Summum bonum

Summum bonumis a Latin expression meaning the highest or ultimate good, which was introduced by theRoman philosopher Cicero^[1]^[2]to denote the fundamental principle on which some system of ethics is based — that is, the aim of actions, which, if consistently pursued, will lead to the best possible life. Since Cicero, the expression has acquired a secondary meaning as the essence or ultimate metaphysical principle of Goodness itself, or what Plato called theForm of the Good.These two meanings do not necessarily coincide. For example,EpicureanandCyrenaicphilosophers claimed that the 'good life' consistently aimed for pleasure, without suggesting that pleasure constituted the meaning or essence of Goodness outside the ethical sphere. InDe finibus,Cicero explains and compares the ethical systems of several schools of Greek philosophy, includingStoicism,Epicureanism,AristotelianismandPlatonism,based on how each defines the ethicalsummum bonumdifferently.

The term was used inmedieval philosophy.In theThomistsynthesis ofAristotelianismandChristianity,the highest good is usually defined as the life of the righteous and/or the life led incommunionwithGodand according toGod's precepts.^[2]InKantianism,it was used to describe theultimate importance,the singular and overriding end which human beings ought to pursue.^[3]

Plato and Aristotle

Plato'sThe Republicargued that, "In the world of knowledge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen...to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right".^[4]^[5]Silent contemplation was the route to appreciation of the Idea of the Good.^[6]

Aristotlein hisNicomachean Ethicsaccepted that the target of human activity, "Must be the 'Good', that is, the supreme good.", but challenged Plato's Idea of the Good with thepragmaticquestion: "Will one who has had a vision of the Idea itself become thereby a better doctor or general?".^[7]However, arguably at least, Aristotle's concept of theunmoved moverowed much to Plato's Idea of the Good.^[8]

Hellenic syncretism

Philoof Alexandria conflated theOld TestamentGod with the unmoved mover and the Idea of the Good.^[9]Plotinus,theneoplatonicphilosopher, built on Plato's Good for his concept of the supreme One, whilePlutarchdrew onZoroastrianismto develop his eternal principle of good.^[10]

Augustine of Hippoin his early writings offered thesummum bonumas the highest human goal, but was later to identify it as a feature of the Christian God^[11]inDe natura boni(On the Nature of Good,c. 399). Augustine denies the positive existence of absoluteevil,describing a world withGodas the supreme good at the center, and defining different grades of evil as different stages of remoteness from that center.^[12]

Later developments

Thesummum bonumhas continued to be a focus of attention in Western philosophy, secular and religious.Hegelreplaced Plato's dialectical ascent to the Good by his own dialectical ascent to the Real.^[13]

G. E. Mooreplaced the highest good in personal relations and the contemplation of beauty – even if not all his followers in theBloomsbury Groupmay have appreciated whatClive Bellcalled his "all-important distinction between 'Good on the whole' and 'Good as a whole'".^[14]

The doctrine of the highest good maintained byImmanuel Kantcan be seen as the fulfillment of all rational will.^[15]It is the supreme end of the will, meaning that beyond the attainment of a goodwill,which is moral excellence signified by abiding by thecategorical imperativeandpure practical reason,this is not reducible to hypothetical imperatives such as happiness.^[3]Furthermore, in virtue of the doctrine of the highest good, Kant postulates the existence of God and the eternal existence of rational agents, in order to reconcile three premises: (i) that agents are morally obligated to fully attain the highest good; (ii) that the object of an agent's obligation must be possible; (iii) that an agent's full realization of the highest good is not possible.^[16]

Judgments

Judgments on the highest good have generally fallen into four categories:^[2]

Utilitarianism,when the highest good is identified with the maximum possible psychological happiness for the maximum number of people;
Eudaemonismorvirtue ethics,when the highest good is identified withflourishing;
Rationaldeontologism,when the highest good is identified withvirtueor duty;
Rational eudaemonism, or tempered deontologism, when both virtue and happiness are combined in the highest good.

