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Not to be confused withIndian Tamils of Sri Lanka.

Sri Lankan Tamils
ஈழத்தமிழர்
இலங்கை தமிழர்
A postcard image of a Sri Lankan Tamil woman, 1910.
Total population
~ 3.0 million
(estimated; excludingMoorsandIndian Tamils)
Regions with significant populations
Sri Lanka2,270,924 (2012)[1]
Canada~300,000[2][3][4][5][6]
United Kingdom~120,000 (2006)[7]
India~100,000 (2005)[8]
Germany~60,000 (2008)[9]
France~50,000 (2008)[10]
Switzerland~50,000 (2022)[11]
Singapore~30,000 (1985)[12]
Australia~30,000[13]
United States~25,000 (2010)[14]
Italy~25,000[13]
Malaysia~24,436 (1970)[15]
Netherlands~20,000[13]
Norway~10,000 (2000)[16]
Denmark~9,000 (2003)[17]
Languages
Tamil
(Sri Lankan dialects)
Religion
Majority
[18]
Buddhism[19]
Related ethnic groups
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History
Culture
People
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Sri Lankan Tamils(Tamil:இலங்கை தமிழர்,ilankai tamiḻarorஈழத் தமிழர்,īḻat tamiḻar),[21]also known asCeylon TamilsorEelam Tamils,[22][23]areTamilsnative to theSouth Asianisland stateofSri Lanka.Today, they constitute a majority in theNorthern Province,form the plurality in theEastern Provinceand are in the minority throughout the rest of the country.70% of Sri Lankan Tamilsin Sri Lanka live in the Northern and Eastern provinces.[1]

Modern Sri Lankan Tamils descend from residents of theJaffna Kingdom,a former kingdom in the north of Sri Lanka andVannimaichieftainciesfrom the east. According to the anthropological and archaeological evidence, Sri Lankan Tamils have a very longhistory in Sri Lankaand have lived on the island since at least around the 2nd centuryBCE.

The Sri Lankan Tamils are mostlyHinduswith a significantChristianpopulation.Sri Lankan Tamil literatureon topics including religion and the sciences flourished during the medieval period in the court of the Jaffna Kingdom. Since the beginning of theSri Lankan Civil Warin the 1980s, it is distinguished by an emphasis on themes relating to the conflict.Sri Lankan Tamil dialectsare noted for theirarchaismand retention of words not in everyday use in Southern India. The cultures of the Sri Lankan Tamils are also very distinctive and unique, even though the cultural influence of modern South India has grown and become prevalent since the 19th century.[24]

Since Sri Lanka gainedindependencefromBritainin 1948, relations between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil communities have been strained. Rising ethnic and political tensions following theSinhala Only Act,along withethnic pogromscarried out by Sinhalese mobs in1956,1958,1977,1981and1983,led to the formation and strengthening ofmilitant groupsadvocatingindependence for Tamils.The ensuingcivil warresulted in the deaths of more than 100,000 people and theforced disappearanceandrapeof thousands of others. The civil war ended in 2009 but there are continuingallegations of atrocitiesbeing committed by theSri Lankan military.[25][26][27]AUnited Nations panelfound that as many as 40,000 Tamil civilians may have been killed in the final months of the civil war.[28]In January 2020, PresidentGotabaya Rajapaksasaid that the estimated 20,000+ disappeared Sri Lankan Tamils were dead.[29]The end of the civil war has not fully improved conditions in Sri Lanka, with press freedom not being restored and the judiciary coming under political control.[30][31][32]

One-third of Sri Lankan Tamils now live outside Sri Lanka. While there was significant migration during theBritish colonialera to Singapore and Malaysia, the civil war led to more than 800,000 Tamils leaving Sri Lanka, and many haveleft the countryfor destinations such as Canada, United Kingdom, Germany and India as refugees or emigrants. According to the pro-rebelTamilNet,thepersecutionanddiscriminationthat Sri Lankan Tamils faced has resulted in some Tamils today not identifying themselves as Sri Lankans but instead identifying themselves as eitherEelamTamils, Ceylon Tamils, or simply Tamils.[33][34]Many still support the idea ofTamil Eelam,a proposedindependent statethat Sri Lankan Tamilsaspired to createin theNorth-Eastof Sri Lanka.[35][36][37][38][39]Inspired by theTamil Eelam flag,thetigeralso used by theLTTE,has become a symbol ofTamil nationalismfor some Tamils in Sri Lanka and the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora.[40][41]

History

[edit]
Part ofa serieson
Sri Lankan Tamils
Ancient era
Middle Ages
Colonial
Post independence
Civil war

There is little scholarly consensus over the presence of the Sri Lankan Tamil people in Sri Lanka, also known asEelaminSangam literature.[42]One older theory states that there were no large Tamil settlements in Sri Lanka until the 10th century CE.[43]According to the anthropological and archaeological evidence, Sri Lankan Tamils have a very longhistory in Sri Lankaand have lived on the island since at least around the 2nd centuryBCE.[44][45]

Prehistoric period

[edit]
Megalithic burial urns or jar found in Pomparippu, North Western, Sri Lanka dated to at least five to two centuries BCE. These are similar to Megalithic burial jars found inSouth Indiaand theDeccanduring the similar time frame.[46]
South Indian type black and red ware pot sherds found in Sri Lanka and dated to 1st to 2nd century CE. Displayed at theNational Museum of Colombo.

