Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces

Sultan's Armed Forces
القوات المسلحة لسلطان عمان
The Seal of the Sultan's Armed Forces
Motto	God - Homeland - The Sultan
Founded	1907
Service branches	Royal Army of Oman Royal Air Force of Oman Royal Navy of Oman Royal Guard of Oman Sultan's Special Force
Headquarters	Bayt al Falaj,Muscat
Leadership
Supreme Commander-in-Chief	SultanHaitham bin Tariq Al Said
Minister of Defense	Shihab bin Tariq
Chief of the Armed Forces Staff	Vice Admiral Abdullah bin Khamis bin Abdullah Al Raisi
Personnel
Conscription	No
Active personnel	42,600
Reserve personnel	100,000
Expenditure
Budget	US$8.686 billion(2017)
Percent of GDP	12.1%(2017)
Industry
Domestic suppliers	Oman Engineering Company
Related articles
Ranks	Military ranks of Oman

TheSultan of Oman's Armed Forces(Arabic:القوات المسلحة لسلطان عمان,transliterated:al-Quwāt ul-Musallaḥatu lis-Sulṭān 'Umān) are theRoyal Army of Oman,Royal Navy of Oman,Royal Air Force of Oman,Sultan's Special Forceand other defense forces of theSultanate of Oman.Since their formal establishment in the early 1950s, withBritishassistance SAF has twice overcome insurgencies which have threatened the integrity or social structure of the state, and more recently have contributed contingents or facilities to coalitions formed to protectArab states of the Persian Gulf.

History

Oman has a military history which dates back to the 7th century. At the time, the forces of theAzdtribe were powerful enough to helpAbu Bakr,acompanionofMuhammad,in the War of al Mortadeen. It is said that even before that, the Azd tribe, led by Malek bin Faham, were able to defeat aPersianforce which controlled Oman at that time.

The second known Omani army force was raised during theYarubid dynasty,who forced thePortugueseout of the country in 1650. Under Yarubi rule, fortified buildings covered the country from the north ofMusandamto the south ofDhofar,making Oman a great power in the Persian Gulf.

During the later al Busaidi dynasty, (mainly during the time ofSaid bin Sultan), Oman was a substantial empire with a very powerful military force, making Oman one of the greatest forces in theIndian Ocean,second only to theUnited Kingdom.After Said bin Sultan's death, political conflicts in Oman forced Oman to close in upon itself, and to transform from a powerful empire to a relatively poor country.

Buraimi dispute

See also:Buraimi Dispute

Prior to 1954, whenSaid bin Taimurbecame ruler ofMuscat and Oman,the defence of the region was guaranteed by treaties with theBritish Empire.The only armed forces in Muscat and Oman were tribal levies and a palace guard recruited fromBaluchistaninPakistan(due to a historical quirk by which the Sultan also owned the port ofGwadur). Prior to that year, there had been a dispute withSaudi Arabiaover the ownership of theBuraimi Oasis,which was important for oil exploration rights.

For many centuries, the interior of Oman had been an autonomous region, theImamate of Oman.The Imam of Oman was its religious and secular leader. In 1954, the Imam was Ghalib bin Ali. He had been prepared to muster Omani tribesmen to expel the Saudis from Buraimi, but at British instigation, the matter was settled by arbitration. To prevent the Imam interfering with the settlement over Buraimi, a battalion-sized task force, theMuscat and Oman Field Forcewas raised, and occupied the town ofIbri.The Sultan's prestige and authority was damaged by his disdain for his own people.

At this point, the SAF consisted of:

Batinah Force(an infantry unit raised from the coastal region north of Muscat)

Muscat Regiment(the expanded former Palace Guard).

Muscat and Oman Field Force

Some British officers were attached to each unit.

Jebel Akhdar campaigns

Main article:Jebel Akhdar War

With theField Forceoccupying part of his territory, Ghalib tried to declare the Imamate of Oman independent, but in December 1955 theField Forcecaptured Ghalib at the town ofRostaq.He was released on recognisances.