Notes

^De finibus,Book II, 37ff
^^a ^b ^cDinneen 1909.
^^a ^bBasaglia, Federica (2016). "The Highest Good and the Notion of the Good as Object of Pure Practical Reason". In Höwing, Thomas (ed.).The Highest Good in Kant’s Philosophy.De Gruyter.doi:10.1515/9783110369007-005.ISBN 978-3-11-036900-7.
^B. Jowett trans,The Essential Plato(1999) p. 269
^517b–c (Stephanus)
^Alexandre Kojève,Introduction to the Reading of Hegel(1980), p. 108
^H, Tredennick revd,The Ethics of Aristotle(1976) p. 63 and p. 72
^Tredennick, p. 352
^J. Boardman ed.,The Oxford History of the Classical World(1991) p. 703
^Boardman, p. 705-7
^J. McWilliam,Augustine(1992) p. 152-4
^Ge, Yonghua (3 May 2021).The Many and the One: Creation as Participation in Augustine and Aquinas.Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 33–34.ISBN 978-1-7936-2911-1.
^Kojève, p. 181-4
^Quoted in H. Lee,Virginia Woolf(1996) p. 253
^Tomasi, Gabriele (2016). "God, the Highest Good, and the Rationality of Faith: Reflections on Kant's Moral Proof of the Existence of God". In Höwing, Thomas (ed.).The Highest Good in Kant’s Philosophy.De Gruyter.doi:10.1515/9783110369007-010.ISBN 978-3-11-036900-7.
^Silber, John R. (Oct 1959). "Kant's Conception of the Highest Good as Immanent and Transcendent".The Philosophical Review.68(4): 469.doi:10.2307/2182492.JSTOR 2182492.

Attribution

This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Dinneen, M.F. (1909). "The Highest Good".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

External links

Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Summum Bonum".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 81.

[1] De finibus,Book II, 37ff

[FOOTNOTEDinneen1909-2] Dinneen 1909.

[:1-3] Basaglia, Federica (2016). "The Highest Good and the Notion of the Good as Object of Pure Practical Reason". In Höwing, Thomas (ed.).The Highest Good in Kant’s Philosophy.De Gruyter.doi:10.1515/9783110369007-005.ISBN 978-3-11-036900-7.

[4] B. Jowett trans,The Essential Plato(1999) p. 269

[5] 517b–c (Stephanus)

[6] Alexandre Kojève,Introduction to the Reading of Hegel(1980), p. 108

[7] H, Tredennick revd,The Ethics of Aristotle(1976) p. 63 and p. 72

[8] Tredennick, p. 352

[9] J. Boardman ed.,The Oxford History of the Classical World(1991) p. 703

[10] Boardman, p. 705-7

[11] J. McWilliam,Augustine(1992) p. 152-4

[12] Ge, Yonghua (3 May 2021).The Many and the One: Creation as Participation in Augustine and Aquinas.Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 33–34.ISBN 978-1-7936-2911-1.

[13] Kojève, p. 181-4

[14] Quoted in H. Lee,Virginia Woolf(1996) p. 253

[15] Tomasi, Gabriele (2016). "God, the Highest Good, and the Rationality of Faith: Reflections on Kant's Moral Proof of the Existence of God". In Höwing, Thomas (ed.).The Highest Good in Kant’s Philosophy.De Gruyter.doi:10.1515/9783110369007-010.ISBN 978-3-11-036900-7.

[16] Silber, John R. (Oct 1959). "Kant's Conception of the Highest Good as Immanent and Transcendent".The Philosophical Review.68(4): 469.doi:10.2307/2182492.JSTOR 2182492.

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v t e Good and evil
Good Evil
Theories	Greater good Summum bonum Lesser of two evils Necessary evil See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil Immorality Morality Value theory Altruism Radical evil