Suebi

The approximate positions of someGermanic peoplesreported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 1st century. Suebian peoples in red, and otherIrminonesin purple.

TheSuebi(also spelledSuevi) orSuebianswere a large group ofGermanic peoplesoriginally from theElberiver region in what is nowGermanyand theCzech Republic.In the earlyRoman erathey included many peoples with their own names such as theMarcomanni,Quadi,Hermunduri,Semnones,andLombards.New groupings formed later, such as theAlamanniandBavarians,and two kingdoms in theMigration Periodwere simply referred to as Suebian.

AlthoughTacitusspecified that the Suebian group was not an old tribal group itself, the Suebian peoples are associated byPliny the Elderwith theIrminones,a grouping of Germanic peoples who claimed ancestral connections. Tacitus mentions Suebian languages, and a geographical "Suevia".

The Suevians were first mentioned byJulius Caesarin connection with theinvasion of Gaulby the Germanic kingAriovistusduring theGallic Wars.Unlike Tacitus, he described them as a single people, distinct from the Marcomanni, within the larger Germanic category, who he saw as a growing threat to Gaul and Italy in the first century BC, as they had been moving southwards aggressively, at the expense ofGallictribes, and establishing a Germanic presence in the immediate areas north of theDanube.In particular, he saw the Suebians as the most warlike of the Germanic peoples.

During the reign ofAugustusthe first emperor, Rome made aggressive campaigns intoGermania,east of the Rhine and north of the Danube, pushing towards the Elbe. After suffering a major defeat to the Romans in 9 BC,Maroboduusbecame king of a Suevian kingdom which was established within the protective mountains and forests ofBohemia.The Suevians did not join the alliance led byArminius.

In 69 AD the Suebian kingsItalicusandSidoprovided support to the Flavian faction underVespasian.

Under the reign ofMarcus Aureliusin the 2nd century AD, the Marcomanni, perhaps under pressure fromEast Germanic tribesto their north,invadedItaly.

By theCrisis of the Third Century,new Suebian groups had emerged, and Italy was invaded again by theJuthungi,while theAlamanniravagedGauland settled theAgri Decumates.The Alamanni continued exerting pressure on Gaul, while the Alamannic chieftainChrocusplayed an important role in elevatingConstantine the GreattoRoman emperor.

By the late 4th century AD, the Middle Danubian frontier inhabited by the Quadi and Marcomanni received large numbers of Gothic and other eastern peoples escaping disturbances associated with theHuns.In 406 AD, Suebian tribes led byHermeric,together with other Danubian groups including Alans and Vandals,crossed the Rhineand overranGaulandHispania.They eventually established theKingdom of the SuebiinGalicia.With the breaking up of Hunnic power after theBattle of Nedaothere was also a short-lived Kingdom of the Suebi on the Danube, underHunimund.They were defeated by theOstrogoths,one of the peoples of eastern origin who had been allies of the Huns. In the sixth century the SuevicLongobardsmoved from the Elbe to become one of the major powers of the MiddleDanube,in competition with the dynasties from the east such as theHerules,GepidsandOstrogoths.

During the last years of thedeclineof theWestern Roman Empire,the Suebian generalRicimerwas itsde factoruler.The Lombards, with many Danubian peoples both Suebian and eastern, later settled Italy and established theKingdom of the Lombards.

The Alamanni,BavariiandThuringiiwho remained inGermaniagave their names to the still-existingGermanregions ofSwabia,BavariaandThuringiarespectively.Suebian languages are thought to be a main source of the laterHigh German languages,especially the Upper-German dialects predominant in Southern Germany, Switzerland and Austria, which experienced theSecond consonant shiftsome time after about 600 AD.

Etymology

Etymologists trace the name fromProto-Germanic*swēbazbased on the Proto-Germanicroot*swē-found in the third-personreflexive pronoun,giving the meaning "one's own" people,in turn from an earlierIndo-Europeanroot*swe-(Polishswe, swój, swoi,Latinsui,Italiansuo,Sanskritswa,each meaning "one's own" ).

The etymological sources list the following ethnic names as being from the same root:Suiones(whence also the name of theSwedes),Samnites,Sabellians,Sabines,and, according to one of the hypotheses,Slavs,indicating the possibility of a prior more extended and common Indo-European ethnic name, "our own people". Notably, theSemnones,known to classical authors as one of the largest Suebian groups, also seem to have a name with this same meaning, but recorded with a different pronunciation by the Romans.

Alternatively, it may be borrowed from aCelticword for "vagabond".

Mušov Cauldron, a Roman bronze cauldron found in 1988 in a Germanic chieftain's grave inMušov,Czech Republic, dating to the 2nd century A.D. The cauldron is decorated by four cast heads of Germanic men wearing aSuebian knothairstyle

Classification

Roman bronze statuette of a Suebian captive. First to 3rd century AD.

More than one tribe

Caesar placed the Suebi east of theUbiiapparently near modernHesse,in the position where later writers mention theChatti,and he distinguished them from their allies theMarcomanni.Some commentators believe that Caesar's Suebi were the later Chatti or possibly theHermunduri,orSemnones.Later authors use the termSuebimore broadly, "to cover a large number of tribes in central Germany".

