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State of emergency

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"State of siege" redirects here. For the 1972 film, seeState of Siege.
"Emergency declaration" redirects here. For the 2021 film, seeEmergency Declaration (film).
For other uses, seeState of emergency (disambiguation).
Members of theRoyal Malay Regimentduring theMalayan Emergencyin 1949, inspecting equipment captured in a raid

Astate of emergencyis a situation in which a government is empowered to put through policies that it would normally not be permitted to do, for the safety and protection of its citizens. A government can declare such a state before, during, or even after anatural disaster,civil unrest,armed conflict,medicalpandemicorepidemicor otherbiosecurityrisk.

Though it sounds alarming, it is reserved for serious situations after a natural disaster occurrence, but it has important technical ramifications, easing a city or state's access to federal aid.

Relationship with international law[edit]

Underinternational law,rights and freedoms may be suspended during a state of emergency, depending on the severity of theemergencyand a government's policies.[1]

Use and viewpoints[edit]

Democracies use states of emergency to manage a range of situations from extreme weather events to public order situations.Dictatorialregimes often declare a state of emergency that is prolonged indefinitely for the life of the regime, or for extended periods of time so that derogations can be used to overridehuman rightsof their citizens usually protected by theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights(ICCPR).[2]In some situations,martial lawis also declared, allowing themilitarygreater authority to act. In other situations, emergency is not declared and de facto measures taken or decree-law adopted by the government.Nicole Questiaux(France) andLeandro Despouy(Argentina), two consecutiveUnited Nations Special Rapporteurs,have recommended to the international community to adopt the following "principles" to be observed during a state or de facto situation of emergency: Principles of Legality, Proclamation, Notification, Time Limitation, Exceptional Threat, Proportionality, Non-Discrimination, Compatibility, Concordance and Complementarity of the Various Norms of International Law (cf. "Question of Human Rights and State of Emergency", E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/19, at Chapter II; see alsoétat d'exception).

Article 4 to theICCPR,permits states toderogatefrom certain rights guaranteed by the ICCPR in "time of public emergency". Any measures derogating from obligations under the Covenant, however, must be to only the extent required by the exigencies of the situation, and must be announced by the State Party to theSecretary-General of the United Nations.TheEuropean Convention on Human Rights[3]andAmerican Convention on Human Rights[4]have similar derogatory provisions. No derogation is permitted to theInternational Labour Conventions.

Some, such aspolitical theoristandNazi PartymemberCarl Schmitt,have argued that thepowerto decide the initiation of the state of emergency definessovereigntyitself. InState of Exception(2005),Giorgio Agambencriticized this idea, arguing that the mechanism of the state of emergency deprives certain people of theircivil and political rights,producing his interpretation ofhomo sacer.[5]

Graduation[edit]

In manydemocraticstates there are a selection oflegaldefinitions for specific states of emergency,[6]when theconstitutionof theStateis partially in abeyance depending on the nature of the perceived threat to thegeneral public.In order of severity these may include:

Abuse[edit]

The state of emergency can be abused by being invoked. An example would be to allow a state to suppress internal opposition without having to respecthuman rights.An example was theAugust 1991 attempted coupin theSoviet Union(USSR) where the coup leaders invoked a state of emergency; the failure of the coup led to thedissolution of the Soviet Union.

Derogations by states having ratified or acceded to binding international agreements such as theICCPR,theAmericanandEuropean Conventions on Human Rightsand the International Labor Conventions are monitored by independent expert committees, regional Courts and other State Parties.[7]

Law in selected countries[edit]

Argentina[edit]

TheConstitution of Argentina,which has been amended several times, has always allowed for a state of emergency (literallyestado de sitio,"state of siege" ), to be declared if the constitution or the authorities it creates are endangered by internal unrest or foreign attack. This provision was much abused during dictatorships, with long-lasting states of siege giving the government a free hand to suppress opposition.[8]TheAmerican Convention on Human Rights(Pacto de San José de Costa Rica), adopted in 1969 but ratified by Argentina only in 1984 immediately after the end of theNational Reorganization Process,restricts abuse of the state of emergency by requiring any signatory nation declaring such a state to inform the other signatories of its circumstances and duration, and what rights are affected.

Australia[edit]

See also:Exceptional circumstances,Biosecurity in Australia,andBiosecurity Act 2015

State-of-emergency legislation differs in each state of Australia. With regard to emergency management, regions (usually on alocal government areabasis) that have been affected by anatural disasterare the responsibility of the state, until that state declares a State of Emergency where access to the Federal Emergency Fund becomes available to help respond to and recover from natural disasters. A State of Emergency does not apply to the whole state, but ratherdistrictsorshires,where essential services may have been disrupted.[9]

On 18 March 2020,[10]a nationwide human biosecurity emergency was declared in Australia owing to the risks to human health posed by thecoronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic,after theNational Security Committeemet the previous day. TheBiosecurity Act 2015[11]specifies that thegovernor-general of Australiamay declare such an emergency if theHealth Ministeris satisfied that "a listed human disease is posing a severe and immediate threat, or is causing harm, to human health on a nationally significant scale". This gives the Minister sweeping powers, including imposing restrictions or preventing the movement of people and goods between specified places, andevacuations.[12]TheBiosecurity (Human Biosecurity Emergency) (Human Coronavirus with Pandemic Potential) Declaration 2020was declared by the Governor-General,David Hurley,under Section 475 of the Act.[10]

New South Wales[edit]

InNew South Wales,theNSW Premiercan, pursuant to theState Emergency and Rescue Management Act 1989,declare a state of emergency due to an actual or imminent occurrence (such as fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, terrorist act, accident, epidemic or warlike action) which endangers, or threatens to endanger, the safety or health of persons or animals in the State, or destroys or damages, or threatens to destroy or damage, property in the State, or causes a failure of, or a significant disruption to, an essential service or infrastructure.[13]The Premier declared a state of emergency on 11 November 2019 in response to the2019–2020 New South Wales bushfires.It was the fifth time that a state of emergency had been declared in that state since 2006 and it lasted for seven days. Subsequent declarations were made on 19 December for a further seven days, and again on 2 January 2020. In NSW, the2019–2020 bushfire seasonresulted in 26 deaths, destroyed 2,448 homes, and burnt 5.5 million hectares (14 million acres).[14][15]

Victoria[edit]

InVictoria,theVictorian Premiercan declare astate of emergencyunder thePublic Safety Preservation Act 1958[16]if there is a threat to employment, safety or public order.[17]A declared state of emergency allows the Premier to immediately make any desired regulations to secure public order and safety. The declaration expires after 30 days, and a resolution of either the upper or lower House ofParliamentmay revoke it earlier. However, these regulations expire ifParliamentdoes not agree to continue them within seven days.

