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Olenekian

Coordinates:31°57′55″N78°01′29″E/ 31.9653°N 78.0247°E/31.9653; 78.0247
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(Redirected fromSpathian)
Olenekian
251.2 – 247.2Ma
↓
OlenekianBuntsandsteininHeligoland,Germany
Chronology
Etymology
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Celestial bodyEarth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitAge
Stratigraphic unitStage
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionNot formally defined
Lower boundary definition candidatesFADof theConodontNeospathodus waageni
Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s)Mud (Muth) village,Spiti valley,India[6]
Upper boundary definitionNot formally defined
Upper boundary definition candidates
Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s)

In thegeologic timescale,theOlenekianis anagein theEarly Triassicepoch;inchronostratigraphy,it is astagein theLower Triassicseries.It spans the time between 251.2Maand 247.2 Ma (million years ago).[7]The Olenekian is sometimes divided into theSmithianand theSpathiansubages or substages.[8]The Olenekian follows theInduanand is followed by theAnisian(Middle Triassic).[9]

The Olenekian saw the deposition of a large part of theBuntsandsteinin Europe. The Olenekian is roughly coeval with the regional Yongningzhenian Stage used inChina.

Stratigraphic definitions

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The Olenekian Stage was introduced into scientific literature by Russian stratigraphers in 1956.[10]The stage is named afterOlenëkinSiberia.Before the subdivision in Olenekian and Induan became established, both stages formed the Scythian Stage, which has since disappeared from the official timescale.

The base of the Olenekian is at the lowest occurrence of theammonoidsHedenstroemiaorMeekoceras gracilitatis,and of the conodontNeospathodus waageni.It is defined as ending near the lowest occurrences ofgeneraJaponites,Paradanubites,andParacrochordiceras;and of theconodontChiosella timorensis.AGSSP(global reference profile for the base) has not been established as of December 2020.

In the 1960s, English paleontologistEdward T. Tozer(sometimes collaborating with American geologist Norman J. Silberling) crafted Triassic timescales based on North American ammonoid zones, further refining it in the following decades. Tozer's nomenclature was largely derived fromMojsisovics's work, who coined most of the Triassic stages and substages, but he redefined them using North American sites. He recommended the Lower Triassic series be divided into the Griesbachian, Dienerian, Smithian, and Spathian. The latter two roughly correspond with the Olenekian. Tozer's timescale became popular in the Americas.[11]He named the Smithian after Smith Creek onEllesmere Island,Canada (the creek itself is named after geologistJ. P. Smith). The Smithian is defined by theArctoceras bloomstrandiammonoid zone (containsEuflemingites romunderiandJuvenites crassus) and the overlyingMeekoceras gracilitatisandWasatchites tardussubzones. He named the Spathian after Spath Creek on Ellesmere Island (this creek is named after geologistL. F. Spath), and defined it by theProcolumbites subrobustusammonoid zone.[8]

Olenekian life

[edit]
See also:Category:Olenekian life

Life was still recovering from the severeend-Permian mass extinction.During the Olenekian, theflorachanged fromlycopoddominated (e.g.Pleuromeia) togymnospermandpteridophytedominated.[12][13]These vegetation changes are due to global changes in temperature andprecipitation.Conifers(gymnosperms) were the dominant plants during most of theMesozoic.Among land vertebrates, thearchosaurs- a group ofdiapsidreptiles encompassingcrocodiles,pterosaurs,dinosaurs,and ultimatelybirds- first evolved fromarchosauriformancestors during the Olenekian. This group includes ferocious predators likeErythrosuchus.

In the oceans,microbial reefswere common during the Early Triassic, possibly due to lack of competition withmetazoanreef builders as a result of the extinction.[14]However, transient metazoan reefs reoccurred during the Olenekian wherever permitted by environmental conditions.[15]Ammonoidsandconodontsdiversified, but both suffered losses during theSmithian-Spathian boundary extinction[16]at the end of the Smithian subage.

Ray-finned fisheslargely remained unaffected by the Permian-Triassic extinction event.Coelacanthsshow their highest post-Devoniandiversity during the Early Triassic.[17][18]Many fish genera show acosmopolitan distributionduring theInduanand Olenekian, such asAustralosomus,Birgeria,Parasemionotidae,Pteronisculus,Ptycholepidae,SaurichthysandWhiteia.This is well exemplified in theGriesbachian(earlyInduan) aged fish assemblages of theWordie Creek Formation(EastGreenland),[19][20]theDienerian(lateInduan) aged assemblages of theMiddle Sakamena Formation(Madagascar),[21]Candelaria Formation(Nevada,United States),[22]andMikin Formation(Himachal Pradesh,India),[23]andDaye Formation(Guizhou,China),[24]and the Smithian aged assemblages of theVikinghøgda Formation(Spitsbergen,Norway),[25][26][27]andThaynes Group(westernUnited States),[28][29]andHelongshan Formation(Anhui,China),[30]and several Early Triassic layers of theSulphur Mountain Formation(westernCanada).[31]Ray-finned fishes diversified after the mass extinction and reached peak diversity during theMiddle Triassic.This diversification is, however, obscured by ataphonomic megabias(Spathian-Bithynian Gap, SBG)[32]during the late Olenekian and early middleAnisian.The earliest large durophagous neopterygian is known from the SBG, suggesting an early onset of the Triassic actinopterygian revolution.[33]

Olenekianchondrichthyanfishes includehybodontsandneoselachians,[25][34][35]but also a few surviving lineages ofeugeneodontidholocephalians,[36]a mainly Palaeozoic group that wentextinctduring the Early Triassic.