While Caesar treated them as one Germanic tribe within an alliance, albeit the largest and most warlike one, later authors, such asTacitus,Pliny the ElderandStrabo,specified that the Suevi "do not, like theChattiorTencteri,constitute a single nation. They actually occupy more than half of Germania, and are divided into a number of distinct tribes under distinct names, though all generally are called Suebi ".Although no classical authors explicitly call the Chatti Suevic,Pliny the Elder(23 AD – 79 AD), reported in hisNatural Historythat the Irminones were a large grouping of related Germanicgentesor "tribes" including not only the Suebi, but also the Hermunduri, Chatti andCherusci.Whether or not the Chatti were ever considered Suevi, both Tacitus and Strabo distinguish the two partly because the Chatti were more settled in one territory, whereas Suevi remained less settled.

The definitions of the greater ethnic groupings withinGermaniawere apparently not always consistent and clear, especially in the case of mobile groups such as the Suevi. Whereas Tacitus reported three main kinds of German peoples, Irminones,Istvaeones,andIngaevones,Pliny specifically adds two moregeneraor "kinds", theBastarnaeand the Vandili (Vandals). The Vandals were tribes east of the Elbe, including the well-knownSilingi,Goths,andBurgundians,an area that Tacitus treated as Suebic. That the Vandals might be a separate type of Germanic people, corresponding to the modern concept ofEast Germanic,is a possibility that Tacitus also noted, but for example theVariniare named as Vandilic by Pliny, and specifically Suebic by Tacitus.

At one time, classical ethnography had applied the nameSuevito so many Germanic tribes that it appeared as if, in the first centuries AD, that native name would replace the foreign name "Germans".

The modern term "Elbe Germanic" similarly covers a large grouping of Germanic peoples that at least overlaps with the classical terms "Suevi" and "Irminones". However, this term was developed mainly as an attempt to define the ancient peoples who must have spoken the Germanic dialects that led to modernUpper Germandialects spoken in Austria,Bavaria,Thuringia,Alsace,Baden-Württembergand German speaking Switzerland. This was proposed byFriedrich Maureras one of five majorKulturkreiseor "culture-groups" whose dialects developed in the southern German area from the first century BC through to the fourth century AD.Apart from his own linguistic work with modern dialects, he also referred to the archaeological and literary analysis of Germanic tribes done earlier byGustaf KossinnaIn terms of these proposed ancient dialects, the Vandals, Goths and Burgundians are generally referred to as members of the Eastern Germanic group, distinct from the Elbe Germanic.

Tribes names in classical sources

Northern bank of the Danube

Suebi ceramics. Lobdengau-Museum,Ladenburg,Germany

In the time of Caesar, southern Germany had a mixture ofCelticand Germanic tribes and was increasingly coming under pressure from Germanic groups led by the Suebi. As described later by Tacitus, what is today southern Germany between theDanube,theMain,and the Rhine had been deserted by the departure of two large Celtic nations, theHelvetiiin modernSchwabenand theBoiifurther east near theHercynian forest.In addition, near the Hercynian forest Caesar believed that the CelticTectosageshad once lived. All of these peoples had for the most part moved by the time of Tacitus. Nevertheless,Cassius Diowrote that the Suebi, who dwelt across the Rhine, were called Celts.Although, this may follow a Greek tradition of labelling all barbarian people north of the alps as Celtic.

Strabo (64/63 BC – c. 24 AD), in Book IV (6.9) of hisGeographyalso associates the Suebi with theHercynian Forestand the south of Germania north of the Danube. He describes a chain of mountains north of the Danube that is like a lower extension of the Alps, possibly theSwabian Alps,and further east theGabreta Forest,possibly the modernBohemian forest.In Book VII (1.3) Strabo specifically mentions as Suevic peoples theMarcomanni,who under KingMarobodushad moved into the same Hercynian forest as theColdui(possibly theQuadi), taking over an area called "Boihaemum". This king "took the rulership and acquired, in addition to the peoples aforementioned, theLugii(a large tribe), theZumi,theButones,theMugilones,theSibini,and also theSemnones,a large tribe of the Suevi themselves ". Some of these tribes were" inside the forest "and some" outside of it ".Tacitus confirms the name "Boiemum", saying it was a survival marking the old traditional population of the place, the CelticBoii,though the population had changed.

Tacitusdescribes a series of very powerful Suebian states in his own time, running along the north of the Danube which was the frontier with Rome, and stretching into the lands where the Elbe originates in the modern dayCzech Republic.Going from west to east the first were theHermunduri,living near the sources of theElbeand stretching across the Danube into RomanRhaetia.Next came theNaristi,theMarcomanni,and then theQuadi.The Quadi are on the edge of greater Suebia, having theSarmatiansto the southeast.

Suebi Germanic with nodus found in Apt, France

Claudius Ptolemythe geographer did not always state which tribes were Suebi, but along the northern bank of the Danube, from west to east and starting at the "desert"formerly occupied by theHelvetii,he names theParmaecampi,then theAdrabaecampi,and then a "large people" known as theBaemoi(whose name appears to recall theBoiiagain), and then theRacatriae.North of the Baemoi, is theLuna forestwhich has iron mines, and which is south of the Quadi. North of the Adrabaecampi, are theSudiniand then the Marcomanni living in the Gambreta forest. North of them, but south of the Sudetes mountains (which are not likely to be the same as the modern ones of that name) are theVaristi,who are probably the same as Tacitus' "Naristi" mentioned above.