TheIndigenousVeddasare ethnically related to people in South India and early populations ofSoutheast Asia.It is not possible to ascertain what languages that they originally spoke asVedda languageis considered diverged from its original source (due to Sinhalese language influence).[47]

According toK. Indrapala,cultural diffusion,rather than migration of people, spread thePrakritandTamil languagesfrom peninsular India into an existingmesolithicpopulation, centuries before thecommon era.[48]Tamil Brahmiand Tamil-Prakrit scripts were used to write the Tamil language during this period on the island.[49]

During theprotohistoric period(1000-500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united withSouthern India,[50]and shared the same megalithic burials,pottery,iron technology, farming techniques andmegalithic graffiti.[51][52]This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as theVelir,prior to the migration ofPrakritspeakers.[53][54][51]

Settlements of culturally similar early populations of ancient Sri Lanka and ancientTamil Naduin India were excavated atmegalithic burial sitesat Pomparippu on the west coast and inKathiravelion the east coast of the island. Bearing a remarkable resemblance to burials in theEarly Pandyan Kingdom,these sites were established between the 5th century BCE and 2nd century CE.[46][55]

Excavatedceramicsequences similar to that ofArikameduwere found inKandarodai(Kadiramalai) on the north coast, dated to 1300 BCE. Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archaeologists to 10th century BCE. However, Indian history and archaeology have pushed the date back to 15th century BCE.[56]In Sri Lanka, there is radiometric evidence fromAnuradhapurathat the non-Brahmisymbol-bearingblack and red wareoccur in the 10th century BCE.[57]

The skeletal remains of anEarly Iron Agechief were excavated inAnaikoddai,Jaffna District.The nameKo Vetais engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BCE. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan, Ko Putivira and Ko Ra-pumaan occurring in contemporaryTamil Brahmiinscriptions of ancient South India andEgypt.[58][59]

Historic period

[edit]
See also:Tamil inscriptions in Sri Lanka

Potsherdswithearly Tamil writingfrom the 2nd century BCE have been found from the north inPoonagari,Kilinochchi Districtto the south inTissamaharama.They bore several inscriptions, including a clan name—veḷ,a name related tovelirfromancient Tamil country.[60]

OncePrakritspeakers had attained dominance on the island, theMahavamsafurther recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the TamilPandya Kingdomto theAnuradhapura Kingdomin the early historic period.[61]

Epigraphicevidence shows people identifying themselves as Damelas or Damedas (thePrakritword for Tamil people) in Anuradhapura, the capital city ofRajaratathe middle kingdom, and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as the 2nd century BCE.[62]Excavations in the area ofTissamaharamain southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins, produced between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, some of which carry local Tamil personal names written in early Tamil characters,[63]which suggest that local Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along the southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period.[64]

Other ancient inscriptions from the period reference a Tamil merchant,[a]the Tamil householder residing in Iḷabharata[b]and a Tamil sailor named Karava.[c]Two of the six ancient inscriptions referring to the Damedas (Tamils) are in Periya Pullyakulam in theVavuniya District,one is in Seruvavila inTrincomalee District,one is in Kuduvil inAmpara District,one is in Anuradhapura and one is inMatale District.[65]

Literary sources make references about Tamil rulers bringing horses to the island in water crafts in the second century BCE, most likely arriving atKudiramalai.Historical records establish that Tamil kingdoms in modern India were closely involved in the island's affairs from about the 2nd century BCE.[66][67]Kudiramalai, Kandarodai andVallipuramserved as great northern Tamil capitals and emporiums of trade with these kingdoms and theRomansfrom the 6th–2nd centuries BCE. The archaeological discoveries in these towns and theManimekhalai,a historical poem, detail how Nāka-Tivu of Nāka-Nadu on theJaffna Peninsulawas a lucrative international market for pearl and conch trading for the Tamil fishermen.

InMahavamsa,a historical poem, ethnic Tamil adventurers such asEllalaninvaded the island around 145 BCE.[68]Early CholakingKarikalan,son ofEelamcetcenniutilised superiorChola naval powerto conquer Ceylon in the first century CE.Hindu Saivism,Tamil BuddhismandJainismwere popular amongst the Tamils at this time, as was the proliferation ofvillage deity worship.

TheAmaravati schoolwas influential in the region when theSatavahana dynastyestablished the Andhra empire and its 17th monarchHāla(20–24 CE) married a princess from the island. AncientVanniarssettled in the east of the island in the first few centuries of the common era to cultivate and maintain the area.[69][70]TheVanni regionflourished.[71]

In the 6th century CE, a special coastal route by boat was established from the Jaffna peninsula southwards to Saivite religious centres inTrincomalee(Koneswaram) and further south toBatticaloa(Thirukkovil), passed a few small Tamil trading settlements inMullaitivuon the north coast.[72]

The conquests and rule of the island byPallavakingNarasimhavarman I(630–668 CE) and his grandfather KingSimhavishnu(537–590 CE) saw the erection and structural development of severalKovilsaround the island, particularly in thenorth-east—these PallavaDravidian rock templesremained a popular and highly influential style of architecture in the region over the next few centuries.[73][74][75]Tamil soldiers from what is now South India were brought to Anuradhapura between the 7th and 11th centuries CE in such large numbers that local chiefs and kings trying to establish legitimacy came to rely on them.[76]By the 8th century CE Tamil villages were collectively known asDemel-kaballa(Tamil allotment),Demelat-valademin(Tamil villages), andDemel-gam-bim(Tamil villages and lands).[77]

Medieval period

[edit]
TheJaffna royal family,first from the right isCankili I,who held off thePortuguese Empire.
Coylot Wanees Contrey(CoylotVannicountry),Malabarcountry in the northeast of the island on a 1681 CE map byRobert Knoxas published in his book.[78]

In the 9th and 10th centuries CE,PandyaandCholaincursions into Sri Lanka culminated in theChola annexation of the island,which lasted until the latter half of the 11th century CE.[76][79][80][81][82][83]Raja Raja Chola Irenamed the northern throneMummudi Chola Mandalamafter his conquest of the northeast country to protect Tamil traders being looted, imprisoned and killed for years on the island.[84]Rajadhiraja Chola's conquest of the island led to the fall of four kings there, one of whom, Madavarajah, the king of Jaffna, was a usurper from theRashtrakuta Dynasty.[85]These dynasties oversaw the development of several kovils that administered services to communities of land assigned to the temples through royal grants. Their rule also saw the benefaction of other faiths. Recent excavations have led to the discovery of a limestone Kovil of Raja Raja Chola I's era onDelftisland, found with Chola coins from this period.[86]The decline of Chola power in Sri Lanka was followed by the restoration of thePolonnaruwa kingdomin the late 11th century CE.[87]

