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Shahidulla

Coordinates:36°24′50″N77°59′15″E/ 36.4140°N 77.9875°E/36.4140; 77.9875
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Shahidulla
شەيدۇللا‎
Xaidulla, Saitula
Historic village & campground
Etymology: witness or martyr of Allah[1][2]
Nickname:
Sanshili Yingfang
Shahidulla is located in Southern Xinjiang
Shahidulla
Shahidulla
Coordinates:36°24′50″N77°59′15″E/ 36.4140°N 77.9875°E/36.4140; 77.9875
CountryPeople's Republic of China
Autonomous RegionXinjiang
PrefectureHotan
CountyPishan/Guma
Elevation
[3]
3,646 m (11,962 ft)
Shahidulla
Chinese name
Traditional ChineseTái đồ lạp
Simplified ChineseTái đồ lạp
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional ChineseTam thậpLíDoanh phòng
Simplified ChineseTam thậpLíDoanh phòng
Uyghur name
Uyghurشەيدۇللا‎

Shahidulla,[a]also speltXaidullafromMandarin Chinese,[4](altitude ca. 3,646 m or 11,962 ft), was a nomad camping ground and historical caravan halting place in theKarakash Rivervalley, close toKhotan,in the southwestern part ofXinjiangAutonomous Region,China.The site contains the ruins of a historical fort which was demolished by the Chinese administration of Xinjiang between 1890 and 1892.[5]The site lies next to the Chinese National HighwayG219betweenKashgarandTibet,25 km east of Mazar and 115 km west ofDahongliutan.

The modern town ofSaitulais located next to the old fort ofSuget Karaulbuilt by the Chinese administration about 10 km (30 "Chinese miles") southeast of the original site.[6]A modernPeople's Liberation Armybarracks namedSanshili Yingfang[7]orSanshili Barracks[8](lit. '30libarracks') is also located here.[2]This name is a more common name used by motorists along the G219 highway.[7]

Etymology[edit]

TheUyghurnameShahidullasimply means "witness of Allah"[1]or "martyr of Allah"[2]depending on the interpretation of theheteronym"shahid".

During the 1800s, the place was a sepulcher or shrine for a person known as Shahidulla Khoja,[9]or Shahid Ullah Khajeh.[10][11] He was said to be aKhojafrom Yarkand who was killed by "his Khitay pursuers" during the 1700sQing conquest of Xinjiang.His real name was lost. At the time localKirghiznomads venerated the shrine and Muslim travellers would pray for blessing on their journey.[9]

Geography and caravan trade[edit]

Map 1: 19th century trade routes through Shahidulla (located in the centre of the map, near the western bend of theKarakash River). The bold lines represent theKarakoramrange in the south and the "northern branch" of theKunlun mountainsin the north. The "southern branch" of the Kunlun mountains is unmarked. (Map not drawn to scale)

Shahidulla is situated between theKunlun mountainsand theKarakoramrange, "close to the southern foot of the former".[12]It is at the western bend of theKarakash River,which originates in theAksai Chinplains, flows northeast and makes a sharp bend to the west at the foot of the Kunlun range. After making another bend near Shahidulla, it flows northeast again, cutting through the Kunlun mountains towardsKhotan.The traditional site of Shahidulla is located northwest of the modern town, about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) downstream.

Caravaners talk about a "southern branch" of the Kunlun range at the foot of which the Karakash flows, and a "northern branch" (also called the "Kilian range" ) which has various passes (from the west to east, Yangi, Kilik, Kilian, Sanju, Hindu-tagh and Ilchi passes). The Kilian (36°42′17″N77°56′55″E/ 36.7046°N 77.9485°E/36.7046; 77.9485(Kilian Pass)) and Sanju (36°40′13″N78°14′44″E/ 36.6702°N 78.2456°E/36.6702; 78.2456(Sanju Pass)) passes are the most often mentioned, which lead toKashgar.

To the south of Shahidulla, the trade route passed through the site of Suget Karaul (the modern 'Saitula' town), ascended the valley of a stream to theSuget Pass(36°09′33″N78°00′32″E/ 36.15917°N 78.00889°E/36.15917; 78.00889(Suget Pass)) and, after crossing a junction point ofAk-tagh(35°58′26″N78°01′41″E/ 35.974°N 78.028°E/35.974; 78.028(Ak-tagh)), went over theKarakoram Passinto Ladakh. An alternative route to Ladakh from Shahidulla (called the "Chang Chenmo route" ) went along the Karakash river till reaching the Aksai Chin plains and then to Ladakh via theChang Chenmo valley.This route was never really popular with the traders, despite the best efforts of the British Raj to promote it.