Jordaneswrites that in the early 4th century the Vandals had moved to the north of the Danube, but with the Marcomanni still to their west, and the Hermunduri still to their north. A possible sign of confusion in this comment is that he equates the area in question to laterGepidia,which was further south, in Pannonia, modern Hungary, and east of the Danube.In general, as discussed below, the Danubian Suebi, along with the neighbours such as the Vandals, apparently moved southwards into Roman territories, both south and east of the Danube, during this period.

Approaching the Rhine

Caesar describes the Suebi as pressing the German tribes of the Rhine, such as theTencteri,UsipetesandUbii,from the east, forcing them from their homes. While emphasizing their warlike nature he writes as if they had a settled homeland somewhere between theCherusciand theUbii,and separated from the Cherusci by a deep forest called the Silva Bacenis. He also describes the Marcomanni as a tribe distinct from the Suebi, and also active within the same alliance. But he does not describe where they were living.

Strabowrote that the Suebi "excel all the others in power and numbers."He describes Suebic peoples (Greekethnē) as having come to dominate Germany between the Rhine and Elbe, with the exception of the Rhine valley, on the frontier with the Roman empire, and the "coastal" regions north of the Rhine.

The geographerPtolemy(c. AD 90 – c. AD 168), in a fairly extensive account of Greater Germany,makes several unusual mentions of Suebi between the Rhine and the Elbe. He describes their position as stretching out in a band from the Elbe, all the way to the northern Rhine, near theSugambri.The "SueviLangobardi"are the Suevi located closest to the Rhine, far to the east of where most sources report them. To the east of the Langobardi, are the" SueviAngili",extending as far north as the middle Elbe, also to the east of the position reported in other sources. It has been speculated that Ptolemy may have been confused by his sources, or else that this position of the Langobardi represented a particular moment in history.

As discussed below, in the third century a large group of Suebi, also referred to as theAllemanni,moved up to the Rhine bank in modernSchwaben,which had previously been controlled by the Romans. They competed in this region with Burgundians who had arrived from further east.

The Elbe

Strabo does not say much about the Suebi east of the Elbe, saying that this region was still unknown to Romans,but mentions that a part of the Suebi live there, naming only specifically theHermunduriand theLangobardi.But he mentions these are there because of recent defeats at Roman hands which had forced them over the river. (Tacitus mentions that the Hermunduri were later welcomed on to the Roman border at the Danube.) In any case he says that the area near the Elbe itself is held by the Suebi.

From Tacitus and Ptolemy we can derive more details:

• TheSemnonesare described by Tacitus as "the oldest and noblest of the Suebi", and, like the Suebi described by Caesar, they have 100 cantons. Tacitus says that "the vastness of their community makes them regard themselves as the head of the Suevic race".According to Ptolemy the "Suevi Semnones" live upon the Elbe and stretch as far east as a river apparently named after them, the Suevus, probably theOder.South of them he places theSilingi,and then, again upon the Elbe, theCalucones.To the southeast further up the upper Elbe he places not the Hermunduri mentioned by other authors (who had possibly moved westwards and become Ptolemy's "Teuriochaemai",and the laterThuringii), but theBaenochaemae(whose name appears to be somehow related to the modern nameBohemia,and somehow derived from the older placename mentioned by Strabo and Tacitus as the capital of KingMarobodusafter he settled his Marcomanni in theHercynian forest). A monument confirms that theJuthungi,who fought the Romans in the 3rd century, and were associated with the Alamanni, were Semnones.
• TheLangobardilive a bit further from Rome's borders, in "scanty numbers" but "surrounded by a host of most powerful tribes" and kept safe "by daring the perils of war" according to Tacitus.
• Tacitus names seven tribes who live "next" after the Langobardi, "fenced in by rivers or forests" stretching "into the remoter regions of Germany". These all worshipedNertha,or Mother Earth, whose sacred grove was on an island in the Ocean (presumably the Baltic Sea):Reudigni,Aviones,Anglii,Varini,Eudoses,SuariniandNuitones.
• At the mouth of the Elbe (and in the Danish peninsula), the classical authors do not place any Suevi, but rather theChaucito the west of the Elbe, and theSaxonsto the east, and in the "neck" of the peninsula.

Note that while various errors and confusions are possible, Ptolemy places the Angles and Langobardi west of the Elbe, where they may indeed have been present at some points in time, given that the Suebi were often mobile.

East of the Elbe

It is already mentioned above that stretching between the Elbe and the Oder, the classical authors place the Suebic Semnones. Ptolemy places theSilingito their south in the stretch between these rivers. These Silingi appear in later history as a branch of the Vandals, and were therefore likely to be speakers ofEast Germanicdialects. Their name is associated with medievalSilesia.Further south on the Elbe are the Baenochaemae and between them and the Askibourgian mountains Ptolemy names a tribe called theBatini(Βατεινοὶ), apparently north and/or east of the Elbe.

According to Tacitus, around the north of the Danubian Marcomanni and Quadi, "dwelling in forests and on mountain-tops", live theMarsigni,andBuri,who "in their language and manner of life, resemble the Suevi".(Living partly subject to the Quadi are theGotiniandOsi,who Tacitus says speak respectivelyGaulishandPannonian,and are therefore not Germans.) Ptolemy also places the "Lugi Buri"in mountains, along with a tribe called theCorconti.These mountains, stretching from near the upperElbeto the headwaters of theVistula,he calls theAskibourgianmountains. Between these mountains and the Quadi he adds several tribes, from north to south these are theSidones,Cotini(possibly Tacitus' Gotini) and theVisburgi.There is then the Orcynian (Hercyian) forest, which Ptolemy defines with relatively restricted boundaries, and then the Quadi.