The Premier (or a delegate) may operate or prohibit operation of anyessential service,such as transport, fuel, power, water or gas, under theEssential Services Act 1958.[18][19]

If there is an emergency which the Premier, after considering the advice of the relevant Minister and theEmergency Management Commissioner,is satisfied constitutes or is likely to constitute a significant and widespread danger to life or property in Victoria, the Premier, pursuant to theEmergency Management Act 1986,may declare astate of disasterto exist in the whole or in any part or parts of the State.[20]The state of disaster addresses matters beyond public health issues and is intended to deal with emergencies such as natural disasters, explosions, terrorism or sieges, and it can also be used to deal with 'a plague or an epidemic'.[21]

ThePublic Health and Wellbeing Act 2008gives the Chief Health Officer extensive powers to take action 'to investigate, eliminate or reduce public health risks', including power to detain, restrict the movement of or prevent entry of any person in the emergency area, "and to give any other direction that the authorized officer considers is reasonably necessary to protect public health."[22]

Brazil[edit]

The currentconstitution of Brazil[23]allows thepresidentto declare two states, in order to "preserve or establish peace and order, threatened by grave and imminent institutional instability or severe natural disasters".

The first, and less severe state is thestate of defense(estado de defesa,in Portuguese), while a more severe form is thestate of siege(estado de sítio).

In astate of defense,the federal government can occupy and use any public building or demand any service as it sees fit. It may suppresssecrecy of correspondenceandfreedom of assemblyas necessary, as long as it specifies a defined region and time period.

If president finds thestate of defenseinsufficient, it might decree astate of siege.This state further reducescivil liberties,removingfreedom of movement,allowing for search without consent or warrant, andseizureof any assets the government deems necessary. The government may also intervene and direct the function of any company.

To balance this far-reaching powers, theNational Congress of Brazilhas to convene and approve the state in ten days or it is automatically cancelled. Further, the state of siege has to be revised by the congress every 30 days, unless it was raised as response to a war, in which case the government is free to set it to last until the end of the war.

Since the end of themilitary dictatorshipin 1985, and the formation of thesixth Brazilian Republic,neither state has ever been raised.

Canada[edit]

Main articles:War Measures Act,Emergencies Act,andStates of emergency in Canada

Thefederal government of Canadacan use theEmergencies Actto invoke a state of emergency. A national state of emergency automatically expires after 90 days, unless extended by theGovernor-in-Council.[24]There are different levels of emergencies: Public Welfare Emergency, Public Order Emergency, International Emergency, and War Emergency.[25]

The Emergencies Act replaced theWar Measures Actin 1988. The War Measures Act was invoked three times in Canadian history, most controversially by Prime MinisterPierre Trudeauduring the 1970October Crisis,and also by Prime MinisterRobert BordenduringWorld War I(from 1914 to 1920, against threat of Communism during theRevolutions of 1917–1923) and by Prime MinisterWilliam Lyon Mackenzie KingduringWorld War II(from 1942 to 1945, against perceived threat fromJapanese CanadiansfollowingImperial Japan'sattack on Pearl Harbor).

Under the current Emergency Act a state of emergency can also be declared by provincial, territorial, and municipal governments.[26]In addition Canada's federal government and any of its provincial governments can suspend, for five years at a time,Charterrights to fundamental freedoms in section 2, to legal rights in sections 7 through 14, and to equality rights in section 15 by legislation which invokesthe notwithstanding clause, section 33,and therefore emergency powers can effectively be created even without using the Emergency Act.

Provincial governments can also invokestates of emergency,and have done to respond to at least 12 incidents during the 21st century.[citation needed]

The first usage of the Emergencies Act was invoked by Prime MinisterJustin Trudeauon 14 February 2022 in response to theFreedom Convoy 2022protests that occupied the capital ofOttawa.TheCanadian House of Commonsvoted to approve the invocation 185–151 with support from theLiberal Partyand theNew Democratic Partyand opposition from theConservative Partyand theBloc Québécois.[27]Prime Minister Trudeau previously considered invoking it at the beginning of theCOVID-19 pandemicin April 2020, but faced unanimous disapproval from all thirteenprovincial and territorial premiersat theCouncil of the Federation.[28][29]

Egypt[edit]

Main article:Emergency law in Egypt

Egyptianslived under an Emergency Law (Law No. 162 of 1958)[30]from 1967 to 2012, except for an 18-month break in 1980 and 1981. The emergency was imposed during theSix-Day War,and reimposed following theassassinationof PresidentAnwar Sadat.The law was continuously extended every three years since 1981. Under the law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended andcensorshipwas legalized.[31]The law sharply circumscribed any non-governmental political activity:street demonstrations,non-approved political organizations, and unregistered financial donations were formally banned. Some 17,000 people were detained under the law, and estimates ofpolitical prisonersrun as high as 30,000.[32]The emergency rule expired on 31 May 2012, and was put back in place in January 2013.[33][34]

Following the2013 coup d'état,the Egyptian interim president announced a one-month state of emergency across the country on 14 August 2013 and ordered theEgyptian Armed Forcesto help the Interior Ministry enforce security.[35]The announcement made on state TV followeddeadly countrywide clashesbetween supporters of deposed PresidentMohamed Morsiand the security forces.[36]

Ethiopia[edit]

Further information:2021–2022 Ethiopian state of emergencyand2016–2018 Ethiopian state of emergency

A six-month state of emergency was issued by the Ethiopian government on 2 November 2021, following the rebel advance during theTigray war,which went into effect 5 November 2021.