The entire area between the Karakoram range and the Kunlun mountains is mostly uninhabited and has very little vegetation, except for the river valleys of Yarkand and Karakash. In these valleys, during the summer months, cultivation was possible. Kanjutis fromHunzaused to cultivate in the Yarkand valley (called "Raskam" plots) and the Kirghiz from Turkestan used to cultivate in the area of Shahidullah. Shahidullah is described as a "seasonal township" in the sources, but it was little more than a campground in the 19th century.[13]

Kulbhushan Warikoo states that, of the two trade routes between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, one in the west throughChitraland thePamirs,and the other in the east through Shahidulla and Ladakh, the eastern route was more favoured by the traders as it was relatively safe from robberies and political turmoil:

Map 2: Shahidulla ( "Chah-i-Doulla" ) and environs, French Army map 1906.

Such was the safety of this route that in the event of unfavourable weather or death of ponies, traders would march to a safe place leaving behind their goods which were fetched after the climate became favourable or substitute transport became available.[14]

The absence of turmoil was not a given. In fact, the traders applied pressure on the rulers to avoid conflict. The Ladakhi rulers especially heeded such warnings, dependent as they were on trade for their prosperity.[15]

History[edit]

There is legendary and documentary evidence that indicates that Indians fromTaxilaand the Chinese were among the first settlers of Khotan. In the first century BC, Kashmir and Khotan on the two sides of the Karakoram range formed a joint kingdom, which was ruled by either Scythian or Turki (Elighur) chiefs. Towards the end of the first century AD, the kingdom broke up into two parts: Khotan being annexed by the Chinese and Kashmir byKanishka.[16]

Some modern scholars believe the Kingdom of Zihe (Chinese:Tử hợp;Wade–Giles:Tzu-ho)[17]in Chinese historical records was situated at Shahidulla.[18][19]This is not universally attested.[20][21]

16th century[edit]

In late 15th century,Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlatfrom theDughlat tribefounded an independent kingdom for himself from the fragmentation ofMoghulistan.The kingdom encompassed Hotan and Kashgar. However, he was deposed in the 1510s bySultan Said Khanwho founded theYarkand Khanate.While attempting to flee to Ladakh, Abu Bakr was intercepted and killed. His tomb is located about 30 kilometres (20 miles) north of modern-day town of Xaidulla.[22]

19th century[edit]

Map 3:W. H. Johnson's map of the territory of Ladakh (1865); Johnson's route to Khotan and back marked in red
Map 4: Jammu and Kashmir section of the 1888 Survey of India map of India; the northern border passes through Aktagh instead of the Johnson's line along the Kilian and Sanju passes. The undefined boundary shown in dash line fromMalubiting,Raskam,Aktagh to a peak on Kunlun mountains35°16′59″N80°15′43″E/ 35.2831°N 80.2619°E/35.2831; 80.2619(Kunlun boundary point)

In the nineteenth century, Shahidulla became the centre of a multi-pronged game betweenKashmir,theBritish Empire in India,China,Kashgariaand theRussian Empire.

About 120Kirghiznomad families lived in Shahidulla in forty tents.[12]Their head-man was called Turdi Kul.[23]The British regarded the Kirghiz as Chinese subjects and believed that they "always" paid taxes to Yarkand.[12]Yet there is evidence that this may not have occurred till 1881,[24]and the Chinese considered them to be living beyond their boundaries.[25] The Kirghiz faced periodic raids from the Kanjutis ofHunza,who controlled the Yarkand River valley (called "Raskam" ) and had protection from China. They also carried off people and sold them into slavery.[26]

TheDograruler ofJammu,RajaGulab Singh,then a vassal of theSikh Empire,conquered Ladakh in 1834.[27]According toFrancis Younghusband,all the area up to Shahidulla was immediately taken under control by the Dogras.[28][b]This was of no consequence to the Chinese in Turkestan (present dayXinjiang) as they viewed the northern Kunlun range as their border. In 1846, Gulab Singh came under the suzerainty of the British as the Maharaja ofJammu and Kashmir.The British were inclined to view the Karakoram range as the natural boundary of the Indian subcontinent and they viewed the Maharaja's claim to Shahidulla with trepidation.[30]