Beyond this mountain range (probably the modernSudetes) where the Marsigni and Buri lived, in the area of modern southwest Poland, Tacitus reported a multitude of tribes, the most widespread name of which was theLugii.These included theHarii,Helveconae,Manimi,HelisiiandNaharvali.(Tacitus does not mention the language of the Lugii.) As mentioned above, Ptolemy categorizes the Buri amongst the Lugii, and concerning the Lugii north of the mountains, he named two large groups, the Lougoi Omanoi and the Lougoi Didounoi, who live between the "Suevus" river (probably theSaale(Sorb Soława) orOderriver) and the Vistula, south of theBurgundi.

Suebi Captive Representation in Roman bronze figure

These Burgundians who according to Ptolemy lived between the Baltic sea Germans and the Lugii, stretching between the Suevus and Vistula rivers, were described by Pliny the Elder (as opposed to Tacitus) as being not Suevic butVandili,amongst whom he also included the Goths, and the Varini, both being people living north of them near the Baltic coast. Pliny's "Vandili" are generally thought to be speakers of what modern linguists refer to asEastern Germanic.Between the coastal Saxons and inland Suebi, Ptolemy names theTeutonariand the "Viruni" (presumably the Varini of Tacitus), and further east, between the coastal Farodini and the Suebi are theTeutonesand then theAvarni.Further east again, between the Burgundians and the coastal Rugiclei were the "Aelvaeones" (presumably the Helveconae of Tacitus).

Baltic Sea

Tacitus called the Baltic sea the Suebian sea.Pomponius Melawrote in hisDescription of the World(III.3.31) beyond the Danish isles are "the farthest people of Germania, the Hermiones".

North of the Lugii, near theBaltic Sea,Tacitus places theGothones (Goths),Rugii,andLemovii.These three Germanic tribes share a tradition of having kings, and also similar arms – round shields and short swords.Ptolemy says that east of the Saxons, from the "Chalusus" river to the "Suevian" river are theFarodini,then theSidiniup to the "Viadua" river, and after these the "Rugiclei" up to the Vistula river (probably referring to the "Rugii" of Tacitus). He does not specify if these are Suevi.

In the sea, the states of theSuiones,"powerful in ships" are, according to Tacitus, Germans with the Suevic (Baltic) sea on one side and an "almost motionless" sea on the other more remote side. Modern commentators believe this refers toScandinavia.Closely bordering on the Suiones and closely resembling them, are the tribes of theSitones.Ptolemy describes Scandinavia as being inhabited byChaediniin the west,FavonaeandFiraesiin the east,Finniin the north,GautaeandDaucionesin the south, andLevoniin the middle. He does not describe them as Suebi.

Tacitus describes the non-GermanicAestiion the eastern shore of the "Suevic Sea" (Baltic), "whose rites and fashions and style of dress are those of the Suevi, while their language is more like the British."After giving this account, Tacitus says: "Here Suebia ends."Therefore, for Tacitusgeographic"Suebia" comprises the entire periphery of theBaltic Sea,including within it tribes not identified as Suebi or even Germanic. On the other hand, Tacitus does clearly consider there to be not only a Suebian region, but also Suebian languages, and Suebian customs, which all contribute to making a specific tribe more or less "Suebian".

Cultural characteristics

Caesar noted that rather than grain crops, they spent time on animal husbandry and hunting. They wore animal skins, bathed in rivers, consumed milk and meat products, and prohibited wine, allowing trade only to dispose of their booty and otherwise they had no goods to export. They had no private ownership of land and were not permitted to stay resident in one place for more than one year. They were divided into 100 cantons, each of which had to provide and support 1000 armed men for the constant pursuit of war.

Captive with Suebian knot National Museum of Romanian History

Strabo describes the Suebi and people from their part of the world as highly mobile and nomadic, unlike more settled and agricultural tribes such as theChattiandCherusci:

...they do not till the soil or even store up food, but live in small huts that are merely temporary structures; and they live for the most part off their flocks, as the Nomads do, so that, in imitation of the Nomads, they load their household belongings on their wagons and with their beasts turn whithersoever they think best.

Notable in classical sources, the Suebi can be identified by their hair style called the "Suebian knot",which" distinguishes the freeman from the slave ";or in other words served as a badge of social rank. The same passage points out that chiefs "use an even more elaborate style".

Tacitus mentions the sacrifice of humans practiced by theSemnonesin a sacred groveand the murder of slaves used in the rites ofNerthuspracticed by the tribes ofSchleswig-Holstein.The chief priest of theNaharvalidresses as a woman and that tribe also worships in groves. TheHariifight at night dyed black. TheSuionesown fleets of rowing vessels with prows at both ends.

Language

Proposed theory on the distribution of the primaryGermanicdialect groups in Europe in around AD 1:

North Germanic

North Sea Germanic,or Ingvaeonic

Weser–Rhine Germanic,or Istvaeonic

Elbe Germanic,or Irminonic

East Germanic

While there is debate possible about whether all tribes identified by Romans as Germanic spoke aGermanic language,the Suebi are generally agreed to have spoken one or more Germanic languages. Tacitus refers to Suebian languages, implying there was more than one by the end of the first century. In particular, the Suebi are associated with the concept of an "Elbe Germanic" group of early dialects spoken by theIrminones,entering Germany from the east, and originating on the Baltic. In late classical times, these dialects, by now situated to the south of the Elbe, and stretching across the Danube into the Roman empire, experienced theHigh German consonant shiftthat defines modernHigh German languages,and in its most extreme form,Upper German.