France[edit]

State of emergency inParis,November 2015
Main article:States of emergency in France

Three main provisions concern various kind of "state of emergency" in France: Article 16 of theConstitution of 1958allows, in time of crisis, "extraordinary powers" to the president. Article 36 of the same constitution regulates "state of siege" (état de siège). Finally, the Act of 3 April 1955 allows the proclamation, by the Council of Ministers, of the "state of emergency" (état d'urgence).[37]The distinction between article 16 and the 1955 Act concerns mainly the distribution of powers: whereas in article 16, the executive power basically suspend the regular procedures of the Republic, the 1955 Act permits a twelve-day state of emergency, after which a new law extending the emergency must be voted by theParliament of France.These dispositions have been used at various times: three times during theAlgerian War(in 1955, 1958 and 1961), in 1984 during violent pro-independence revolts inNew Caledonia,during the2005 riots,and following the2015 Paris terrorist attacks.Since Then,9 Years Later on 2024 May 15 deadly riots have prompted France to declare a state emergency in New Caledonia.

Germany[edit]

TheWeimar Constitution(1919–1933)[38]allowed states of emergency underArticle 48to deal with rebellions. Article 48 was often invoked during the 14-year life of theWeimar Republic,sometimes for no reason other than to allow the government to act when it was unable to obtain aparliamentary majority.

After 27 February 1933,Reichstag fire,an attack blamed on thecommunists,Adolf Hitlerdeclared a state of emergency using Article 48, and then had PresidentPaul von Hindenburgsign theReichstag Fire Decree,which suspended some of the basiccivil libertiesprovided by theWeimar Constitution(such ashabeas corpus,freedom of expression,freedom of the speech,thefreedom to assembleor the privacy of communications) for the whole duration of theThird Reich.[39]On 23 March, the Reichstag enacted theEnabling Act of 1933with the required two-thirds majority, which enabled Chancellor Adolf Hitler and his cabinet to enact laws without legislative participation. The Weimar Constitution was never actually repealed byNazi Germany,but it effectively became inoperable after the passage of the Enabling Act.[40]These two laws implemented theGleichschaltung,the Nazis' institution oftotalitarianism.

In the postwarFederal Republic of GermanytheEmergency Actsstate that some of the basic constitutional rights of theBasic Lawmay be limited in case of aState of Defence,a state of tension, or an internal state of emergency or disaster (catastrophe). These amendments to the constitution were passed on 30 May 1968, despite fierce opposition by the so-calledextra-parliamentary opposition(seeGerman student movementfor details).

Hong Kong SAR (China)[edit]

During a state of war or turmoil which threatens national security or unity, and which theStanding Committee of the National People's Congressbelieves is beyond the control of the local government, the Standing Committee can invoke Article 18 of theHong Kong Basic Lawand declare a "State of Emergency" in Hong Kong; thus, theCentral People's Governmentcan selectively implementnational lawsnot normally allowed in Hong Kong.[41]Deployment of troops from thePeople's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrisonunder the "Law of the People's Republic of China on Garrisoning the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" can happen.[42]

TheChief Executive of Hong Kongalong with theExecutive Councilcan prohibit public gatherings, issuecurfeworders, prohibit the movement of vessels or aircraft, delegate authority, and other listed powers, under "Cap. 245 Public Order Ordinance".[43]

Although thePeople's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrisonmay not interfere in internal Hong Kong affairs, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government may invoke Article 14 of the Hong Kong Basic Law and request permission of the Central People's Government to have the garrison assist in "maintenance of public order or disaster relief".[41]

Since 1997, a State of Emergency has never been declared. However, emergency measures have been used in varying degrees over the years during British rule and after the establishment of the Special Administrative Region. A few notable mentions are as follow:

On 4 October 2019,Carrie Lam,the Chief Executive of Hong Kong S.A.R., invoked Section 2(1) of theEmergency Regulations Ordinance[44]implemented since 1922 and last amended by the Legislative Council in 1999, which allow the government to implement the new,Prohibition on Face Covering Regulation.[45]The new regulation forbid public assembly participants from wearing masks or obscure faces during such events without reasonable excuses. The permitted excuses are: pre-existing medical or health reasons, religious reasons, and if the person uses the face covering for physical safety while performing an activity connected with their profession or employment. Any person defying the new regulation face possible criminal prosecution. The government's motive in doing so is to end months of social unrest and riots, however, did not declare a "State of Emergency". The new regulation took effect at 00:00 HKT on 5 October 2019.[46]Offenders risked a maximum of one-year imprisonment or a fine of HK$25,000 (US$3,200).[47]

TheHigh Court of Hong Kongdenied an application for a judicial injunction of the anti-mask law, on the same night shortly before the new regulation took effect. A subsequent attempt bypro-democratsto halt the new regulation also failed, however, the court recommended a judicial review at a later date.[48]

On 18 November 2019, the High Court ruled the "Cap. 241 Emergency Regulations Ordinance" is "incompatible with the Basic Law", however, the court "leaves open the question of the constitutionality of the ERO insofar as it relates to any occasion of emergency." The court also held the ordinance meets the "prescribed by law" requirement. However, the court deemed s3(1)(b), (c), (d) and s5 of the regulation do not meet the proportionality test as they impose restrictions on fundamental rights that goes beyond what is necessary in furthering its intended goals.[49]

On 22 November 2019, the High Court made the following remark:

Nevertheless, we recognize that our Judgment is only a judgment at first instance, and will soon be subject to an appeal to the Court of Appeal. In view of the great public importance of the issues raised in this case, and the highly exceptional circumstances that Hong Kong is currently facing, we consider it right that we should grant a short interim suspension order so that the respondents may have an opportunity to apply to the Court of Appeal, if so advised, for such interim relief as may be appropriate. Accordingly, we shall grant an interim temporary suspension order to postpone the coming into operation of the declarations of invalidity for a period of 7 days up to the end of 29 November 2019, with liberty to apply.[50][51]

On 26 November 2019, the High Court announced hearing for the government appeal against the judgement is on 9 January 2020.[52]

On 27 November 2019, the Court of Appeal extended the interim suspension of the judgment until 10 December 2019.[53][54]

On 10 December 2019, the Court of Appeal refused to suspend the "unconstitutional" ruling by the Court of First Instance on the anti-mask regulation. As scheduled, a full hearing will commence on 9 January 2020.[55][56][57]

Hungary[edit]

According to theHungarian Constitution,theNational Assembly of Hungarycan declare state of emergency in case of armed rebellion or natural or industrial disaster. It expires after 30 days, but can be extended. Most civil rights can be suspended, but basic human rights (such as the right to life, the ban of torture, and freedom of religion) cannot.

During state of emergency, the Parliament cannot be disbanded.

Iceland[edit]

TheIcelandic constitutionprovides no mechanism for the declaration of war, martial law nor state of emergency.[citation needed]

India[edit]

Main article:States of emergency in India

The State of Emergency can be proclaimed by thePresident of India,when they perceive grave threats to the nation, albeit through the advice of theUnion Council of Ministers.Part XVIII of theConstitution of Indiagives the President the power to overrule many provisions, including the ones guaranteeingfundamental rightsto thecitizensof India

In India, a state of emergency was declared twice:

  1. Between 26 October 1962 to 10 January 1968 during theSino-Indian War—the security of India having been declared "threatened by external aggression".[58]
  2. Between 3 December 1971 to 21 March 1977 originally proclaimed during theIndo-Pakistani War,and later extended on 25 June 1975, along with the third proclamation—the security of India having been declared "threatened by external aggression" and by "internal disturbances".

The first internal State of Emergency, popularly known asthe Emergency,was declared by the then PresidentFakhruddin Ali Ahmedon advice of then Prime Minister,Indira Gandhi.The provisions of the Constitution allows the Prime Minister to rule bydecree.

Ireland[edit]

InIrelanddeclaring a state of "national emergency" involves Article 28.3.3° of the 1937Constitution of Ireland,which states that:[59]

Nothing in this Constitution [...] shall be invoked to invalidate any law enacted by the Oireachtas [parliament] which is expressed to be for the purpose of securing the public safety and the preservation of the State in time of war or armed rebellion, or to nullify any act done or purporting to be done in time of war or armed rebellion in pursuance of any such law.

In addition, during a "war or armed rebellion",military tribunalsmay try civilians,[60]and theDefence Forcesare not bound byhabeas corpus.[61]

TheFirst Amendment of the Constitutionof 1939 allows an emergency to be declared during wars in which the state is anon-belligerent,subject toresolutionsby the houses of theOireachtas.[62]By the2nd Amendmentof 1941, an emergency ends, not automatically when the war does, but only by Oireachtas resolutions.[63]The21st Amendmentof 2002 prevents thereintroduction of capital punishmentduring an emergency.[64]

The first amendment was rushed through the Oireachtas after the outbreak of theSecond World War,in whichthe state remained neutral.Immediately after, the required resolution was passed, in turn enabling the passage of theEmergency Powers Act 1939(EPA), which granted thegovernmentand its ministers sweeping powers to issuestatutory orderstermed "Emergency Powers Orders" (EPOs).[65][66](The period in Ireland was and is referred to as "The Emergency".) The EPA expired in 1946, although some EPOs were continued under the Supplies and Services (Temporary Provisions) Act 1946 until as late as 1957.[67][68]Rationingcontinued until 1951.

The 1939 state of emergency was not formally ended until a 1976 resolution, which also declared a new state of emergency in relation tothe TroublesinNorthern Irelandand in particular the recent assassination of the British ambassador to Ireland,Christopher Ewart Biggs.[69]The Emergency Powers Act 1976 was then passed to increase theGarda Síochánapowers to arrest, detain, and question those suspected ofoffences against the state.[70]PresidentCearbhall Ó Dálaighreferred the bill underArticle 26 of the Constitutionto theSupreme Court,which upheld its constitutionality.[71]The referral was condemned by ministerPaddy Doneganas a "thundering disgrace", causing Ó Dálaigh to resign in protest. The 1976 EPA expired after one year, but the state of emergency persisted until 1995, when as part of theNorthern Ireland peace processit was rescinded as a "confidence building measure" to satisfyphysical force republicansafter theProvisional IRA's 1994 ceasefire.[72]

TheOffences against the State Actdoes not require a state of emergency under Article 28.3.3°.[73][74]Part V of the Act, which provides for a non-jurySpecial Criminal Court(SCC), is permitted under Article 38.3.1°.[75][76]Part V is activated by a declaration from the government that it is "necessary to secure the preservation of public peace and order", and it can be rescinded by vote ofDáil Éireann.Provision forinternmentis similarly activated and rescinded (originally by Part VI of the 1939 act, later by Part II of a 1940 amending act).[73][77][78]Parts V and VI were both activated during the Second World War and the IRA's late 1950sBorder Campaign;Part V has been continually active since 1972.[79][80]

Several official reviews of the Constitution and the Offences Against the State Acts have recommended a time limit within which the operation of Article 28.3.3° or Article 38.3.1° must either be explicitly renewed by resolution or else lapse.[81][82][83]

Israel[edit]

TheIsraeli state of emergency,authorized by theEmergency Defence Regulations,is older than the state itself, having been passed under theBritish Mandate for Palestinein 1945. A repeal was briefly considered in 1967 but cancelled following theSix-Day War.The regulations allow Israel, throughits military,to control movements and prosecute suspected terrorists inoccupied territories,and to censor publications that are deemed prejudicial to national defense.[citation needed]

Italy[edit]

In Italy, the state of emergency planned by the legal system is implemented by theCouncil of Ministers,without the need of a parliamentary vote, due to the Law n. 225 of 1992 onCivil Protection.[84]Moreover, the Article 120 of theConstitutionprovides that the government can exercise "substitute powers" of local authorities in typically situations: to protect the legal or economic unity of the state, in case of violation of supranational laws and to face a serious danger for safety and public safety.[85]For other emergency, such as awar,a parliamentary vote is required to give extraordinary powers to the government.[86]

TheParliament of Italycan also give extraordinary powers to the government in case of health emergency, as it occurred during theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, when the Parliament approved a state of emergency from 31 January 2020 to 31 December 2021, thanks to what the government can implement administrative acts, without the approval of the Parliament.[87]

Macau SAR (China)[edit]

TheStanding Committee of the National People's Congresscan declare a state of emergency and deploy troops from thePeople's Liberation Army Macau Garrisonunder the Article 14 ofMacau's Basic Lawon the defence of theMacau Special Administrative Region.

Since 1999 no emergency measure have been enacted. Prior to 1999 emergency measures have been used for 1 major incident:

Malaysia[edit]

Main articles:Malayan Emergencyand2021 Malaysian state of emergency

InMalaysia,if theYang di-Pertuan Agong(Monarch) is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security, or the economic life, or public order in the Federation or any part thereof is threatened, he may issue a Proclamation of Emergency making therein a declaration to that effect.[88]

A state of emergency was declared by the then-colonial government of Britainfrom 1948 until 1960 to deal with aninsurgencyofcommunistsled byChin Peng.

States of emergency were also declared during theKonfrontasiin 1962, the1966 Sarawak constitutional crisisand the1977 Kelantan Emergency.

When arace riotbroke out on 13 May 1969, a state of emergency was declared.

Amidsevere hazeon 11 August 2005, a state of emergency was announced for the world's 13th-largestport,Port Klangand thedistrictofKuala Selangorafter air pollution there reached dangerous levels (defined as a value greater than 500 on theAir Pollution Indexor API).

Thierry Rommel, theEuropean Commission's envoy to Malaysia, toldReutersby telephone on 13 November 2007 (the last day of his mission) that, "Today, this country still lives under (a state of) emergency."[89]Although not officially proclaimed as a state of emergency, the Emergency Ordinance and the Internal Security Act had allowed detention for years without trial.

On 23 June 2013, a state of emergency was declared by Prime MinisterNajib Razakfor Muar and Ledang, Johor as severeSoutheast Asian hazethat pushed the air pollution index to above 750. This was the first time in years that air quality had dipped to a hazardous level with conditions worsening as dry weather persisted and fires raged in Sumatra.[90]

On 12 January 2021, anationwide state of emergencywas declared by theYang di-Pertuan AgongAbdullah of Pahangin response to theCOVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia,at the request of Prime MinisterMuhyiddin Yassin.The state of emergency is planned to end on 1 August 2021. The declaration included the suspension ofparliamentandelections,and came amidpolitical instability.[91]On 25 February 2021, Yang di-Pertuan Agong announced that the parliament can be convened during the state of emergency.[92][needs update]

Maldives[edit]

A state of emergency was declared on 26 December 2004, following the2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami.The resulting tsunamis caused extensive damage to the country's infrastructure, cutting off communications from large swathes of the nation, decimating islands and forcing the closure of a number of resorts due to the damage.

On 5 February 2018, a state of emergency was declared by Maldives's PresidentAbdulla Yameenfor 15 days and ordered security forces into theSupreme Court of the Maldivesand arrested former presidentMaumoon Abdul Gayoomand theChief Justice of the Maldives.[93]

Namibia[edit]

Namibialast declared a state of emergency due to an ongoingdroughtin 2016.[94]

New Zealand[edit]

TheCivil Defence Emergency Management Act 2002gives theNew Zealand Governmentandlocal-body councilsthe power to issue a state of emergency, either over the entire country or within a specificregion.[95]This may suspend ordinary work and essential services if need be. States of emergency in New Zealand expire on the commencement of the seventh day after the date of a declaration unless extended. However, theMinister of Civil Defenceor alocal mayormay lift a state of emergency after an initial review of a region's status.

  • In 1951, theFirst National Governmentissued emergency regulations in response to that year'swaterfront dispute.[96]
  • On 23 February 2011 at 11.28 am the Minister of Civil DefenceJohn Carterdeclared the first state of national emergency (for a civil-defence emergency) in New Zealand's history in response to the 22 February2011 Christchurch earthquake.[97]A local state of emergency was declared by mayors ofChristchurch City,Selwyn DistrictandWaimakariri Districtfollowing 4 September2010 Canterbury earthquake.[98]
  • On 25 March 2020 at 12.21 pm, the Minister for Civil DefensePeeni Henaredeclared a state of national emergency in response to the total cases ofCOVID-19reaching 205. Combined with an epidemic notice issued under the Epidemic Preparedness Act 2006, the state of emergency declaration enabled authorities to close most premises in New Zealand and enforce anationwide lockdown.This also provided access to special powers to combatCOVID-19,including powers of requisition and closing roads and restricting movement. Director of Civil Defence Emergency ManagementSarah Stuart-Blacksaid these powers sat alongside other powers to ensure essential services could stay up and running.[99]The state of national emergency was renewed four times, to last for a total of five weeks.[100]
  • On 14 February 2023 at 8:43 am, the Minister for Civil DefenseKieran McAnultydeclared a state of national emergency in response toCyclone Gabriellereaching New Zealand and causing flooding and evacuations.[101][102]

Nigeria[edit]

In Nigeria, a state of emergency is usually declared in times of great civil unrest. In recent years, it has specifically been implemented in reaction to terrorist attacks on Nigerians by theIslamic terroristgroupBoko Haram.