Marinetemnospondylamphibians,such as the superficially crocodile-shapedtrematosauridsAphanerammaandWantzosaurus,show wide geographic ranges during theInduanand Olenekian ages. Their fossils are found inGreenland,Spitsbergen,PakistanandMadagascar.[37]Others, such asTrematosaurus,inhabited freshwater environments and were less widespread.

The first marine reptiles appeared during the Olenekian.[37]Hupehsuchia,IchthyopterygiaandSauropterygiaare among the first marine reptiles to enter the scene (e.g.Cartorhynchus,Chaohusaurus,Utatsusaurus,Hupehsuchus,Grippia,Omphalosaurus,Corosaurus). Sauropterygians and ichthyosaurs ruled the oceans during theMesozoicEra.

An example of an exceptionally diverse Early Triassic assemblage is theParis biota,fossils of which were discovered nearParis,Idaho[38]and other nearby sites in Idaho andNevada.[39]The Paris Biota was deposited in the wake of the SSBM and it features at least 7phylaand 20 distinctmetazoanorders,including leptomitidprotomonaxonidsponges(previously only known from thePaleozoic),thylacocephalans,crustaceans,nautiloids,ammonoids,coleoids,ophiuroids,crinoids,andvertebrates.[40]Such diverse assemblages show that organisms diversified wherever and whenever climatic and environmental conditions ameliorated.

Smithian–Spathian boundary event

[edit]
Early Triassic and Anisian marine predators:[37]1.Wantzosaurus,2.Fadenia,3.Saurichthys,4.Rebellatrix,5.Hovasaurus,6.Birgeria,7.Aphaneramma,8.Bobasatrania,9.Hybodontiformes,10.Mylacanthus,11.Tanystropheus,12.Corosaurus,13.Ticinepomis,14.Mixosaurus,15.Cymbospondylidae,16.Neoselachii,17.Omphalosaurusskeleton, 18.Placodus

An important extinction event occurred during the Olenekian age of the Early Triassic, near the Smithian and Spathian subage boundary. The main victims of thisSmithian–Spathian boundary event,often called theSmithian–Spathian extinction,[41]were 'disaster taxa':Palaeozoicspecies that survived thePermian–Triassic extinction eventand flourished in the immediate aftermath of the extinction;[42]ammonoids, conodonts, and radiolarians in particular suffered drastic biodiversity losses,[43][42]which is accentuated, among others, by thecosmopolitan distributionof the ammonoidAnasibirites.[44][45]Marine reptiles, such asichthyopterygiansandsauropterygians,diversified after the extinction.[37]

Theflorawas also affected significantly. It changed fromlycopoddominated (e.g.Pleuromeia) during theDienerianand Smithian subages togymnospermandpteridophytedominated in the Spathian.[46][13]These vegetation changes are due to global changes in temperature andprecipitation.Conifers(gymnosperms) were the dominant plants during most of theMesozoic.Until recently[when?]the existence of this extinction event about 249.4 Ma ago[47]was not recognised.[48]

The Smithian–Spathian boundary extinction was linked to late eruptions of theSiberian Traps,[49][50]which released warminggreenhouse gases,resulting in global warming[51]and in acidification, both on land[52]and in the ocean.[53][54]A large spike inmercuryconcentrations relative to total organic carbon, much like during the Permian-Triassic extinction, has been suggested as another contributor to the extinction,[55]although this is controversial and has been disputed by other research that suggests elevated mercury levels already existed by the middle Spathian.[56]Prior to the Smithian-Spathian Boundary extinction event, a flatgradient of latitudinal species richnessis observed, suggesting that warmer temperatures extended into higherlatitudes,allowing extension of geographic ranges of species adapted to warmer temperatures, and displacement or extinctions of species adapted to cooler temperatures.[44]Oxygen isotopestudies on conodonts have revealed that temperatures rose in the first 2 million years of the Triassic, ultimately reachingsea surface temperaturesof up to 40 °C (104 °F) in the tropics during the Smithian.[57]The extinction itself occurred during a subsequent drop in global temperatures (ca. 8°C over a geologically short period) in the latest Smithian; however, temperature alone cannot account for the Smithian-Spathian boundary extinction, because several factors were at play.[13][47]An alternative explanation for the extinction event hypothesises the biotic crisis took place not at the Smithian-Spathian boundary but shortly before, during the Late Smithian Thermal Maximum (LSTM), with the Smithian-Spathian boundary itself being associated with cessation of intrusive magmatic activity of the Siberian Traps,[58]along with significant global cooling,[59][60]after which a gradual biotic recovery took place over the early and middle Spathian,[58]along with a decline in continental weathering[61]and a rejuvenation of ocean circulation.[62]

In the ocean, many large and mobile species moved away from thetropics,but large fish remained,[29]and amongst the immobile species such asmolluscs,only the ones that could cope with the heat survived; half thebivalvesdisappeared.[63]Conodonts decreased in average size as a result of the extinction.[64]On land, the tropics were nearly devoid of life,[65]with exceptionally arid conditions recorded in Iberia and other parts of Europe then at low latitude.[66]Many big, activeanimalsreturned to the tropics, and plants recolonised on land, only when temperatures returned to normal.

There is evidence that life had recovered rapidly, at least locally. This is indicated by sites that show exceptionally high biodiversity (e.g. the earliest SpathianParis Biota),[38][39]which suggest thatfood webswere complex and comprised severaltrophic levels.

Notable formations

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* Tentatively assigned to the Olenekian; age estimated primarily via terrestrial tetrapodbiostratigraphy(seeTriassic land vertebrate faunachrons)

References

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Further reading

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31°57′55″N78°01′29″E/ 31.9653°N 78.0247°E/31.9653; 78.0247

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