ModernSwabian German,andAlemannic Germanmore broadly, are therefore "assumed to have evolved at least in part" from Suebian.However,Bavarian,theThuringian dialect,theLombardic languagespoken by the Lombards of Italy, andstandard "High German"itself, are also at least partly derived from the dialects spoken by the Suebi. (The only non-Suebian name among the major groups of Upper Germanic dialects isHigh Franconian German,but this is on the transitional frontier withCentral German,as is neighboring Thuringian.)

Historical events

Ariovistus and the Suebi in 58 BC

Marble bust of Julius Caesar, first century C.E.; recent discovery on theIsland of Pantelleria.

Julius Caesar (100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) describes the Suebi in his firsthand account,De Bello Gallico,as the "largest and the most warlike nation of all the Germans".

Caesar confronted a large army led by a Suevic King namedAriovistusin 58 BC who had been settled for some time in Gaul already, at the invitation of the GaulishArverniandSequanias part of their war against the Aedui. He had already been recognized as a king by the Roman senate. Ariovistus forbade the Romans from entering into Gaul. Caesar on the other hand saw himself and Rome as an ally and defender of the Aedui.

The forces Caesar faced in battle were composed of "Harudes,Marcomanni,Tribocci,Vangiones,Nemetes,Sedusii,and Suevi ". While Caesar was preparing for conflict, a new force of Suebi was led to the Rhine by two brothers, Nasuas and Cimberius, forcing Caesar to rush in order to try to avoid the joining of forces.

Caesar defeated Ariovistus in battle, forcing him to escape across the Rhine. When news of this spread, the fresh Suebian forces turned back in some panic, which led local tribes on the Rhine to take advantage of the situation and attack them.

Caesar and the Suebi in 55 BC

Also reported within Caesar's accounts of the Gallic wars, the Suebi posed another threat in 55 BC.The GermanicUbii,who had worked out an alliance with Caesar, were complaining of being harassed by the Suebi, and the Tencteri and Usipetes, already forced from their homes, tried to cross the Rhine and enter Gaul by force. Caesar bridged the Rhine, the first known to do so, with apile bridge,which though considered a marvel, was dismantled after only eighteen days. The Suebi abandoned their towns closest to the Romans, retreated to the forest and assembled an army. Caesar moved back across the bridge and broke it down, stating that he had achieved his objective of warning the Suebi. They in turn supposedly stopped harassing the Ubii. The Ubii were later resettled on the west bank of the Rhine, in Roman territory.

Rhine crossing of 29 BC

Cassius Dio(c. 150 – 235 AD) wrote the history of Rome for a Greek audience. He reported that, shortly before 29 BC, the Suebi crossed the Rhine, only to be defeated byGaius Carrinaswho, along with the youngOctavian Caesar,celebrated a triumph in 29 BC.Shortly after, they turn up fighting a group ofDaciansin a gladiatorial display at Rome celebrating the consecration of the Julian hero-shrine.

The victory of Drusus in 9 BC

Suetonius(c. 69 AD – after 122 AD), gives the Suebi brief mention in connection with their defeat againstNero Claudius Drususin 9 BC. He says that the Suebi andSugambri"submitted to him and were taken into Gaul and settled in lands near the Rhine" while the other Germani were pushed "to the farther side of theriver Albis"(Elbe).He must have meant the temporary military success of Drusus, as it is unlikely the Rhine was cleared of Germans. Elsewhere he identifies the settlers as 40,000 prisoners of war, only a fraction of the yearly draft of militia.

Florus(c. 74 AD – c. 130 AD), gives a more detailed view of the operations of 9 BC. He reports that theCherusci,Suebi andSicambriformed an alliance by crucifying twenty Roman centurions, but that Drusus defeated them, confiscated their plunder and sold them into slavery.Presumably only the war party was sold, as the Suebi continue to appear in the ancient sources.

Florus's report of the peace brought to Germany by Drusus is glowing but premature. He built "more than five hundred forts" and two bridges guarded by fleets. "He opened a way through theHercynian Forest",which implies but still does not overtly state that he had subdued the Suebi." In a word, there was such peace in Germany that the inhabitants seemed changed... and the very climate milder and softer than it used to be. "

In theAnnalesof Tacitus, it is mentioned that after the defeat of 9 BC the Romans made peace withMaroboduus,who is described as king of the Suevians. This is the first mention of any permanent king of the Suebi.However, Maroboduus was in most sources referred to as the king of theMarcomanni,a tribal name that had already been distinct from the Suebi in Caesar's time. (As discussed above, it is not sure which Suebi were the Suebi of Caesar, but at least they were distinguished from the Marcomanni.) However, Maroboduus was also described as Suebian, and his association with the Marcomanni more specifically comes after the Langobards and Semnones were specifically said to have left his kingdom, having previously been under his rule. At some point in this period the Marcomanni had come to be settled in the forested regions once inhabited by theBoii,in and aroundBohemia,under his rule.

Augustus planned in 6 AD to destroy the kingdom of Maroboduus, which he considered to be too dangerous for the Romans. The later emperorTiberiuscommanded twelve legions to attack the Marcomanni, but the outbreak of arevoltinIllyria,and the need for troops there, forced Tiberius to conclude a treaty with Maroboduus and to recognize him as king.