In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominantArya Chakaravarthidynasty established an independentJaffna kingdomon the Jaffna peninsula and other parts of the north.[88]The Arya Chakaravarthi expansion into the south was halted byAlagakkonara,[89]a man descended from a family of merchants fromKanchipuramin Tamil Nadu. He was the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V (1344–59 CE). Vira Alakeshwara, a descendant of Alagakkonara, later became king of the Sinhalese,[90]buthe was overthrownby theMingadmiralZheng Hein 1409 CE. The next year, the Chinese admiralZheng Heerected atrilingual stone tabletinGallein the south of the island, written inChinese,Persianand Tamil that recorded offerings he made toBuddha,Allahand the God of Tamils Tenavarai Nayanar. The admiral invoked the blessings of Hindu deities at Temple of PerimpanayagamTenavaram, Tevanthuraifor a peaceful world built on trade.[91]

The 1502 mapCantinorepresents three Tamil cities on the east coast of the island -Mullaitivu,TrincomaleeandPanama,where the residents growcinnamonand other spices, fish for pearls and seed pearls and worship idols, trading heavily withKozhikodeofKerala.[92]The Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty ruled large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until thePortuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdomin 1619 CE. The coastal areas of the island were conquered by theDutchand then became part of theBritish Empirein 1796 CE.

The SinhaleseNampotadated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Tamil Kingdom, including parts of the modern Trincomalee District, was recognised as a Tamil region by the name Demala-pattana (Tamil city).[93]In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in the Jaffna, Mullaitivu and Trincomalee districts are mentioned as places in Demala-pattana.[94]

The English sailorRobert Knoxdescribed walking into the island's Tamil country in the publicationAn Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon,referencing some aspects of their royal, rural and economic life and annotating some kingdoms within it on a map in 1681 CE.[95]Upon arrival of European powers from the 17th century CE, the Tamils' separate nation was described in their areas of habitation in the northeast of the island.[d]

Thecaste structureof the majoritySinhalesehas also accommodated Tamil and Kerala immigrants from South India since the 13th century CE. This led to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups: theSalagama,theDuravaand theKarava.[96][97][98]The Tamil migration and assimilation continued until the 18th century CE.[96]

Society

[edit]
Main article:Sri Lankan society
See also:Caste system in Sri Lanka § Sri Lankan Tamils

Demographics

[edit]
Distribution of Sri Lankan Tamil people in Sri Lanka by DS Division according 2012 census.

According to the 2012 census there were 2,270,924 Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka, 11.2% of the population.[1]Sri Lankan Tamils constitute an overwhelming majority of the population in theNorthern Provinceand are the largest ethnic group in theEastern Province.[1]They are minority in other provinces. 70% of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka live in the Northern and Eastern provinces.[1]

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1911528,000—
1921517,300−2.0%
1931598,900+15.8%
1946733,700+22.5%
1953884,700+20.6%
19631,164,700+31.6%
19711,424,000+22.3%
19811,886,900+32.5%
19892,124,000+12.6%
20122,270,924+6.9%
Source:[1][99][100][e]
Distribution of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka (2012)[1]
Province Sri Lankan
Tamils 		%
Province 		% Sri Lankan
Tamils
Central 128,263 5.0% 5.7%
Eastern 609,584 39.3% 26.8%
Northern 987,692 93.3% 43.5%
North Central 12,421 1.0% 0.6%
North Western 66,286 2.8% 2.9%
Sabaragamuwa 74,908 3.9% 3.3%
Southern 25,901 1.1% 1.1%
Uva 30,118 2.4% 1.3%
Western 335,751 5.8% 14.8%
Total 2,270,924 11.2% 100.0%

There are no accurate figures for the number of Sri Lankan Tamils living in thediaspora.Estimates range from 450,000 to one million.[101][102]

Other Tamil-speaking communities

[edit]
Main articles:Sri Lankan MoorsandIndian Tamils of Sri Lanka
Indian Tamilsare classed as a separate ethnic group.

The two groups of Tamils located in Sri Lanka are the Sri Lankan Tamils and theIndian Tamils.There also exists asignificant populationin Sri Lanka who are native speakers of Tamil language and are ofIslamicfaith. Though a significant amount of evidence points towards these Muslims beingethnic Tamils,[103][104][105]they are controversially[103][105][106]listed as a separate ethnic group by theSri Lankan government.[107][108][109]

Sri Lankan Tamils (also called Ceylon Tamils) are descendants of the Tamils of the oldJaffna Kingdomand east coast chieftaincies calledVannimais.The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of bonded labourers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations.[110][111]

Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capitalColombo,and most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands.[109]Historically, both groups have seen themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.[112]In 1948, theUnited National Partygovernmentstripped the Indian Tamils of their citizenship.Under the terms of an agreement reached between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, about forty percent of the Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan citizenship, and most of the remainder wererepatriatedto India.[113]By the 1990s, most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship.[113]

Regional groups

[edit]

Sri Lankan Tamils are categorised into three subgroups based on regional distribution, dialects, and culture: Negombo Tamils from the western part of the island, Eastern Tamils from the eastern part, and Jaffna or Northern Tamils from the north.

Eastern Tamils

[edit]
TheKoneswaram Hindu TempleinTrincomalee,mentioned inSaiva literaturecirca 700 CE byThirugnana Sambanthar[114]
See also:History of Eastern Tamils

Eastern Tamils inhabit a region that spans theTrincomalee,Batticaloa,andAmparadistricts.[115]Their history and traditions are inspired by local legends, native literature, and colonial documents.[116]

In the 16th century the area came under the nominal control of theKingdom of Kandy,but there was scattered leadership under Vannimai chiefs in Batticaloa District[117][118]who came withMagha'sarmy in 1215.[119]From that time on, Eastern Tamil social development diverged from that of the Northern Tamils.