On 14 May 2013,Goodluck Jonathandeclared a state of emergency for the entire northeastern states ofBorno,YobeandAdamawa.[103]A more limited state of emergency had been declared on 31 December 2011 in parts of Yobe, Borno,PlateauandNigerstates. This earlier declaration included the temporary shutdown of the international borders in those regions.[104]

Pakistan[edit]

Further information:2007 Pakistani state of emergency

In Pakistan, a state of emergency was declared five times in its history:

The first three were regarded as the imposition of direct martial law.

Philippines[edit]

There are several situations that calls for various levels of government action in the Philippines. Theconstitutionalludes to these:

These are not specified in the constitution, but were nevertheless declared at least once:

Portugal[edit]

Letter from the Portuguese President,Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa,to the Speaker of the Assembly of the Republic,Eduardo Ferro Rodrigues,requesting Parliament for authorisation under the terms of the Constitution, for a declaration of the state of emergency in the context of the2020 COVID-19 pandemic

The currentConstitution of Portugalempowers thePresident of the Republic[105]to declare a state of siege (Portuguese:estado de sítio) or a state of emergency (Portuguese:estado de emergência) in part or the entirety of the Portuguese territory, only in cases of actual or imminent aggression by foreign forces, serious threats to or disturbances of the democratic constitutional order, or public disasters.[106]

Such declarations allow the entities that exercise sovereignty from suspending the exercise of some of the constitutionally defined rights, freedoms and guarantees, so that the public authorities can take the appropriate and strictly necessary measures for the prompt restoration of constitutional normality; the Constitution, however, sets a temporal limit for these states of emergency (no more than fifteen days, even though renewal is possible) and forbids any suspension of theright to life,to personal integrity,to personal identity,to civil capacity and citizenship,the non-retroactivity of criminal law,theright to a fair trial,or thefreedom of conscienceandreligion.[106]They also may not affect the constitutionally-defined competences and mode of operation of the entities that exercise sovereignty. TheAssembly of the Republicmay not be dissolved while a state of siege or a state of emergency is in force,[107]nor can the Constitution itself be subject to amendment.[108]

Before declaring a state of siege or a state of emergency, the President is required to consult with theGovernmentand request authorisation to do so from theAssembly of the Republic.[109]

During theThird Portuguese Republic,the only two times such states of exceptional suppression of constitutional provisions were declared were during thefailed left-wing coup d'état of 25 November 1975(state of siege, within the confines of the Lisbon Military Region),[110]and during theCOVID-19 pandemic(state of emergency, in the entirety of the Portuguese territory).

Within the remit of the basic law ofcivil protectionservices (Portuguese:Lei de Bases da Protecção Civil), theprime ministercan, through a Resolution of theCouncil of Ministersand without the need of parliamentary approval or presidential promulgation, decree a situation of calamity (Portuguese:situação de calamidade). Lesser exceptional statuses, the situation of contingency (Portuguese:situação de contingência) and the situation of alert (Portuguese:situação de alerta) in descending order of importance, can also be set in motion by other civil protection authorities orMayors.[111]These three situations allow for some extraordinary measures and special restrictions, but not the suspension of constitutional rights and freedoms.

Poland[edit]

In Poland, the institution of the state of emergency was absorbed by the institution of martial law in the years 1952–1983 in the constitutional regulations. According to the provisions of the Constitution of 1997 (Articles 228 et seq.), A state of emergency may be introduced by the president at the request of the Council of Ministers for a specified period of time, but not longer than 90 days, in part or throughout the territory of the country, if the security of the state, the security of citizens or public order has been threatened. The President may extend this state only once (for a period not longer than 60 days) with the consent of the Sejm. During the state of emergency and within 90 days from its end, the Constitution and electoral regulations may not be changed, and the Sejm may not be dissolved; there are also no national elections or referendums. In the event of the expiry of the term of office of the President, the Sejm and the Senate, or local self-government bodies, they are appropriately extended.

Romania[edit]

InRomania,there are two types of states of emergency, each designed for a different type of situation.[citation needed]

  • State of alert (Stare de alertăinRomanian): Non-military, can be enforced by a prefect.Roadblocksare enforced. Any utilitarian vehicle or equipment can be temporarily used by the state, without any restriction. Evacuation is not mandatory, unless extreme circumstances apply. OnlyEMS,Policeand firefighting personnel are required to intervene. This situation can be enforced in case ofnatural disastersorcivil unrest.
  • State of emergency (stare de urgentăin Romanian): Can only be enforced by thePresident of Romaniawith approval fromParliament.Themilitarybecomes the upper form of control in the country (under the rule of the president).[citation needed]The civilian population is subject to strict regulations, imposed by the type of emergency.[citation needed]All private and public non-crucial activities are suspended.[citation needed]Essential servicesmight be disrupted. This situation can be enforced in case of extreme circumstances, such as a war.
  • Special zone of public safety (Zonă specială de siguranță publicăin Romanian): Administrative, can be enforced by local police. This implies installation of road check-points and higher numbers in police andgendarmes/ riot policepresence, patrolling the area. There is also a ban that restricts the right to travel for people in the area; any vehicle and individual transiting the zone are subject to screening.[112][113]

The most well-known event in which the state of emergency has been enforced was because of1977 Vrancea earthquake.[citation needed]

The last instance in which thespecial zone of public safetywas enforced was on 8 December 2013, inPungești, Vasluifollowingcivil unrest in PungeștifromChevron's plans to begin exploringshale-gasin the village.[114]According to police officials, the special security zone will be maintained as long as there is conflict in the area that poses a threat to Chevron's operations.[112]This special security zone has faced domestic and international criticism for allegedhuman-rights abuses.