Roman defeat in 9 AD

Main article:Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

After the death of Drusus, theCherusciannihilated three legions at theBattle of Teutoburg Forestand thereafter "... the empire... was checked on the banks of the Rhine." While elements of the Suevi may have been involved, this was an alliance mainly made up of non-Suebic tribes from northwestern Germany, the Cherusci,Marsi,Chatti, Bructeri, Chauci, and Sicambri. The kingdom of the Marcomanni and their allies stayed out of the conflict and when Maroboduus was sent the head of the defeated Roman leaderVarus,he sent it on to Rome for burial. Within his own alliance were various Suebic peoples, Hermunduri, Quadi, Semnones, Lugii, Zumi, Butones, Mugilones, Sibini and Langobards.

Aftermath of 9 AD

Roman limes and modern boundaries.

Subsequently, Augustus placedGermanicus,the son of Drusus, in charge of the forces of the Rhine and he, after dealing with a mutiny among his troops, proceeded against theCherusciand their allies, breaking their power finally at the battle of Idistavisus, a plain on theWeser.All eight legions and supporting units of Gauls were required in order to accomplish this.Germanicus' zeal led finally to his being replaced (17 AD) by his cousin Drusus, Tiberius' son, asTiberiusthought it best to follow his predecessor's policy of limiting the empire. Germanicus certainly would have involved the Suebi, with unpredictable results.

Arminius,leader of theCherusciand allies, now had a free hand. He accused Maroboduus of hiding in theHercynian Forestwhile the other Germans fought for freedom, and of being the only king among the Germans. The two groups "turned their arms against each other." The SuebicSemnonesandLangobardirebelled against their king and went over to the Cherusci. Left with only theMarcomanniand Herminius' uncle, who had defected, Maroboduus appealed toDrusus,now governor ofIllyricum,and was given only a pretext of aid.

The resulting battle was indecisive but Maroboduus withdrew to Bohemia and sent for assistance to Tiberius. He was refused on the grounds that he had not moved to helpVarus.Drusus encouraged the Germans to finish him off. A force ofGothsunderCatualda,a Marcomannian exile, bought off the nobles and seized the palace. Maroboduus escaped toNoricumand the Romans offered him refuge inRavennawhere he remained the rest of his life.He died in 37 AD. After his expulsion the leadership of the Marcomanni was contested by their Suebic neighbours and allies, the Hermunduri and Quadi.

Marcomannic wars

Main article:Marcomannic Wars

In the 2nd century AD, the Marcomanni entered into a confederation with other peoples including theQuadi,Vandals, andSarmatians,against the Roman Empire. The war began in 166, when the Marcomanni overwhelmed the defences betweenVindobonaandCarnuntum,penetrated along the border between the provinces ofPannoniaandNoricum,laid waste toFlavia Solva,and could be stopped only shortly before reachingAquileiaon theAdriaticsea. The war lasted until Marcus Aurelius' death in 180.

In the third century Jordanes claims that the Marcomanni paid tribute to the Goths, and that the princes of the Quadi were enslaved. The Vandals, who had moved south towards Pannonia, were apparently still sometimes able to defend themselves.

Migration period

Alemanni expansion and Roman-Alemannic battle sites, 3rd to 5th century

In 259/60, one or more groups of Suebi appear to have been the main element in the formation of a new tribal alliance known as theAlemanniwho came to occupy the Roman frontier region known as theAgri Decumates,east of the Rhine and south of the Main. The Alamanni were sometimes simply referred to as Suebi by contemporaries, and the region came to be known asSwabia– a name which survives to this day. People in this region of Germany are still calledSchwaben,a name derived from the Suebi. One specific group in the region in the 3rd century, sometimes distinguished from the Alamanni, were theJuthungi,which a monument found in Augsburg refers to as Semnones.

A large group of Suebi, whose origins are unclear, breached the Roman frontier bycrossing the Rhine,perhaps atMainz,at about the same time as the Vandals andAlans(31 December 406), thus launching an invasion of northernGaul.It is thought that this group probably contained a significant amount ofQuadi,moving out of their homeland under pressure fromRadagaisus.This group later invaded Spain and became rulers of Roman Gaellicia.

Other Suebi apparently remained in or near to the original homeland areas near the Elbe and the modern Czech Republic, occasionally still being referred to by this term. Another group of Suebi, the so-called "northern Suebi" were described as a part of the Saxons in 569 under theFrankishkingSigebert Iin areas of today'sSaxony-Anhalt.An area known asSchwabengauor Suebengau existed at least until the 12th century.

Further south, a group of Suebi settled in parts ofPannonia,after theHunswere defeated in 454 in theBattle of Nedao.Later, the Suebian kingHunimundfought against theOstrogothsin thebattle of Boliain 469. The Suebian coalition lost the battle, and parts of the Suebi therefore migrated to southern Germany.Probably the Marcomanni made up one significant part of these Suebi, who probably lived in at least two distinct areas.Later, the Lombards, a Suebic group long known on the Elbe, came to dominate the Pannonian region before successfully invading Italy.

Suevian Kingdom of Gallaecia

Main article:Kingdom of the Suebi

Suebic migrations across Europe.

Migration

Suebi under kingHermeric,probably coming from the Alemanni, the Quadi, or both,worked their way into the south of France, eventually crossing thePyreneesand entering theIberian Peninsulawhich was no longer under Imperial rule since the rebellion ofGerontiusandMaximusin 409.