Eastern Tamils are an agrarian-based society. They follow acaste systemsimilar to the South Indian orDravidiankinshipsystem. The Eastern Tamil caste hierarchy is dominated by theMukkuvar,VellalarandKaraiyar.[120]The main feature of their society is thekudisystem.[121]Although the Tamil wordkudimeans a house or settlement, in eastern Sri Lanka it is related to matrimonial alliances. It refers to theexogamousmatrilinealclansand is found amongst most caste groups.[122]Men or women remain members of thekudiof their birth and be brother or sister by relation. No man can marry in the samekudibecause woman is always become sister to him. But, a man can only marry in one of hissampanthakudis not in thesakotharakudis. By custom, children born in a family belong to mother'skudi.Kudialso collectively own places of worship such asHindu temples.[122]Each caste contains a number ofkudis,with varying names. Aside from castes with an internalkudisystem, there are seventeen caste groups, calledCiraikudis,or imprisonedkudis,whose members were considered to be in captivity, confined to specific services such as washing, weaving, andtoddy tapping.However, such restrictions no longer apply.

The Tamils of the Trincomalee district have different social customs from their southern neighbours due to the influence of the Jaffna kingdom to the north.[122]TheindigenousVeddhapeople of the east coast also speak Tamil and have become assimilated into the Eastern Tamil caste structure.[123]Most Eastern Tamils follow customary laws calledMukkuva lawscodified during theDutch colonial period.[124]

Northern Tamils

[edit]

Jaffna's historyof being an independent kingdom lends legitimacy to the political claims of the Sri Lankan Tamils, and has provided a focus for their constitutional demands.[125]Northern Tamil society is generally categorised into two groups: those who are from theJaffna peninsulain the north, and those who are residents of theVannito the immediate south. The Jaffna society is separated bycastes.Historically, theSri Lankan Vellalarwere in northern region dominant and were traditionallyhusbandmaninvolved inagricultureandcattle cultivation.[126]They constitute half of the population and enjoyed dominance under Dutch rule, from which community the colonial political elites also were drawn from.[127]The maritime communities existed outside the agriculture-based caste system and is dominated by theKaraiyars.[128][129]The dominant castes (e.g. theVellalarorKaraiyar) traditionally use the service of those collectively known asKudimakkal.The Panchamars, who serve as Kudimakkal, consists of theNalavar,Pallar,Parayar,VannarandAmbattar.[125]The castes of temple priests known as the Kurukkals and theIyersare also held in high esteem.[128]The artisans who are known asKammalaralso serve as Kudimakkal, and consists of theKannar(brass-workers),Kollar(blacksmiths),Tattar(goldsmiths),Tatchar(carpenters) andKartatchar(sculptor). TheKudimakkalweredomestic servantswho also gave ritual importance to the dominant castes.[130][131]

People in the Vanni districts considered themselves separate from Tamils of the Jaffna peninsula but the two groups did intermarry. Most of these married couples moved into the Vanni districts where land was available. Vanni consists of a number of highland settlements within forested lands usingirrigation tank-based cultivation. An 1890 census listed 711 such tanks in this area. Hunting and raising livestock such aswater buffaloand cattle is a necessary adjunct to the agriculture. The Tamil-inhabited Vanni consists of theVavuniya,Mullaitivu,and easternMannardistricts. Historically, the Vanni area has been in contact with what is now South India, including during the medieval period and was ruled by theVanniar Chieftains.[125]Northern Tamils follow customary laws calledThesavalamai,codified during theDutch colonial period.[132]

Western Tamils

[edit]
Main article:Negombo Tamils

Western Tamils, also known asNegombo Tamilsor Puttalam Tamils, are native Sri Lankan Tamils who live in the westernGampahaandPuttalamdistricts. The term does not apply to Tamil immigrants in these areas.[133]They are distinguished from other Tamils by their dialects, one of which is known as theNegombo Tamil dialect,and by aspects of their culture such ascustomary laws.[133][134][135]Most Negombo Tamils have assimilated into theSinhaleseethnic group through a process known asSinhalisation.Sinhalisation has been facilitated bycastemyths and legends.[136]The Western Tamils caste hierarchy is principally dominated by the maritimeKaraiyars,along with other dominant groups such as theParavars.[137]

In Gampaha District, Tamils have historically inhabited the coastal region. In the Puttalam District, there was a substantial ethnic Tamil population until the first two decades of the 20th century.[136][138]Most of those who identify as ethnic Tamils live in villages such asUdappuandMaradankulam.[139]The coastal strip fromJaffnatoChilawis also known as the "Catholic belt".[140]TheTamil Christians,chiefly Roman Catholics, have preserved their heritage in the major cities such asNegombo,Chilaw,Puttalam,and also in villages such asMampuri.[136]

Some residents of these two districts, especially theKaraiyars,are bilingual, ensuring that the Tamil language survives as alingua francaamong migrating maritime communities across the island. Negombo Tamil dialect is spoken by about 50,000 people. This number does not include others, outside of Negombo city, who speak local varieties of the Tamil language.[134]The bilingual catholicKaravasare also found in the western coastal regions, who trace their origins to the TamilKaraiyarhowever identify themselves asSinhalese.[141]

Negombo Tamil indicates that theKaravasimmigrated to Sri Lanka much later than Tamils immigrated to Jaffna. This would suggest that the Negombo dialect continued to evolve in the Coromandel Coast before it arrived in Sri Lanka and began to get influenced by Sinhala. So, in some ways, the dialect is closer to those spoken in Tamil Nadu than to Jaffna Tamil.[142]

SomeTamil place nameshave been retained in these districts. Outside the Tamil-dominated northeast, the Puttalam District has the highest percentage of place names of Tamil origin in Sri Lanka. Composite or hybrid place names are also present in these districts.[143]

Genetic affinities

[edit]
Main article:Genetic studies on Sri Lankan Tamils

Although Sri Lankan Tamils are culturally and linguistically distinct, genetic studies indicate that they are closely related to other ethnic groups in the island while being related to the Indian Tamils from South India as well. There are various studies that indicate varying degrees of connections between Sri Lankan Tamils, Sinhalese, and Indian ethnic groups.

A study conducted by Kshatriya in 1995 found that both ethnolinguistic groups of Sri Lanka, including the Tamils, were closest to the Tamil population of India and also the Muslim population of South India. They were found to be the most distant group from the Veddahs, and quite distant from both North-West Indians (Punjabis and Gujratis) and North-East Indians (Bengalis).[144]In comparison to Indian Tamils, the Tamils of Sri Lanka had a higher admixture with the Sinhalese, though the Sinhalese themselves share a 69.86% (+/- 0.61) genetic admixture with the Indian Tamils.[144]The study stated that any admixture from migrations several thousand years ago must have been erased through millennia of admixture among geographically local peoples.[144]

Religion

[edit]
A Hindu gentleman of North Ceylon (1859)[145]
TheNallur Kandaswamy Kovil,one of the main Kovil in Sri Lanka.
See also:Hinduism in Sri Lanka,Christianity in Sri Lanka,andVillage deities of Tamils of Sri Lanka

In 1981, about eighty percent of Sri Lankan Tamils wereHinduswho followed theShaivasect.[146]The rest were mostly Roman Catholics who converted after thePortuguese conquest of Jaffna Kingdom.There is also a small minority of Protestants due to missionary efforts in the 18th century by organisations such as theAmerican Ceylon Mission.[147]Most Tamils who inhabit theWestern Provinceare Roman Catholics, while those of theNorthernandEastern Provincesare mainly Hindu.[148]Pentecostaland other churches, such asJehovah's Witnesses,are active among the internally displaced and refugee populations.[149]The 2012 Sri Lanka Census revealed aBuddhistpopulation of 22,254 amongst Sri Lankan Tamils, i.e. roughly 1% of all Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka.[18]

The Hindu elite, especially theVellalar,follow the religious ideology ofShaiva Siddhanta(Shaiva school) while the masses practicefolk Hinduism,upholding their faith in local village deities not found in formal Hindu scriptures. The place of worship depends on the object of worship and how it is housed. It could be a proper Hindu temple known as aKoyil,constructed according to theAgamicscripts (a set of scriptures regulating the temple cult). More often, however, the temple is not completed in accordance withAgamicscriptures but consists of the barest essential structure housing a local deity.[148]These temples observe dailyPuja(prayers) hours and are attended by locals. Both types of temples have a resident ritualist or priest known as aKurukkal.AKurukkalmay belong to someone from a prominent local lineage likePandaramor Iyer community.[148]In the Eastern Province, aKurukkalusually belongs toLingayatsect. Other places of worship do not have icons for their deities. The sanctum could house atrident(culam), a stone, or a large tree. Temples of this type are common in the Northern and Eastern Provinces; a typical village has up to 150 such structures. The offering would be done by an elder of the family who owns the site. A coconut oil lamp would be lit on Fridays, and a special rice dish known aspongalwould be cooked either on a day considered auspicious by the family or on theThai Pongalday, and possibly onTamil New Year Day.

There are several worshipped deities:Ayyanar,Annamar,Vairavar,Kali,Pillaiyar,Murukan,Kannaki AmmanandMariamman.Villages have more Pillaiyar temples, which are patronised by local farmers.[148]Kannaki Amman is mostly patronised by maritime communities.[150]Tamil Roman Catholics, along with members of other faiths, worship at theShrine of Our Lady of Madhu.[151]Hindus have several temples with historic importance such as those atKetheeswaram,Koneswaram,Naguleswaram,Munneswaram,Tondeswaram,andNallur Kandaswamy.[152]Kataragamatemple andAdam's Peakare attended by all religious communities.

Language

[edit]
Main article:Sri Lankan Tamil dialects
See also:Languages of Sri Lanka,Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil,andSinhala words of Tamil origin

Sri Lankan Tamils predominantly speak Tamil and its Sri Lankan dialects. These dialects are differentiated by the phonological changes and sound shifts in their evolution from classical or old Tamil (3rd century BCE–7th century CE). The Sri Lankan Tamil dialects form a group that is distinct from the dialects of the modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala states of India. They are classified into three subgroups: the Jaffna Tamil, the Batticaloa Tamil, and theNegombo Tamil dialects.These dialects are also used by ethnic groups other than Tamils such as the Sinhalese,Moorsand Veddhas. Tamil loan words in Sinhala also follow the characteristics of Sri Lankan Tamil dialects.[153]Sri Lankan Tamils, depending on where they live in Sri Lanka, may also additionally speakSinhalaand orEnglish.According to the 2012 Census 32.8% or 614,169 Sri Lankan Tamils also spoke Sinhala and 20.9% or 390,676 Sri Lankan Tamils also spoke English.[154]

The Negombo Tamil dialect is used by bilingual fishermen in the Negombo area, who otherwise identify themselves as Sinhalese. This dialect has undergone considerable convergence with spokenSinhala.[135]The Batticaloa Tamil dialect is shared between Tamils, Muslims, Veddhas andPortuguese Burghersin the Eastern Province. Batticaloa Tamil dialect is the most literary of all the spoken dialects of Tamil. It has preserved several ancient features, remaining more consistent with the literary norm, while at the same time developing a few innovations. It also has its own distinctive vocabulary and retains words that are unique to present-dayMalayalam,aDravidian languagefrom Kerala that originated as adialectof old Tamil around 9th century CE.[155][156]The Tamil dialect used by residents of the Trincomalee District has many similarities with the Jaffna Tamil dialect.[153]

The dialect used in Jaffna is the oldest and closest to old Tamil. The long physical isolation of the Tamils of Jaffna has enabled their dialect to preserve ancient features of old Tamil that predateTolkappiyam,[153]the grammatical treatise on Tamil dated from 3rd century BCE to 10th century CE.[157]Also, a major component of the settlers were from the ancientMalabar Coasttill the 13th century, which may have contributed to the distinctiveness and preservation of the dialect.[158][24]Their ordinary speech is closely related to classical Tamil.[153]Conservational Jaffna Tamil dialect and Indian Tamil dialects are to an extent not mutually intelligible,[159]and the former is frequently mistaken forMalayalamby native Indian Tamil speakers.[160]The closest Tamil Nadu Tamil variant to Jaffna Tamil is literary Tamil, used in formal speeches and news reading. There are alsoPrakritloan words that are unique to Jaffna Tamil.[161][162]

Education

[edit]
A group ofAmerican Ceylon Missionmissionaries in Jaffna (circa 1890)

Sri Lankan Tamil society values education highly, for its own sake as well as for the opportunities it provides.[134]The kings of the Aryacakravarti dynasty were historically patrons of literature and education. Temple schools and traditionalgurukulamclasses onverandahs(known asThinnai Pallikoodamin Tamil) spread basic education in religion and in languages such as Tamil andSanskritto the upper classes.[163]The Portuguese introduced western-style education after their conquest of the Jaffna kingdom in 1619. The Jesuits opened churches and seminaries, but the Dutch destroyed them and opened their own schools attached toDutch Reformed churcheswhen they took over Tamil-speaking regions of Sri Lanka.[164]

The primary impetus for educational opportunity came with the establishment of the American Ceylon Mission in Jaffna District, which started with the arrival in 1813 of missionaries sponsored by theAmerican Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.The critical period of the missionaries' impact was from the 1820s to the early 20th century. During this time, they created Tamil translations of English texts, engaged in printing and publishing, established primary, secondary, andcollege-level schools,and provided health care for residents of the Jaffna Peninsula. American activities in Jaffna also had unintended consequences. The concentration of efficient Protestant mission schools in Jaffna produced a revival movement among local Hindus led byArumuga Navalar,who responded by building many more schools within the Jaffna peninsula. Local Catholics also started their own schools in reaction, and the state had its share of primary and secondary schools. Tamil literacy greatly increased as a result of these changes. This prompted the British colonial government to hire Tamils as government servants in British-held Ceylon, India,Malaysia,andSingapore.[165]

By the time Sri Lanka became independent in 1948, about sixty percent of government jobs were held by Tamils, who formed barely fifteen percent of the population. The elected Sinhalese leaders of the country saw this as the result of a British stratagem to control the majority Sinhalese, and deemed it a situation that needed correction by implementation of thePolicy of standardization.[166][167]

Literature

[edit]
Main article:Sri Lankan Tamil literature

According to legends, the origin of Sri Lankan Tamil literature dates back to theSangam period(3rd century BCE–6th century CE). These legends indicate that the Tamil poetEelattu Poothanthevanar(Poothanthevanar from Sri Lanka) lived during this period.[168]

Medieval period Tamil literature on the subjects of medicine, mathematics and history was produced in the courts of the Jaffna Kingdom. DuringSingai Pararasasekaran's rule, an academy for the propagation of the Tamil language, modelled on those of ancientTamil Sangam,was established in Nallur. This academy collected manuscripts of ancient works and preserved them in the Saraswathy Mahal library.[163][169]

During the Portuguese and Dutch colonial periods (1619–1796),Muttukumara Kavirajaris the earliest known author who used literature to respond to Christian missionary activities. He was followed byArumuga Navalar,who wrote and published a number of books.[168]The period of joint missionary activities by theAnglican,American Ceylon, andMethodistMissions also saw the spread of modern education and the expansion of translation activities.

The modern period of Tamil literature began in the 1960s with the establishment of modern universities and a free education system in post-independence Sri Lanka. The 1960s also saw a social revolt against thecastesystem in Jaffna, which impacted Tamil literature:Dominic Jeeva,Senkai aazhiyaan, Thamizhmani Ahalangan are the products of this period.[168]

After the start of the civil war in 1983, a number of poets and fiction writers became active, focusing on subjects such as death, destruction, and rape. Such writings have no parallels in any previous Tamil literature.[168]The war produced displaced Tamil writers around the globe who recorded their longing for their lost homes and the need for integration with mainstream communities in Europe and North America.[168]

TheJaffna Public Librarywhich contained over 97,000 books and manuscripts was one of the biggest libraries in Asia, and through theBurning of the Jaffna Public Librarymuch ofSri Lankan Tamil literaturehas been obliterated.[170]

Cuisine

[edit]
Puttu,with sea food at a shop in Jaffna.
String hoppers,known asIdiyappamin Tamil, is a popular breakfast and dinner dish.
See also:Tamil cuisineandSri Lankan cuisine

The cuisine of Sri Lankan Tamils draws influence from that of India, as well as from colonialists and foreign traders. Rice is usually consumed daily and can be found at any special occasion, while spicycurriesare favourite dishes for lunch and dinner.Rice and curryis the name for a range of Sri Lankan Tamil dishes distinct from Indian Tamil cuisine, with regional variations between the island's northern and eastern areas. While rice with curries is the most popular lunch menu, combinations such ascurd,tangy mango, and tomato rice are also commonly served.[171]

String hoppers,which are made ofrice flourand look like knittedvermicellineatly laid out in circular pieces about 12 centimetres (4.7 in) in diameter, are frequently combined with tomatosothi(a soup) and curries for breakfast and dinner.[172]Another common item isputtu,a granular, dry, but soft steamed rice powder cooked in a bamboo cylinder with the base wrapped in cloth so that the bamboo flute can be set upright over a clay pot of boiling water. This can be transformed into varieties such asragi,spinach, and tapioca puttu. There are also sweet and savoury puttus.[173]Another popular breakfast or dinner dish isAppam,a thin crusty pancake made with rice flour, with a round soft crust in the middle.[174]It has variations such as egg or milk Appam.[171]

Jaffna, as a peninsula, has an abundance of seafood such as crab, shark, fish, prawn, and squid. Meat dishes such as mutton, chicken and pork also have their own niche. Vegetable curries use ingredients primarily from the home garden such as pumpkin,yam,jackfruitseed,hibiscusflower, and various green leaves.Coconut milkand hotchillipowder are also frequently used. Appetizers can consist of a range ofachars(pickles) andvadahams.Snacks and sweets are generally of the homemade "rustic" variety, relying onjaggery,sesameseed, coconut, andgingelly oil,to give them their distinct regional flavour. A popular alcoholic drink in rural areas ispalm wine(toddy), made frompalmyra treesap. Snacks, savouries, sweets and porridge produced from the palmyra form a separate but unique category of foods; from the fan-shaped leaves to the root, the palmyra palm forms an intrinsic part of the life and cuisine of northern region.[171]

Politics

[edit]
See also:Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism,Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war,Sri Lankan Civil War,andTamil Eelam

Sri Lanka became an independent nation in 1948. Since independence, the political relationship between the Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamil communities has been strained. Sri Lanka has been unable to contain its ethnic violence as it escalated from sporadic terrorism to mob violence, and finally to civil war.[175]TheSri Lankan Civil Warhas several underlying causes: the ways in which modern ethnic identities have been made and remade since the colonial period, rhetorical wars over archaeological sites andplace name etymologies,and the political use of the national past.[97]The civil war resulted in the death of at least 100,000 people[176][177]and, according to human rights groups such asHuman Rights Watch,theforced disappearanceof thousands of others (seeWhite van abductions in Sri Lanka).[178][179][180]Since 1983, Sri Lanka has also witnessed massive civilian displacements of more than a million people, with eighty percent of them being Sri Lankan Tamils.[181]

Before independence

[edit]

The arrival of Protestant missionaries on a large scale beginning in 1814 was a primary contributor to the development of political awareness among Sri Lankan Tamils. Activities by missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions andMethodistandAnglicanchurches led to a revival among Hindu Tamils who created their own social groups, built their own schools and temples, and published their own literature to counter the missionary activities. The success of this effort led to a new confidence for the Tamils, encouraging them to think of themselves as a community, and it paved the way for their emergence as a cultural, religious, and linguistic society in the mid-19th century.[182][183]

Britain,which conquered the whole island by 1815, established alegislative councilin 1833. During the 1833 Colebrooke-Cameron reforms the British centralised control to Colombo and amalgamated all administrative territories including the Tamil areas which had previously been administered separately.[184]A form of modern central government was established for the first time in the island, followed by gradual decline of local form of feudalism including Rajakariya, which was abolished soon after.

In the legislative council the British assigned three European seats and one seat each for Sinhalese, Tamils andBurghers.[185]This council's primary function was to act as advisor to theGovernor,and the seats eventually became elected positions.[186]There was initially little tension between the Sinhalese and the Tamils, when in 1913Ponnambalam Arunachalam,a Tamil, was elected representative of the Sinhalese as well as of the Tamils in the national legislative council. British GovernorWilliam Manning,who was appointed in 1918 however, actively encouraged the concept of "communal representation".[187]Subsequently, the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 rejected communal representation and brought inuniversal franchise.This decision was opposed by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in parliament according to their proportion of the overall population. In 1944,G. G. Ponnambalam,a leader of the Tamil community, suggested to theSoulbury Commissionthat a roughly equal number of seats be assigned to Sinhalese and minorities in an independent Ceylon (50:50)—a proposal that was rejected.[188]But under section 29(2) of the constitution formulated by the commissioner, additional protection was provided to minority groups, such requiring a two-thirds majority for any amendments and a scheme of representation that provided more weight to the ethnic minorities.[189]

After independence

[edit]
Territorial claims for the state ofTamil Eelamby variousTamilgroups

Shortly after independence in 1948, G.G. Ponnambalam and hisAll Ceylon Tamil CongressjoinedD.S. Senanayake's moderate, western-orientedUnited National Partyledgovernmentwhich led to a split in the Tamil Congress.[190]S.J.V. Chelvanayakam,the leader of the splinterFederal Party(FP or Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi), contested theCeylon Citizenship Act,which denied citizenship to Tamils ofrecent Indian origin,before theSupreme Court,and then in thePrivy councilin England, but failed to overturn it. The FP eventually became the dominant Tamil political party.[191]In response to theSinhala Only Actin 1956, which made Sinhala the sole official language, Federal Party Members of Parliament staged a nonviolent sit-in (satyagraha) protest, but it was violently broken up by a mob. The FP was blamed and briefly banned after theriots of May–June 1958targeting Tamils, in which many were killed and thousands forced to flee their homes.[192]Another point of conflict between the communities wasstate sponsored colonisation schemesthat effectively changed the demographic balance in the Eastern Province, an area Tamil nationalists considered to be their traditional homeland, in favour of the majority Sinhalese.[175][193]

In 1972, a newly formulated constitution removed section 29(2) of the 1947 Soulbury constitution that was formulated to protect the interests of minorities.[189]Also, in 1973, thePolicy of standardizationwas implemented by the Sri Lankan government, supposedly to rectify disparities in university enrolment created underBritish colonial rule.The resultant benefits enjoyed by Sinhalese students also meant a significant decrease in the number of Tamil students within the Sri Lankan university student population.[194]

Shortly thereafter, in 1973, the Federal Party decided to demand aseparate Tamil state.In 1976 they merged with the other Tamil political parties to become theTamil United Liberation Front(TULF).[195][175][193]By 1977 most Tamils seemed to support the move for independence by electing the Tamil United Liberation Front overwhelmingly.[196]The elections were followed by the1977 riots,in which around 300 Tamils were killed.[197]There was further violence in 1981 when an organised Sinhalese mob went on a rampage during the nights of 31 May to 2 June,burning down the Jaffna public library—at the time one of the largest libraries in Asia—containing more than 97,000 books and manuscripts.[198][199]

Rise of militancy

[edit]
Main article:Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups
See also:Human rights in Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka and state terrorism,andList of attacks attributed to the LTTE
Tamil rebels in a pick-up truck inKillinochchiin 2004

Since 1948, successive governments have adopted policies that had the net effect of assisting the Sinhalese community in such areas as education and public employment.[200]These policies made it difficult for middle class Tamil youth toenter universityor secure employment.[200][201]

The individuals belonging to this younger generation, often referred to by other Tamils as "the boys" (Podiyangalin Tamil), formed many militant organisations.[200]The most important contributor to the strength of the militant groups was theBlack Julymassacre, in which between 1,000 and 3,000[202][203]Tamils were killed, prompting many youths to choose the path of armed resistance.[200][203][204]

By the end of 1987, the militant youth groups had fought not only the Sri Lankan security forces and theIndian Peace Keeping Forcealso among each other, with theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam(LTTE) eventually eliminating most of the others. Except for the LTTE, many of the remaining organisations transformed into either minor political parties within theTamil National Allianceor standalone political parties. Some also function as paramilitary groups within the Sri Lankan military.[200]

Human rights groups such asAmnesty InternationalandHuman Rights Watch,as well as theUnited States Department of State[205]and theEuropean Union,[206]have expressed concern about the state ofhuman rights in Sri Lanka,and both the government of Sri Lanka and the rebel LTTE have been accused of human rights violations. Although Amnesty International in 2003 found considerable improvement in the human rights situation, attributed to a ceasefire and peace talks between the government and the LTTE,[207]by 2007 they reported an escalation inpolitical killings,child recruitment,abductions,and armed clashes, which created a climate of fear in the north and east of the country.[208]

End of the civil war

[edit]

In August 2009, the civil war ended with total victory for the government forces. During the last phase of the war, many Tamil civilians and combatants were killed. The government estimated that over 22,000 LTTE cadres had died.[209]The civilian death toll is estimated to be as high as 40,000 or more.[210]This is in addition to the 70,000 Sri Lankans killed up to the beginning of the last phase of the civil war.[211]Over 300,000internally displacedTamil civilians were interred inspecial campsand eventually released. As of 2011, there were still a few thousand alleged combatants in state prisons awaiting trials.[212]The Sri Lankan government has released over 11,000 rehabilitated former LTTE cadres.[213]

Bishop of Mannar(a northwestern town)Rayappu Josephsaid that 146,679 people seemed to be unaccounted between 2008 October and at the end of the civil war.[214]

The Tamil presence in Sri Lankan politics and society is facing a revival. In 2015 elections the Tamil national alliance got the third largest number of seats in the Parliament and as the largest parties UNP and SLFP created a unity government TNA leader R. Sampanthan was appointed as the opposition leader.[215][216]K. Sripavan became the 44th Chief justice and the second Tamil to hold the position.[217]

Migrations

[edit]
Sri Kamadchi Ampal temple inHamm,Germany, built primarily by Sri Lankan Tamil expatriates[9]
Main article:Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora
See also:Tamil CanadianandBritish Tamil

Pre-independence

[edit]

The earliest Tamil speakers from Sri Lanka known to have travelled to foreign lands were members of amerchantguildcalledTenilankai Valanciyar(Valanciyar from Lanka of the South). They left behind inscriptions in South India dated to the 13th century.[218]In the late 19th century, educated Tamils from the Jaffna peninsula migrated to the British colonies ofMalaya(Malaysia and Singapore) and India to assist the colonial bureaucracy. They worked in almost every branch of public administration, as well as on plantations and in industrial sectors. Prominent Sri Lankan Tamils in the Forbes list of billionaire include:Ananda Krishnan,[219]Raj Rajaratnam,andG. Gnanalingam,[220]and Singapore's former foreign minister and deputy prime minister,S. Rajaratnam,are of Sri Lankan Tamil descent.[221]C. W. Thamotharampillai,an Indian-based Tamil language revivalist, was born in the Jaffna peninsula.[222]Before the Sri Lankan civil war, Sri Lankan Tamil communities were well established inMalaysia,Singapore,Indiaand theUK.

Post civil war

[edit]
Sri Lankan-Canadian Tamilchildren in traditional clothes in Canada

After the start of the conflict between the Sri Lankan government and theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam,there was a mass migration of Tamils trying to escape the hardships and perils of war. Initially, it was middle class professionals, such as doctors and engineers, who emigrated; they were followed by the poorer segments of the community. The fighting drove more than 800,000 Tamils from their homes to other places within Sri Lanka asinternally displaced personsand also overseas, prompting theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR) to identify them in 2004 as the largest asylum-seeking group.[8][223]

The country with the largest share of displaced Tamils is Canada, with more than 200,000 legal residents,[2]found mostly within theGreater Toronto Area.[224]and there are a number of prominent Canadians of Sri Lankan Tamil descent, such as authorShyam Selvadurai,[225]andIndira Samarasekera,[226]former president of theUniversity of Alberta.

Sri Lankan Tamils in Indiaare mostly refugees of about over 100,000 in special camps and another 50,000 outside of the camps.[8]In western European countries, the refugees and immigrants have integrated themselves into society where permitted.Tamil BritishsingerM.I.A(born Mathangi Arulpragasam)[227]andBBCjournalistGeorge Alagiah[228]are, among others, notable people of Sri Lankan Tamil descent. Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus have built a number of prominent Hindu temples across North America and Europe, notably in Canada, France, Germany, Denmark, and the UK.[9][17]

Sri Lankan Tamils continue to seek refuge in countries like Canada and Australia.[229][230]TheInternational Organization for Migrationand the Australian government has declared some Sri Lankans including Tamils as economic migrants.[231]A Canadian government survey found that over 70% of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees have gone back to Sri Lanka for holidays raising concerns over the legitimacy of their refugee claims.[232]However, the inability of Tamils to settle in their own lands indicate the ongoing hostilities and differential treatment of Tamils even after the end of armed war in May 2009.[233]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Dameda vanija gahapati Vishaka.
  2. ^Iḷa bharatahi Dameda Samane karite Dameda gahapathikana.
  3. ^Dameda navika karava.
  4. ^Upon arrival in June 1799, Sir Hugh Cleghorn, the island's first British colonial secretary wrote to the British government of the traits and antiquity of the Tamil nation on the island in theCleghorn Minute: "Two different nations from a very ancient period have divided between them the possession of the island. First the Sinhalese, inhabiting the interior in its Southern and Western parts, and secondly theMalabars[another name for Tamils] who possess the Northern and Eastern districts. These two nations differ entirely in their religion, language, and manners ". McConnell, D., 2008; Ponnambalam, S. 1983
  5. ^Data is based onSri Lankan Governmentcensus except 1989 which is an estimate.

References

[edit]
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Further reading

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