Russia[edit]

Main article:State of emergency in Russia

Sierra Leone[edit]

Sierra Leonedeclared, on 7 February 2019, a State of Emergency due to ongoing rape and sexual violence in the country.[115]On 24 March 2020, a 12-month state of emergency was declared by (Rtd) BrigadierJulius Madaa Biodue to theCOVID-19 pandemic.[116]

South Africa[edit]

Further information:State of Emergency Act, 1997

States of emergency inSouth Africaare governed by section 37 of theConstitutionand by theState of Emergency Act, 1997.Thepresidentmay declare a state of emergency only when "the life of the nation is threatened by war, invasion, general insurrection, disorder, natural disaster or other public emergency" and if the ordinary laws and government powers are not sufficient to restore peace and order. The declaration is made byproclamationin theGovernment Gazetteand may only apply from the time of publication, not retroactively. It can only continue for 21 days unless theNational Assemblygrants an extension, which may be for at most three months at a time. TheHigh Courtshave the power, subject to confirmation by theConstitutional Court,to determine the validity of the declaration of a state of emergency.[117]

During a state of emergency thePresident of South Africahas the power to make emergency regulations "necessary or expedient" to restore peace and order and end the emergency. This power can be delegated to other authorities. Emergency measures can violate theBill of Rights,but only to a limited extent. Some rights are inviolable, including amongst others the rights to life and to human dignity; the prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of race, sex or religion; the prohibition of torture or inhumane punishment; and the right of accused people to a fair trial. Any violation of a constitutional right must be strictly required by the emergency. Emergency measures may not indemnify the government or individuals for illegal actions. They may impose criminal penalties, but not exceeding three years' imprisonment. They may not require military service beyond that required by the ordinary laws governing the defence force. An emergency measure may be disapproved by the National Assembly, in which case it lapses, and no emergency measure may interfere with the elections, powers or sittings ofParliamentor theprovincial legislatures.The courts have the power to determine the validity of any emergency measure.

The constitution places strict limits on anydetention without trialduring a state of emergency. A friend or family member of the detainee must be informed, and the name and place of detention must be published in theGovernment Gazette.The detainee must have access to a doctor and a legal representative. The detainee must be brought before a court within at most ten days, for the court to determine whether the detention is necessary, and if not released may demand repeated review every ten days. At the court review the detainee must be allowed legal representation and must be allowed to appear in person. The provisions on detention without trial do not apply toprisoners of warin an international conflict; instead they must be treated in accordance with theGeneva Conventionsand other international law.

Spain[edit]

In Spain, there are three degrees of state of emergency (estado de emergenciain Spanish):alarma(alarm or alert),excepción(exception[al circumstance]) andsitio(siege). They are named by theconstitution,which limits which rights may be suspended, but regulated by the "Ley Orgánica 4/1981"(Organic Law).

On 4 December 2010, the first state of alert was declared following theair traffic controllers strike.[118][119]It was the first time since theFrancisco Franco's regimethat a state of emergency was declared.[120]The second state of alert was declared on 14 March 2020 due to thecoronavirus pandemic.[121]The third state of alert was declared before the end of October 2020 given the difficulties to control the spread of said pandemic.[122]

Sri Lanka[edit]

In Sri Lanka, thepresidentis able to proclaim emergency regulations under thePublic Security Ordinancein theconstitutionin order to preserve public security and public order; suppression ofmutiny,riotorcivil commotion;or maintenance of supplies and services essential to the life of the community. These regulations last for one month unless confirmed otherwise byParliament.[123]

Switzerland[edit]

According to Art. 185 of theSwiss Federal ConstitutionTheFederal Council(Bundesrat) can call up in their own competence military personnel of maximum 4000militiafor three weeks to safeguard inner or outer security (called Federal Intervention or Federal Execution, respectively). A larger number of soldiers or of a longer duration is subject toparliamentarydecision. For deployments within Switzerland the principle of subsidiarity rules: as a first step, unrest has to be overcome with the aid of cantonal police units.

Syria[edit]

An emergency prevailed inSyriafrom 1962 to 2011. Originally predicated on theconflict with Israel,the emergency acted to centralize authority in the presidency and the national security apparatus while silencing public dissent. The emergency was terminated in response to protests that preceded theSyrian Civil War.Under the2012 constitution,thepresidentmay pass an emergency decree with a 2/3 concurrence of his ministers, provided that he presents it to thePeople's Assemblyfor constitutional review.

Trinidad and Tobago[edit]

Sections 7 though 12 of the Constitution[124]set out the legal basis for declaring that a state of emergency exists. Thepresident,under the advice of theprime minister,may make a proclamation that a "state of public emergency" exists if:

  • "A public emergency has arisen as a result of the imminence of a state of war between Trinidad and Tobago and a foreign state,
  • A public emergency has arisen as a result of the occurrence of any earthquake, hurricane, flood, fire, outbreak of pestilence or of infectious disease, or other calamity whether similar to the foregoing or not,
  • Action has been taken, or is immediately threatened, by any person, of such a nature and on so extensive a scale, as to be likely to endanger the public safety or to deprive the community or any substantial portion of the community of supplies or services essential to life. "(ss. 8 (2)).

Upon declaring that a state of emergency exists, the President may make regulations to deal with the situation at hand. The regulations can even infringe upon the rights enshrined within sections 4 and 5 of the Constitution (e.g. freedom of speech, freedom of movement, etc.) but only to such extent as such constitutional encroachments are "reasonably justifiable for the purpose of dealing with the situation that exists during that period." (ss. 7 (3)). Once the President has declared that a state of emergency exists, the initial duration of that proclamation is 15 days, unless revoked sooner. The state of emergency can then be extended for up to three months by a simple majority vote of theHouse of Representativesand can be extended by a further three months by a three-fifths majority vote of the House of Representatives and must also be passed in theSenate.

A state of emergency was declared in 1990 during theBlack Power Revolutionby then Prime MinisterEric Williams.During theattempted state coupby theJamaat al Muslimeenagainst the NAR government of the then Prime MinisterA. N. R. Robinson,[125][126]a state of emergency was declared during the coup attempt and for a period after the coup.

On 4 August 1995, a state of emergency was declared to remove theSpeaker of the HouseOccah Seapaulby Prime MinisterPatrick Manningduring a constitutional crisis.[127]The government had attempted to remove the speaker via a no-confidence motion, which failed. The state of emergency was used to remove the speaker using the emergency powers granted.[128]

On 22 August 2011 at 8:00 pm, Prime Minister,Kamla Persad-Bissessar,announced a state of emergency in an attempt to crack down on the trafficking of illegal drugs and firearms, in addition to gangs.[129]The decision of the President,George Maxwell Richards,to issue the proclamation for the state of emergency was debated inthe country's Parliamentas required by the Constitution on 2 September 2011 and passed by the required simple majority of the House of Representatives. On 4 September, the Parliament extended the state of emergency for a further three months. It ended in December 2011.

On 15 May 2021 at 2:50 pm, Prime Minister,Keith Rowley,declared a state of emergency following a mass surge in the number of deaths and COVID-19 infections, nohospital bedsbeing available and a lack ofCOVID-19 vaccinesin dealing with a rapid and deadly spread of theCOVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago,[130][131][132]noted as being one of the worst in the world.[133][134]On 24 August, the Parliament extended the state of emergency for a further three months.[135]

Turkey[edit]

Main article:Martial law and state of emergency in Turkey

Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 themilitaryconducted threecoups d'étatand announcedmartial law.Martial law between 1978 and 1983 was replaced by a state of emergency that lasted until November 2002. The latest state of emergency was declared by PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğanon 20 July 2016 following afailed coup attempt on 15 July 2016by a faction of the country's armed forces. It was lifted on 18 July 2018.

United Kingdom[edit]

Main article:Civil Contingencies Act 2004

In the United Kingdom, only theBritish Sovereign,[136]on the advice of thePrivy Council,or aMinister of the Crownin exceptional circumstances, has the power to introduce emergency regulations under theCivil Contingencies Act 2004,in case of an emergency, broadly defined as war or attack by a foreign power,terrorismwhich poses a threat of serious damage to the security of the UK, or events which threaten serious damage to human welfare or the environment of a place in the UK. The duration of these regulations is limited to thirty days, but may be extended byParliament. A state of emergency was last invoked in 1974 by Prime MinisterEdward Heathin response to increasingindustrial action.

The act grants wide-ranging powers to central and local government in the event of an emergency. It allows the modification ofprimary legislationby emergency regulation, with the exception of theHuman Rights Act 1998and Part 2 of theCivil Contingencies Act 2004.

United States[edit]

Further information:Senate Report 93-549,Insurrection Act,National Emergencies Act,andList of national emergencies in the United States

TheUnited States Constitutionimplicitly provides some emergency powers in the article about the executive power:

  • Congressmay authorize the government to call forth the militia to execute the laws, suppress an insurrection or repel aninvasion.
  • Congress may authorize the government to suspend consideration of writs ofhabeas corpus"when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it."
  • Felonycharges may be brought without presentment orgrand juryindictmentin cases arising "in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger."
  • Astate governmentmay engage in war without Congress's approval if "actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay."

Aside from these, many provisions of law exist in various jurisdictions, which take effect only upon an executive declaration of emergency; some 500 federal laws take effect upon a presidential declaration of emergency. TheNational Emergencies Actregulates this process at the federal level. It requires thePresidentto specifically identify the provisions activated and to renew the declaration annually so as to prevent an arbitrarily broad or open-ended emergency. Presidents have occasionally taken action justified as necessary or prudent because of a state of emergency, only to have the action struck down in court as unconstitutional.[137]

A stategovernoror localmayormay declare a state of emergency within theirjurisdiction.This is common at the state level in response to natural disasters. TheFederal Emergency Management Agencymaintains a system of assets, personnel and training to respond to such incidents. For example, on 10 December 2015,Washingtonstate GovernorJay Insleedeclared a state of emergency due to flooding and landslides caused by heavy rains.[138]

The 1977International Emergency Economic Powers Actallows the government to freeze assets, limit trade and confiscate property in response to an "unusual and extraordinary threat" to the United States that originates substantially outside of it. As of 2015 more than twenty emergencies under the IEEPA remain active regarding various subjects, the oldest of which was declared in 1979 with regard to the government ofIran.Another ongoing national emergency, declared after theSeptember 11 attacks,authorizes the president to retain or reactivate military personnel beyond their normal term of service.[139]

In 2020, it was common for states to enact a state of emergency due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.[140]

Venezuela[edit]

Further information:States of emergency in Venezuela

Examples[edit]

Active in 2024[edit]

Active in 2023[edit]

  • On 10 November 2023, Icelandic authorities declared a state of emergency after a series of powerful earthquakes rocked the country's southwestern Reykjanes peninsula, signalling the increased likelihood of a volcanic eruption in the region. The village ofGrindavíkwas ordered to evacuate due to the imminent volcanic eruption of theFagradalsfjallvolcano.
  • On 4 August 2023, Ethiopia's Council of ministers declared a state of emergency in the Amhara region after clashes between regional armed forces and the military.
  • On 7 February 2023, Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan declared a three-month long state of emergency in 10 cities due to the2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake.
  • On 8 September 2023, United States President Joe Biden extended the state of emergency declared by George W. Bush after theSeptember 11 attacks.[142]

Active in 2022[edit]

Active in 2021[edit]

Active in 2020[edit]

Past states of emergency[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  255. ^Espinoza-Castro v. I.N.S.,242 F.3d 1181, 30 (2001).
  256. ^McRoberts, Kenneth.Catalonia: Nation Building Without a State.Oxford University Press. New York. 2001. pp.36

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External links[edit]

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