Passing through theBasque country,they settled in the Roman province ofGallaecia,in north-westernHispania(modernGalicia,Asturias,and the northern half ofPortugal), where, swearing fealty to EmperorHonorius,they were accepted asfoederatiand permitted to settle under their own autonomous governance. Contemporaneously with the self-governing province ofBritannia,the kingdom of the Suebi in Gallaecia became the first of the sub-Roman kingdoms to be formed in the disintegrating territory of the Western Roman Empire. Suebic Gallaecia was the first kingdom separated from the Roman Empire to mint coins.

The Suebic kingdom inGallaeciaand northernLusitaniawas established in 410 and lasted until 584. Smaller than theOstrogothickingdom of Italy or theVisigothickingdom inHispania,it reached a relative stability and prosperity—and even expanded military southwards—despite the occasional quarrels with the neighbouring Visigothic kingdom.

Settlement

Road sign at the village of Suevos,Ames(Galicia).

Golden coin from theKingdom of the Suebi,410–500 AD

The Germanic invaders and immigrants settled mainly in rural areas, asIdaciusclearly stated: "The Hispanic, spread over cities andoppida... "and the" Barbarians, govern over the provinces ". According toDan Stanislawski,thePortugueseway of living in Northern regions is mostly inherited from the Suebi, in which small farms prevail, distinct from the large properties of Southern Portugal. Bracara Augusta, the modern city ofBragaand former capital of Roman Gallaecia, became the capital of the Suebi.Orosius,at that time resident in Hispania, shows a rather pacific initial settlement, the newcomers working their landsor serving as bodyguards of the locals.Another Germanic group that accompanied the Suebi and settled in Gallaecia were theBuri.They settled in the region between the riversCávadoandHomem,in the area known asTerras de Bouro(Lands of the Buri), Portugal.

As the Suebi quickly adopted the locallanguage,few traces were left of their Germanic tongue, but for some words and fortheir personal and land names,adopted by most of the Gallaeci.In Galicia fourparishesand six villages are namedSuevosorSuegos,i.e.Sueves,after old Suebic settlements.

Establishment

Suebic sword. Conimbriga, Portugal

TheVisigothswere sent in 416 by the emperor Honorius to fight the Germanic invaders in Hispania, but they were re-settled in 417 by the Romans asfoederatiin Aquitania after completely defeating theAlansand theSilingiVandals. The absence of competition permitted first, theAsdingiVandals, and later, the Suebi, to expand south and east. After the departure of the Vandals for Africa in 429 Roman authority in the peninsula was reasserted for 10 years except in northwest where the Suevi were confined. In its heyday Suebic Gallaecia extended as far south asMéridaandSeville,capitals of the Roman provinces ofLusitaniaandBetica,while their expeditions reachedZaragozaandLleidaafter taking the Roman capital, Mérida, in 439. The previous year 438Hermericratified the peace with theGallaeci,the local and partially romanized rural population, and, weary of fighting, abdicated in favour of his sonRechila,who proved to be a notable general, defeating first Andevotus,Romanae militiae dux,and laterVitusmagister utriusque militiae.In 448,Rechiladied, leaving the crown to his sonRechiarwho had converted to Roman Catholicism c. 447. Soon, he married a daughter of the Gothic kingTheodoric I,and began a wave of attacks on theTarraconense,still a Roman province. By 456 the campaigns ofRechiarclashed with the interests of the Visigoths, and a large army of Roman federates (Visigoths under the command ofTheodoric II,Burgundiansdirected by kingsGundiocandChilperic) crossed thePyreneesinto Hispania, and defeated the Suebi near modern-dayAstorga.Rechiar was executed after being captured by his brother-in-law, the Visigothic king Theodoric II. In 459, the Roman emperorMajoriandefeated the Suebi, briefly restoring Roman rule in northernHispania.Nevertheless, the Suebi became free of Roman control forever after Majorian was assassinated two years later. The Suebic kingdom was confined in the northwest in Gallaecia and northern Lusitania where political division and civil war arose among several pretenders to the royal throne. After years of turmoil,Remismundwas recognized as the sole king of the Suebi, bringing forth a politic of friendship with the Visigoths, and favoring the conversion of his people toArianism.

Last years of the kingdom

The Suebic kingdom of Gallaecia (green), c. 550, (with borders of the former Roman provinces of Hispania)

In 561 king Ariamir called the catholicFirst Council of Braga,which dealt with the old problem of thePriscillianismheresy. Eight years after, in 569, king Theodemir called theFirst Council of Lugo,in order to increase the number of dioceses within his kingdom. Its acts have been preserved through a medieval resume known asParrochiale SuevorumorDivisio Theodemiri.

Defeat by the Visigoths

In 570 the Arian king of the Visigoths,Leovigild,made his first attack on the Suebi. Between 572 and 574, Leovigild invaded the valley of theDouro,pushing the Suebi west and northwards. In 575 the Suebic king,Miro,made a peace treaty with Leovigild in what seemed to be the beginning of a new period of stability. Yet, in 583 Miro supported the rebellion of the Catholic Gothic princeHermenegild,engaging in military action against king Leovigild, although Miro was defeated in Seville when trying to break on through the blockade on the Catholic prince. As a result, he was forced to recognize Leovigild as friend and protector, for him and for his successors, dying back home just some months later. His son, kingEboric,confirmed the friendship with Leovigild, but he was deposed just a year later by his brother-in-lawAudeca,giving Leovigild an excuse to attack the kingdom. In 585 AD, first Audeca and laterMalaric,were defeated and the Suebic kingdom was incorporated into the Visigothic one as its sixth province. The Suebi were respected in their properties and freedom, and continued to dwell in Gallaecia, finally merging with the rest of the local population during the early Middle Ages.