Rebellion in 1957

Talib bin Ali, the Imam's brother, had fled to Saudi Arabia. He returned from there in 1957 with 300 well-equipped fighters, and the insurrection broke out again. Talib's forces occupied a fortified tower nearBilad Sait,which theField Forcelacked the heavy weapons to destroy. After some weeks' inconclusive fighting, Suleiman bin Himyar, the Sheikh of one of the major tribes in the interior, openly proclaimed his defiance of the Sultan, and began a general uprising. TheMuscat and Oman Field Forcewas largely destroyed as it tried to retreat through hostile towns and villages.

The rebellion was suppressed by theMuscat Regimentand theTrucial Oman Leviesfrom the neighbouringUnited Arab Emirates.The decisive factor however, was the intervention of infantry (two companies of theCameronians) and armoured car detachments from theBritish Armyand aircraft of theRAF.Talib's forces retreated to the inaccessibleJebel Akhdar.The SAF's attacks up the few paths up the Jebel were easily repelled.

Stalemate 1957–1959

The Sultan's army was reorganised under a British soldier, ColonelDavid Smiley.TheBatinah Forcewas renamed theNorthern Frontier Regimentand the remnants of theMuscat and Oman Field Forcemerged into the newOman Regiment.Within each unit and sub-unit, Baluchi and Arab soldiers were mixed. This prevented units defecting to or openly sympathising with the rebels, but led to tensions within units, and orders were frequently not followed because of language problems. Many of the notionally Omani soldiers were recruited from the province ofDhofar,and looked down upon by other Arabs.

The Army was still unable to deal with Talib's stronghold. The few paths up the Jebel Akhdar were far too narrow to deploy attacking battalions or even companies. One attempt was made against the southern face of the Jebel, using four infantry companies (including two companies from theTrucial Oman Scouts,from what would later become theUnited Arab Emirates.The attackers withdrew hastily after concluding they were vulnerable to being ambushed and cut off. In another attempt, infantry launched a feint and then withdrew whileAvro Shackletonbombers of the RAF bombarded the supposedly massed defenders. They inflicted no casualties.

For two years, rebel infiltrators continually mined the roads around the Jebel, and ambushed SAF and British detachments and oil company vehicles. The SAF were spread in small detachments in the towns and villages at the foot of the Jebel, and thus vulnerable and on the defensive. Their arms (mainly British weapons ofWorld War IIvintage) were less effective than the up-to-date equipment used by Talib's fighters. An SAF artillery unit with two5.5-inch medium gunsharassed the settlements on the plateau on top of the Jebel Akhdar, to little effect.

It was estimated by some British officers that a full-scale attack by a British brigade would be required to recapture the jebel. Smiley and others felt that a smaller operation by Special Forces with air support would suffice. Eventually in 1959, two squadrons from the BritishSpecial Air Servicewere deployed, underAnthony Deane-Drummond.After making feint operations against outlying positions on the north side of the Jebel, they scaled the southern face of the Jebel at night, taking the rebels by surprise. Supplies were parachuted to them once they reached the plateau; this may have misled some of the rebels into thinking that this was an assault by paratroops. There was little further fighting. Talib and his fighters either melted back into the local population or fled to Saudi Arabia.

Later operations in Oman

Some insurgents continued to cross into Oman from Saudi Arabia or via the UAE, and laid landmines which continued to cause casualties to SAF units and civilian vehicles. The SAF lacked the numbers to prevent this infiltration. A paramilitary force, theOman Gendarmeriewas formed in 1960 to assist the SAF in this task, and also to take over normal policing duties. The landmine campaign eventually dwindled away.

The only apparent threat to Oman at this point appeared to be a shadowy Marxist group who attempted to assassinate the Sultan's Interior Minister, and may also have planted bombs on civil aircraft, including aVickers ViscountofUnited Arab Airlineswhich broke up in mid-air 27.5 kilometres (17.1 mi) north of Elba on 29 September 1960, killing all 23 people on board.

Dhofar campaign

Main article:Dhofar Rebellion

In 1964, a rebellion began in the southern province ofDhofar,again supported by Saudi Arabia. The initial aims of the rebellion were greater autonomy for the region, and an improvement in its living standards.

The Sultan's forces in Dhofar consisted only of an irregularDhofar Force,recruited from local "jibali" tribes. Only in 1965 were two battalions of the SAF sent to the province. Most units of the Omani Army at this time were understrength, and badly equipped and trained. The air force consisted of a few piston-engined transport and ground-attack aircraft. The navy possessed a singledhow.

TheDhofar Forcewas disbanded in 1966, after some of its members tried to assassinate the Sultan. TheDesert Regimentwas raised to replace it. TheSouthern Regimentwas also formed and all Baluchi soldiers were eventually concentrated in the two battalions of this regiment, although the change took several years to implement fully.

The rebellion continued at a low level until 1967. In that year, the establishment of thePeople's Democratic Republic of Yemen(PDRY) adjacent to Dhofar, gave the rebels access to sources of arms, supplies and recruits, and also radicalised the rebel movement. As the PFLOAG, this sought the overthrow of the Sultanate and other pro-Western regimes in the Persian Gulf.

By 1969, theAdoo,as the rebels were known, had overrun much of Dhofar, and there were attacks on SAF positions elsewhere in Oman. It was clear to the Sultan's British backers and advisors that the situation was critical. Said bin Taimur's rule had been reactionary and despotic. Almost all progress since the Middle Ages had been outlawed in Oman. In 1970, the Sultan was overthrown in a palace coup, which was planned and supported by the British. His son,Qaboos bin Said,replaced him.

Reform and modernisation

Qaboos had attendedSandhurstand served as an officer in the British Army with the 1st Bn theCameronians (Scottish Rifles).His outlook was far wider and more liberal than his father's. He immediately instituted major social and military reforms throughout the country. As part of a "hearts and minds" campaign to win over the population of Dhofar, an amnesty was declared for surrendered rebels. Former rebels formedFirqatirregular units, trained and assisted by teams from the Special Air Service. TheFirqatseventually numbered 1800, and deprived the rebels of local support in their home areas.

Meanwhile, the regular units of the Army were expanded and re-equipped. More Omanis were recruited and Baluchis were concentrated in separated units. Large numbers of officers and NCO instructors seconded from theBritish ArmyandRoyal Marineswere attached to units. (There were also several British and Commonwealth mercenaries). Two new infantry units were raised in 1971: theFrontier Force(a Baluchi unit) in Dhofar, and theJebel Regimentin the interior of Oman.

The various supporting arms, which had previously existed as ad hoc units and detachments were also formally established. The new corps were theArtillery Regiment,Signal Regiment,Armoured Car Squadron,Engineering Unit,Garrison Detachmentand theTraining Regiment.TheOman Gendarmeriewas also strengthened and modernised.

The Air Force acquiredBAC StrikemasterandHawker Hunterattack aircraft,Shorts SkyvanandCariboutransport aircraft, andUH-1 Iroquoishelicopters, flown by seconded RAF or contract (i.e. mercenary) pilots. Two Pilatus Porter air ambulances used extensively during the Dhofar conflict were retained in the Air Force until the late 1970s.

Later operations in Dhofar

Anti-aircraft missiles of the Oman Artillery (Land Rovers towing Rapier missile wheeled launchers)

The army established lines of defensive posts to block rebel movements and supply trains, assisted by troops supplied by theShah of Iran.The process took time, but by 1972 the rebels were being starved of support. To retrieve the situation, they launched a major attack on the coastal town ofMirbat,but were defeated byFirqats,Gendarmerie and SAS detachments, with air support.

In 1973, an SAF offensive intended to capture the main rebel supply base at Shershitti Caves was defeated, although an exposed position atSarfaitnear the border with the PDRY was captured. This position, codenamedSimba,was held for two years. Meanwhile, theAdoowere slowly driven to the edge of their former territory. Another offensive in 1975 finally isolated the rebels from the PDRY. The rebellion was declared to be over in 1976.

At the end of this period, the Army numbered 13,000. It was organised into a Southern Brigade (under BrigadierJohn Akehurst,responsible for operations in Dhofar), and a Northern Brigade which garrisoned the rest of the country. The Army'sCommander-in-Chiefduring most of the Dhofar rebellion was Major GeneralTimothy Creasey,who was replaced near the end of the conflict by Major GeneralKen Perkins.

Gulf Wars

American Oregon National Guard training in Oman alongside the Omani Army

In the years following the end of the Dhofar rebellion, the SAF continued to expand and modernise. Links with Britain remained close and all three UK armed services have provided advisers on Loan Service to the SAF and this arrangement remains in place; although numbers have steadily reduced as 'Omanisation' progressed.One facility enjoyed by Britain was the use of the airbase onMasirah Islandoff the southern coast, as a staging post. TheUnited Stateswas granted the same facilities, which was to become important as tension increased in thePersian Gulf.In the mid-1980s the Sultan of Oman's Air Force (SOAF) operated Hawker Hunter F6,SEPECAT JaguarandC-130 Herculesaircraft from an in-country air base atThumrait.

In 1987 there was a border conflict with the PDRY which saw the whole of the SAF mobilised. Sorties into Oman by Toyota pickup trucks armed with Dushka 12.5mm heavy machine guns killed several lightly-armed Omani troops. The PDRY sent a Motorised Infantry force to reinforce the border but this was destroyed by SOAF Jaguars. Peace talks quickly followed.

As part of theGulf Cooperation Council(GCC), Oman assigned an infantry battalion to the force known asPeninsula Shieldduring theIran–Iraq War.

In 1990, the Iraqi Army unexpectedly invadedKuwait,also a member of the GCC. A large international coalition formed, first to discourage further Iraqi aggression. The aims of the coalition changed to the restoration of Kuwaiti sovereignty, as more forces were deployed to Saudi Arabia. Oman's role inFirst Gulf Warwas mainly as a base area and staging post for the largeUnited States Air Forceand BritishRoyal Air Forcecontingents deployed to thePersian Gulf.Some transport aircraft and tanker aircraft flew out of Masirah, but the Sultan of Oman's Air Force did not directly participate in attacks on Iraq.

An Omani battalion served in Saudi Arabia, as part of the GCC contribution to the ground war to liberate Kuwait. It formed part of the Saudi Arabian-ledTask Force Omaralong with the Saudi 10th Mechanised Brigade. It advanced into Kuwait on the second day of the ground offensive and had no casualties.

In 2001, Oman hosted a large contingent of the British Army, which held ExerciseSaif Sareea II(in which 12500 members of the SAF also participated). The stated aims of the exercise were to practise rapid deployment and test equipment in severe conditions.

Present day

Royal Air Force of OmanBAC One-Eleven on display at RAF Fairford, England

Since the defeat of the Dhofar insurgents, the likelihood of internal strife caused by poverty or tribal dissension has steadily decreased as a result of the increasing standards of living, and the provision of public health and education.

Tension on Oman'swestern borderhas lessened since theYemeni unificationin 1990. Oman includes the tip of theMusandam Peninsulain the Persian Gulf, which may be significant in future conflicts in the region.

The army has steadily decreased its dependence on British and other foreign assistance, and increased its degree of mechanisation, although emphasis on light infantry operations remains; as part of their training, soldiers repeat theSAS ascent of the Jebel Akhdarin 1959. The Navy is one of the most modern in the region, and the Air Force is respected.

In any future major regional conflict, Oman may be able to rely on support and aid from Britain and the United States.

Equipment

The army is qualitatively superior to that of many neighbouring countries except Saudi Arabia and Iran, with one regiment of British-builtChallenger 2main battle tanks and the other slightly larger regiment ofM60(predominantly M60A3s) MBTs rounding out Oman's sole armoured brigade. Oman recently received 174Piranhalight armoured vehicles and over 80VBLscout cars from France to further strengthen military capabilities. In terms of artillery, in the 1990s, Oman receivedG6155 mmhowitzersfromSouth Africa,and Oman's anti-tank capabilities are to be greatly strengthened by the soon-to-be-delivered 100Javelin missilesfrom the United States.On a troop level, Oman's armed forces are frequently trained and briefed by the regularBritish Army,including the eliteSpecial Air Service(SAS).

The primary assault rifle of the Omani army is the AustrianSteyr AUG rifle,with some special task units usingM-16andM-4variants, plus many other small arms varieties.

Air Force Equipment

Main article:Royal Air Force of Oman § Equipment

References

• The Sultan’s Armed Forces mentioning the Royal Air Force of Oman

Sources

• Warlords of Oman,by Philip Allfree, 1967, Barnes
• Desert Warrior,by HRH Khaled bin Sultan, 1995, Harper Collins,ISBN0-00-255612-X