under thePaasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine,Finland sought to maintain friendly relations with the Soviet Union, and extensivebilateral tradedeveloped. In the West, this led to fears of the spread of "Finlandization",where Western allies would no longer reliably support the United States and NATO.[47]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^34,374,483 km2.
  2. ^Following theAlbanian–Soviet splitand the withdrawal from theWarsaw Pact(1968)
  3. ^AfterNicolae Ceaușescu'srefusal to participatein theWarsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakiain 1968 (seede-satellization of Communist Romania). Remained as member of Comecon and Warsaw Pact until 1989.
  4. ^With the Soviet intervention in theAngolan Civil War.
  5. ^Following theSino-Soviet split(1956–1961).
  6. ^After Chinese intervention in theKorean Warin 1950, North Korea remained a Soviet ally,[39]but rather used theJucheideology to balance Chinese and Soviet influence, pursuing a highlyisolationistforeign policy and not joining theComeconor any other international organization ofcommunist statesfollowing the withdrawal of Chinese troops in 1958.
  7. ^At the outbreak of theSomali invasion of Ethiopiain 1977, the Soviet Union ceased to support Somalia, with the corresponding change in rhetoric. In turn, Somalia broke diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and the United States adopted Somalia as aCold Warally.[40]
  8. ^It was absorbed by the Soviet Union in 1944, and became part of the RSFSR.
  9. ^Unlike other countries and although leaning towards the Soviet side, Vietnam's domestic policy and foreign policy were not dominated by Soviet Union.
  10. ^It ended affiliation with the Soviet Union in 1948 due toTito–Stalin split.AfterJoseph Stalin's death and the repudiation of his policies byNikita Khrushchev,peace was made withJosip Broz Titoand Yugoslavia, although relations between the two countries were never completely rebuilt. See also theInformbiro period.
  11. ^Soviet-Chilean alliance ended with the overthrow of the Allende government in amilitary coup,after which Chile became a Cold War ally of the United States. The Soviet Union would later support anarmed insurgencyagainst the military government until Chile returned to democracy in 1990.
  12. ^Declared independence from theRepublic of Chinain 1944,annexed by the PRCin 1949.
  13. ^Due to theCambodian–Vietnamese War.
  14. ^The two countries went through a very hostileInformbiro periodafter theTito–Stalin splitin 1948 and partiallyrapproachedafter theBelgrade declarationin 1955, although the latter failed to result in a lasting change after theSoviet invasion of Hungaryin 1956 andCzechoslovakiain 1968. Yugoslavia remained highly wary of a possible invasion itself from the Soviet Union during their entire existence.

References[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

See also:Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War,Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union,andBibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union
  • Crozier, Brian.The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire(1999), long detailed popular history.
  • Dallin, David J.Soviet Russia and the Far East(1949)onlineon China and Japan.
  • Friedman, Jeremy.Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World(2015).
  • Librach, Jan.The Rise of the Soviet Empire: A Study of Soviet Foreign Policy(Praeger, 1965),online free,a scholarly history.
  • Nogee, Joseph L. and Robert Donaldson.Soviet Foreign Policy Since World War II(4th ed. 1992).
  • Service, Robert.Comrades! A history of world communism(2007).
  • Ulam, Adam B.Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1973,2nd ed. (1974), a standard scholarly historyonline free.
  • Zubok, Vladislav M.A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev(2007)excerpt and text search.
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