This left the tract between the Karakoram and Kunlun ranges as a no-man's land. Since regular trade caravans passed through the area, which were open to robber raids, securing it became important to the new Dogra regime in Kashmir.[27][31]A fort at Shahidulla was apparently constructed by the Dogras at an uncertain date.[c] George Haywardlater described it as 'a stone fort and several ruined huts'.[33] Around 1864, when the Chinese authority in Turkestan was overthrown by the Kokand chieftainYakub Beg,the Dogra governor of Ladakh stationed a garrison of troops at the fort. Described as achauki(police post), it had a contingent of 25 men including customs officials. The post was abandoned in 1866, apparently due to the difficulty of maintaining it at a great distance.[34][35][d]In 1868,Robert Shawand Hayward found it occupied by Kokandi troops.[32][e]

In the interim, in 1865, the British surveyorW. H. Johnson,tasked with surveying the Ladakhi territory "up to Chinese frontiers",[38]received an invitation for a visit from the Khan ofKhotannamed Haji Habibullah. Johnson spent a few weeks in Khotan and returned via Sanju Pass and Shahidulla. The border of Ladakh he drew was along the northern Kunlun range (on which the Kilian and Sanju passes lay), and included the Karakash valley within Ladakh.

By 1873,Douglas Forsythwas dispatched by the British on a diplomatic mission to Yakub Beg. The Forsyth Mission recognised Shahidullah as part of the "Khan's dominion",[39]and placed the boundary between British Empire and Turkestan at Ak-tagh, south of the Suget Pass.[40](See Map 1) From this point on, the British officials began to reject Dogra claims to Shahidulla.

In 1877, Yakub Beg died and the Chinese reasserted their authority in Turkestan (renaming it asXinjiang— "new dominion" ). They however stuck to their original posts (karawals) on the north side of the Kilian and Sanju passes, and showed no interest in occupying Shahidulla.[41]As late as 1889, the Turdi Kol reported that Chinese officials told him that Shahidulla was "British territory".[42]

In 1889,Francis Younghusband,who was tasked with finding measures to counteract a potential Russian aggression in the area, proposed that the Chinese be encouraged to occupy all the no man's land between the British and Russian territories and serve as a buffer zone.[43]This was agreed by the British administration, and the British envoy in Peking was instructed to discuss the matter with the Chinese government.[43]Simultaneously, Younghusband was sent on a second mission to Yarkand to "induce" the Chinese officials to expand and fill out the no man's land.[44] The means he used to induce them are not precisely known, but by the end of his mission, the Chinese officials showed a firm commitment to occupy Shahidulla, and even all the area up to the Karakoram Pass.[45][f] It appears that they stationed troops at the Shahidulla fort during the summer months of 1890, but withdrew them during winter.[46]Further in 1892, they knocked down the Shahidulla fort and built a new fort at Suget Karaul (36°20′48″N78°01′32″E/ 36.3467°N 78.02564°E/36.3467; 78.02564(Suget Karaul)), about 10 km. southeast of Shahidulla, where the road from Suget Pass enters the Karakash Valley.[46][6]Younghusband reported that the Chinese were asserting authority all the way to the Karakoram range, and the site was said to be the closest place to the range where grass and fuel were available.[47]


20th and 21st centuries[edit]

Map including Xaidulla (labelled as Xaidulla (Sai-t’u-la)) (DMA,1980)

By the early 20th century, the Shahidullah region was under Chinese control and considered part ofXinjiangProvince,[48]and has remained so ever since. Xaidulla is well to the north of any territories claimed by either India or Pakistan, while the Sanju and Kilian passes are further to the north of Xaidulla. A Sinkiang–Tibet road (or "Aksai Chin road", now part ofG219) was laid by China in the 1950s, which runs fromYechengin theTarim Basin,south through Xaidulla, and across theAksai Chinregion, controlled by China but claimed by India, into northwesternTibet.[49]

Current status[edit]

Some time after the construction of the road, Chinese administration built a village at Suget Karaul and named it "Saitula". The nomad population of the former Shahidula apparently took up residence in the new village. In May 2010, Saitula was made atownship.[50]

The township includes onevillage,which was formerly part of Kangir Kirghiz Township:[51][52]

Transportation[edit]

China National Highway 219passes through the town of Saitula as well as the historical Shahidullah site.[54]A mountain road runs from the historical site to the town of Sanju in the Tarim basin via theSanju Pass.[55]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Alternative spellings:ShahidullahandShahidula.
  2. ^There are also records indicating that Gulab Singh's generalZorawar Singhthreatened to invade Chinese Turkestan itself, but he was restrained by theBritish Raj.[29]
  3. ^Ney Elias,a British officer placed in Ladakh, reported (possibly representing Dogra claims) that the fort had been occupied by the Dogras for 20 years and that it was abandoned about 1865.[32]
  4. ^Other reports indicate that the post was meant to guard against the raids of the Kanjutis (the people ofHunza,a vassal state of Kashmir) on the trade caravans, in an apparent effort to ward off Yakub Beg's own initiative to address the problem.[35]
  5. ^ Robert Barkley Shaw,a British merchant inKangra,India, visited Shahidulla in 1868 on his trip toYarkand,via theKarakoramPass. He was held in detention for a time at the fort, which was under the control of the Governor of Yarkand on behalf of Yakub Beg.[36]Shaw writes: "it is merely a camping-ground on the regular old route between Ladâk and Yârkand, and the first place where I should strike that route. Four years ago [i.e. in 1864], while the troubles were still going on in Toorkistân, the Maharaja of Cashmeer sent a few soldiers and workmen across the Karakoram ranges (his real boundary), and built a small fort at Shahidoolla. This fort his troops occupied during two summers; but last year, when matters became settled; and the whole country united under the King of Yarkand, these troops were withdrawn."[37]
  6. ^Indications are that Younghusband "provoked" the Chinese by telling them that the British would occupy the Karakash valley if they did not do so.

References[edit]

  1. ^abCampbell, Mike."User-submitted name Shahidullah".Behind the Name.Retrieved11 January2020.Shahidulla, Shahidula, Shahid Allah means "witness of Allah", from Arabic شَهِيد (šahīd) "witness" and الله (Allah).
  2. ^abc"1950 niên giải phóng quân đáo đạt côn luân sơn, quốc quân huynh đệ thuyết: Đẳng liễu tứ niên, khả toán lai nhân liễu"[In 1950 the PLA arrived in Kunlun Mountain, the brothers in KMT Army said: we waited four years (to be relieved), you finally arrived.].sohu.com.20 April 2018.Retrieved11 January2020.Giá lí tằng kinh thị nhất cá tiếu sở, toàn danh khiếu tắc đồ lạp tiếu sở, doanh phòng tại hải bạt 3700 mễ đích tam thập lí doanh phòng, tái đồ lạp giá cá cổ lão tiếu sở di chỉ chỉ hướng bài thị do nam cương quân khu tiền chỉ hòa hòa điền quân phân khu tiền chỉ cộng đồng sở lập, cự tam thập lí doanh phòng thập ngũ công lí.... Tái đồ lạp thị duy ngữ, hán ngữ ý tư thị tuẫn giáo giả môn.
  3. ^Northern Ngari in Detail: Activities,Lonely Planet, retrieved 12 September 2018.
  4. ^Collins World Atlas Illustrated Edition(3rd ed.).HarperCollins.2007. p. 82.ISBN978-0-00-723168-3– viaInternet Archive.Xaidulla
  5. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 62: "It was only after 1890 that the Chinese, advancing south, pulled down the Shahidulla fort and built another close to the Sugat pass, some 12 km south of Shahidulla."
  6. ^abDe Filippi, Filippo (1932),The Italian Expedition to the Himalaya, Karakoram and Eastern Turkestan (1913–1914),London: Edward Arnold & Co., p. 422 – via archive.org,In the centre of the valley, on the left bank, but at a distance from the river, is Suget Karaul (the fort of Suget), a massive square of masonry, with thick battlemented walls some 16 feet high, made of pebbles cemented with mud. (Photographs on pages 424 and 426.)
  7. ^ab"Dring the silk road on China national highway 219 for tour from Xinjiang to Tibet".China Silk Road Tours. Archived fromthe originalon 12 January 2020.Retrieved11 January2020.Day 8: Ali – Bangongcuo Lake – Sanshili Yingfang
  8. ^PLA Daily (2006-03-06)."PLA medical station on highest elevation opens".Chinese Embassy in India.Retrieved11 January2020.
  9. ^ab Henry Walter Bellew (1875).Kashmir and Kashghar: A Narrative of the Journey of the Embassy to Kashghar in 1873-74.Trübner. p. 185.Shahidulla Khoja, which gives its name to the locality, is a sacred shrine on the top of a bluff... upon the grave of some fugitive Khoja from Yarkand, who was killed here by his Khitay pursuers at the time the Chinese conquered the country, a century or so ago.... his memory is venerated by the Kirghiz nomads of the locality... Musalman travellers passing this way toil up the slope to repeat a blessing over his tomb, and invoke the nameless martyr's intercession for God's protection on their onward journey.
  10. ^ William Moorcroft; George Trebeck (1841). Horace Hayman Wilson (ed.).Travels in the Himalayan provinces of Hindustan: and the Panjab, in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara.J. Murray. p. 375.The former rises in the mountains of Khoten, and runs from east to west for twenty-four kos to Shahid Ullah Khajeh, and then north for twelve kos, where it receives the Toghri su, or straight water, which rises in the Karlik Dawan, or ice mountains.
  11. ^ Mir Izzet Ullah (1843)."Travels beyond the Himalaya".Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.7(2). Cambridge University Press: 299.JSTOR25207596.Near Kirghiz thicket is a pass, by which a road runs in a north-easterly direction to the sepulchre of Shahid Ullah Khajeh, one day's march: one night's journey from hence is a mine of Yeshm.
  12. ^abcMehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 62.
  13. ^Phanjoubam, The Northeast Question (2015),pp. 12–14.
  14. ^Warikoo, Trade relations between Central Asia and Kashmir Himalayas (1996),paragraph 2.
  15. ^Rizvi, The trans-Karakoram trade in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (1994),pp. 28–29.
  16. ^Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1967),Age of the Nandas and Mauryas,Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 220–221,ISBN978-81-208-0466-1;Mirsky, Jeannette (1998),Sir Aurel Stein: Archaeological Explorer,University of Chicago Press, p. 83,ISBN978-0-226-53177-9
  17. ^Fan Ye."Tử hợp quốc"[Kingdom of Zihe].Book of the Later Han(in Chinese). Vol. 88 – viaWikisource.
  18. ^John E. Hill (July 2003)."Section 6 – The Kingdom of Zihe tử hợp (modern Shahidulla)".Notes to The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu(2nd ed.). Washington University.Retrieved3 February2020.
  19. ^Ulrich Theobald (Oct 16, 2011)."Pishan bì sơn and the states in the Pamir Range".ChinaKnowledge.de.Retrieved3 February2020.During the Later Han period the state fell apart in Xiye proper and the state of Zihe tử hợp (modern name Shahidullah).
  20. ^Rong, Xinjiang (Feb 2007)."Hám thị cao xương vương quốc dữ nhu nhiên, tây vực đích quan hệ"[Relations of the Gaochang Kingdom under the Kan Family with the Rouran Qaghanate and the Western Regions during the Second Half of the 5th Century](PDF).Historical Research(in Chinese).ISSN0459-1909.Retrieved3 February2020.Tử hợp quốc tại tây vực nam đạo, kim hòa điền dữ tháp thập khố nhĩ càn chi gian đích diệp thành huyện trị cáp nhĩ cát lí khắc (Karghalik)
  21. ^Trung quốc cổ đại sử(in Chinese). Trung quốc nhân dân đại học thư báo tư liêu xã. 1982. p. 54.Tử hợp đích vị trí ứng tức kim nhật mạt mễ nhĩ cao nguyên đích tiểu mạt mễ nhĩ đông bộ, tháp khắc đôn ba thập mạt mễ nhĩ nam bộ địa khu, đông diên trực chí lạt tư khố mục cập mật nhĩ đại tây nam sơn khu nhất đái.
  22. ^Bellew, Henry Walter (1875).The history of Káshgharia.p. 62.[Sa'id] took possession of the city at end of Rajab 920H... Ababakar fled before them from Khutan to Caranghotagh.... fled towards Tibet.... He was intercepted, seized, and killed by a party of his many pursuers in the Caracash valley, where a mean tomb on the river bank, two stages from Shahidulla Khoja, now marks the site of his grave.
  23. ^Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem (2010),p. 54.
  24. ^Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem (2010)
  25. ^ Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem (2010),p. 58: "Younghusband arrived in Shahidulla on 21 August 1889 and met the Turdi Kol, the Kirghiz chief. Two Chinese officials, the Kargilik and the Yarkand Ambans, had told him [Turdi Kol] that Shahidulla was British territory."
  26. ^Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem (2010),pp. 54–55.
  27. ^abRizvi, The trans-Karakoram trade in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (1994),pp. 37–38.
  28. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),pp. 57, 87: "Shahidulla was occupied by the Dogras almost from the time they conquered Ladakh."
  29. ^Datta, Chaman Lal (1984),General Zorawar Singh, His Life and Achievements in Ladakh, Baltistan, and Tibet,Deep & Deep Publications, p. 63
  30. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992):"In his detailed memorandum, Younghusband recalled it was always accepted that the frontier extended up to the Muztagh mountains and the Karakoram pass, the only unsettled question being as to whether it shouldincludeShahidulla. "
  31. ^Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground (1963),pp. 64–65.
  32. ^abNoorani, India–China Boundary Problem (2010),p. 48.
  33. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 48.
  34. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 37.
  35. ^abKaul, India China Boundary in Kashmir (2003),p. 76.
  36. ^Shaw (1871),pp. 100-
  37. ^Shaw (1871),p. 107
  38. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),pp. 34–35.
  39. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 43.
  40. ^Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem (2010),p. 43.
  41. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 57.
  42. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 58: "Younghusband arrived in Shahidulla on 21 August 1889 and met the Turdi Kol, the Kirghiz chief. Two Chinese officials, the Kargilik and the Yarkand Ambans, had told him that Shahidulla was British territory.".
  43. ^abMehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 59.
  44. ^ Van Eekelen, Indian Foreign Policy and the Border Dispute (1967),p. 160: "Instead of occupying the territory which was lying defenceless and unclaimed by China and over which Hunza and Kashmir had genuine claims, the British wanted to limit their responsibilities to a strategically sound and politically safe frontier. They attempted to induce China to occupy the territory involved."
  45. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 6: "The British explorer's interview with the Amban at Yarkand is also revealing, the latter being virtually bulldozed into owning that Peking had always considered the Karakoram range as the boundary between Kashmir and Yarkand. Moreover, that his country would be prepared to protect the Leh-Kashgar trade route as far as that range!"
  46. ^abMehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 63.
  47. ^Mehra, An "agreed" frontier (1992),p. 62.
  48. ^Stanton (1908),Map. No. 19 - Sinkiang
  49. ^National Geographic Atlas of China(2008), p. 28.
  50. ^Bì sơn huyện lịch sử duyên cách[Pishan County Historical Development] (in Simplified Chinese). XZQH.org. 2 December 2014.Retrieved29 December2019.2010 niên 5 nguyệt, tự trị khu chính phủ phê chuẩn thiết lập tái đồ lạp trấn.
  51. ^2009 niên bì sơn huyện hành chính khu hoa[2009 Pishan County Administrative Divisions] (in Simplified Chinese). XZQH.org. 6 January 2011.Retrieved16 January2020.653223212 khang khắc nhĩ kha nhĩ khắc tư tộc hương {...} 653223212203 220 sắc nhật khắc khắc nhĩ thôn
  52. ^2018 niên thống kế dụng khu hoa đại mã hòa thành hương hoa phân đại mã: Tái đồ lạp trấn[2018 Statistical Area Numbers and Rural-Urban Area Numbers: Xaidulla Town] (in Simplified Chinese).National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China.2018.Retrieved16 January2020.Thống kế dụng khu hoa đại mã thành hương phân loại đại mã danh xưng 653223102200 121 sắc nhật khắc khắc nhĩ thôn ủy hội
  53. ^Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem (2010),p. 58.
  54. ^China National Highway 219 in the vicinity of Saitula,OpenStreetMap, retrieved 12 October 2022.
  55. ^Modern travel route between Saitula and Sanju via the Sanju Pass,OpenStreetMap, retrieved 12 October 2022.

Bibliography[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Look upShahidullaorXaidullain Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • National Geographic Atlas of China(2008). National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.ISBN978-1-4262-0136-3.
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