Religion

Conversion to Arianism

The Suebi remained mostly pagan, and their subjectsPriscillianistuntil anArianmissionary namedAjax,sent by the Visigothic king Theodoric II at the request of the Suebic unifierRemismund,in 466 converted them and established a lasting Arian church which dominated the people until the conversion to Trinitarian Catholicism the 560s.

Conversion to Orthodox Trinitarianism

Mutually incompatible accounts of the conversion of the Suebi to Orthodox Catholic Trinitarian Christianity of the First and Second Ecumenical Councils are presented in the primary records:

• The minutes of theFirst Council of Braga—which met on 1 May 561—state explicitly that the synod was held at the orders of a king namedAriamir.Of the eight assistant bishops, just one bears a Suebic name: Hildemir. While the Catholicism of Ariamir is not in doubt, that he was the first Chalcedonian monarch of the Suebi since Rechiar has been contested on the grounds that his Catholicism is not explicitly stated.He was, however, the first Suebic monarch to hold a Catholic synod, and when theSecond Council of Bragawas held at the request of kingMiro,a Catholic himself,in 572, of the twelve assistant bishops five bears Suebic names: Remisol ofViseu,Adoric ofIdanha,Wittimer ofOurense,Nitigis ofLugoand Anila ofTui.
• TheHistoria SuevorumofIsidore of Sevillestates that a king namedTheodemarbrought about the conversion of his people fromArianismwith the help of the missionaryMartin of Dumio.
• According to theFrankishhistorianGregory of Tours,on the other hand, an otherwise unknown sovereign namedChararic,having heard ofMartin of Tours,promised to accept the beliefs of the saint if only his son would be cured ofleprosy.Through the relics and intercession of Saint Martin the son was healed; Chararic and the entire royal household converted to theNicene faith.
• By 589, when theThird Council of Toledowas held, and the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo converted officially from Arianism to Catholicism, kingReccared Istated in its minutes that also "an infinite number of Suebi have converted", together with the Goths, which implies that the earlier conversion was either superficial or partial. In the same council, four bishops from Gallaecia abjured of their Arianism. And so, the Suebic conversion is ascribed, not to a Suebe, but to a Visigoth byJohn of Biclarum,who puts their conversion alongside that of the Goths, occurring under Reccared I in 587–589.

Most scholars have attempted to meld these stories. It has been alleged that Chararic and Theodemir must have been successors of Ariamir, since Ariamir was the first Suebic monarch to lift the ban on Catholic synods; Isidore therefore gets the chronology wrong.Reinhart suggested that Chararic was converted first through therelicsof Saint Martin and that Theodemir was converted later through the preaching of Martin of Dumio.Dahn equated Chararic with Theodemir, even saying that the latter was the name he took upon baptism.It has also been suggested that Theodemir and Ariamir were the same person and the son of Chararic.In the opinion of some historians, Chararic is nothing more than an error on the part of Gregory of Tours and never existed.If, as Gregory relates, Martin of Dumio died about the year 580 and had been bishop for about thirty years, then the conversion of Chararic must have occurred around 550 at the latest.Finally, Ferreiro believes the conversion of the Suebi was progressive and stepwise and that Chararic's public conversion was only followed by the lifting of a ban on Catholic synods in the reign of his successor, which would have been Ariamir; Thoedemir was responsible for beginning a persecution of the Arians in his kingdom to root out their heresy.

• 
  ChristianChi Rhoon a 5th-century marble table,Quiroga,Galicia.
• 
  Suebic and Roman fibullae fromConimbriga,Portugal

Norse mythology

The name of the Suebi also appears inNorse mythologyand in early Scandinavian sources. The earliest attestation is theProto-NorsenameSwabaharjaz( "Suebian warrior" ) on theRö runestoneand in the place name Svogerslev.Sváfa,whose name means "Suebian",was aValkyriewho appears in the eddic poemHelgakviða Hjörvarðssonar.The kingdomSváfalandalso appears in this poem and in theÞiðrekssaga.

See also

• Swabia
• Dukes of Swabia family tree
• Germanic personal names in Galicia
• Laeti

References

General sources

• Ferreiro, Alberto."Braga and Tours: Some Observations on Gregory'sDe virtutibus sancti Martini."Journal of Early Christian Studies.3 (1995), p. 195–210.
• Thompson, E. A."The Conversion of the Spanish Suevi to Catholicism."Visigothic Spain: New Approaches.ed.Edward James.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980.ISBN0-19-822543-1.
• Reynolds, Robert L.,"Reconsideration of the history of the Suevi",Revue belge de pholologie et d'histoire,35 (1957), p. 19–45.

External links

• The Chronicle of Hydatiusis the main source for the history of the Suebi in Galicia and Portugal up to 468.
• Identity and Interaction: the Suevi and the Hispano-Romans, University of Virginia, 2007
• Medieval Galician anthroponomy
• Minutes of the Councils of Braga and Toledo,in theCollectio Hispana Gallica Augustodunensis
• Orosius'Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII