Tang poetry

Tang poetry(traditional Chinese:Đường thi;simplified Chinese:Đường thi;pinyin:Tángshī) refers topoetrywritten in or around the time of or in the characteristic style of China'sTang dynasty,(June 18, 618 – June 4, 907, including the 690–705 reign ofWu Zetian) and/or follows a certain style, often considered as theGolden AgeofChinese poetry.TheComplete Tang Poemsincludes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors. During the Tang dynasty, poetry continued to be an important part of social life at all levels of society. Scholars were required to master poetry for the civil service exams, but the art was theoretically available to everyone.^[1]This led to a large record of poetry and poets, a partial record of which survives today. The two most famous poets of the period wereLi BaiandDu Fu.TheQing dynastyselection,Three Hundred Tang Poems,has made Tang poetry familiar to educated Chinese in modern times.^[2]

Periodization

The periodization scheme employed in this article is the one detailed by the Ming dynasty scholarGao Bing(1350–1423) in the preface to his workTangshi Pinhui,which has enjoyed broad acceptance since his time.^[3]This system, which unambiguously treats poetry composed during the reign ofEmperor Xuanzong(the"High Tang"period) as being superior in quality to what came before and after, is subjective and evaluative, and often does not reflect the realities of literary history.^[4]

Forms

The representative form of poetry composed during the Tang dynasty is theshi.^[5]This contrasts to poetry composed in the earlierHan dynastyand laterSongandYuandynasties, which are characterized byfu,ciandquforms, respectively.^[5]However, thefucontinued to be composed during the Tang dynasty, which also saw the beginnings of the rise of theciform.^[5]

Within theshiform, there was a preference for pentasyllabic lines, which had been the dominant metre since the second century C.E., but heptasyllabic lines began to grow in popularity from the eighth century.^[6]The poems generally consisted of multiple rhyming couplets, with no definite limit on the number of lines but a definite preference for multiples of four lines.^[6]

Sources

TheComplete Tang Poemsanthology compiled in the early eighteenth century includes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors.^[7]TheQuan Tangwen( toàn đường văn, "Complete Tang Prose" ), despite its name, contains more than 1,500fuand is another widely consulted source for Tang poetry.^[7]Despite their names, these sources are not comprehensive, and themanuscripts discovered at Dunhuangin the twentieth century included manyshiand somefu,as well as variant readings of poems that were also included in the later anthologies.^[7]There are also collections of individual poets' work, which generally can be dated earlier than the Qing anthologies, although few earlier than the eleventh century.^[8]Only about a hundred Tang poets have such collected editions extant.^[8]

Another important source is anthologies of poetry compiled during the Tang dynasty, although only thirteen such anthologies survive in full or in part.^[9]

Many records of poetry, as well as other writings, were lost when the Tang capital ofChanganwas damaged by war in the eighth and ninth centuries, so that while more than 50,000 Tang poems survive (more than any earlier period in Chinese history), this still likely represents only a small portion of the poetry that was actually produced during the period.^[8]Many seventh-century poets are reported by the 721 imperial library catalog as having left behind massive volumes of poetry, of which only a tiny portion survives,^[8]and there are notable gaps in the poetic œuvres of evenLi BoandDu Fu,the two most celebrated Tang poets.^[8]

The pre-Tang poetic tradition

The poetic tradition inherited by the Tang poets was immense and diverse. By the time of the Tang dynasty, there was already a continuous Chinese body of poetry dating back for over a thousand years. Such works as theChu CiandShijingwere major influences on Tang poetry, as were the developments ofHan poetryandJian'an poetry.All of these influenced theSix Dynasties poetry,which in turn helped to inspire the Tang poets. In terms of influences upon the poetry of the early Tang, Burton Watson characterizes the poetry of the Sui and early Tang as "a mere continuation ofSix Dynastiesgenres and styles. "^[10]

History

A poem byLi Bai(701–762 AD), the only surviving example of Li Bai'scalligraphy,housed in thePalace Museumin Beijing.

The Tang dynasty was a time of major social and probably linguistic upheavals. Thus, the genre may be divided into several major more-or-less chronological divisions, based on developmental stages or stylistic groupings (sometimes even on personal friendships between poets). It should be remembered that poets may be somewhat arbitrarily assigned to these based on their presumed biographical dates (not always known); furthermore that the lifetimes of poets toward the beginning or end of this period may overlap with the precedingSui dynastyor the succeedingFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.The chronology of Tang poetry may be divided into four parts: Early Tang, High Tang, Middle Tang, and Late Tang.

Early Tang

In Early Tang ( sơ đường ), poets began to develop the foundation what is now considered to be the Tang style of poetry inherited a rich and deep literary and poetic tradition, or several traditions. Early Tang poetry is subdivided into early, middle and late phases.

Some of the initial poets who began to develop what is considered to be the Tang dynasty style of poetry were heavily influenced by the Court Style of the Southern Dynasties ( nam triều cung ), referring to the Southern Dynasties of theSouthern and Northern Dynastiestime period (420–589 CE) that preceded the short-lived Sui dynasty (581–618 CE). The Southern Dynasty Court (or Palace) poems tended towards an ornate and flowery style and particular vocabulary, partly passed on through continuity of certain governmental individuals who were also poets, during thetransition from Sui to Tang.This group includes the emperorLi Shimin,the calligrapherYu Shinan,Chu Liang ( chu lượng ),Li Baiyao,the governmental officialShangguan Yi,and his granddaughter, the governmental official and later imperial consortShangguan Wan'er.Indeed, there were many others, as this was a culture that placed a great emphasis on literature and poetry, at least for persons in official capacity and their social intimates.
Representative of the middle phase of early Tang were the so-called "Four Literary Friends:" poetsLi Jiao,Su Weidao,Cui Rong,andDu Shenyan.This represents a transitional phase.
In the late phase the poetic style becomes more typical of what is considered as Tang poetry. A major influence was Wang Ji (585–644) upon theFour Paragons of the Early Tang:Wang Bo,Yang Jiong,Lu Zhaolin,andLuo Binwang.They each preferred to dispense with literary pretensions in favor of authenticity.
Chen Zi'ang(661–702) is credited with being the great poet who finally brought an end to the Beginning Tang period, casting away the ornate Court style in favor of a hard-hitting, authentic poetry which included political and social commentary (at great risk to himself), and thus leading the way to the greatness that was to come.

High Tang

In High Tang ( thịnh đường ), sometimes known asFlourishing TangorGolden Tang,first appear the poets which would come to mind as Tang poets, at least in the United States and Europe. High Tang poetry had numerous schools of thought:

The beginning part of this era, or style-period, includeZhang Jiuling(678–740),Wang Han,andWang Wan.There were also the so-called Four Gentlemen of Wuzhong ( ngô trung tứ sĩ ):He Zhizhang(659–744),Bao Rong,Zhang Xu(658–747, also famous as a calligrapher), andZhang Ruoxu.
The "Fields and Gardens Poets Group" ( điền viên thi phái ) includeMeng Haoran(689 or 691–740), the famous poet and painterWang Wei(701–761),Chu Guangxi(707–760),Chang Jian,Zu Yong ( tổ vịnh ),Pei Di,Qiwu Qian ( kỳ vô tiềm ),Qiu Wei( khâu vi ), and others.
The "Borders and Frontier Fortress Poets Group" (Chinese:Biên tắc thi phái;pinyin:biānsài shī pài) includesGao Shi(706–765),Cen Shen(715–770),Wang Changling(698–756),Wang Zhihuan(688–742),Cui Hao(about 704–754) andLi Qi(690–751).
Li Bai(701–762) andDu Fu(712–770) were the two best-known Tang poets.^[8]Li Bai and Du Fu both lived to see the Tang Empire shaken by the catastrophic events of theAn Lushan Rebellion(755–763). This had a tremendous impact on their work, though it did not mark the end of Tang Dynasty poetry, which ended with Li Yu in 978.

Middle Tang

The poets of the Middle Tang ( trung đường ) period also include many of the best known names, and they wrote some very famous poems. This was a time of rebuilding and recovery, but also high taxes, official corruption, and lesser greatness. Li Bo's bold seizing of the old forms and turning them to new and contemporary purposes and Du Fu's development of the formal style of poetry, though hard to equal, and perhaps impossible to surpass, nevertheless provided a firm edifice on which the Middle Tang poets could build.

In the early phase of the Middle Tang period Du Fu'syuefupoetry was extended by poets such asDai Shulun( đái thúc luân, 732–789) who used the opportunity to admonish governmental officials as to their duties toward the suffering common folk.
Others concentrated on developing the Landscape Style Poem ( sơn thủy thi ), such asLiu Changqing( lưu trường khanh, 709–780) andWei Yingwu( vi ứng vật, 737–792).
The Frontier Fortress Style had its continued advocates, representative of whom areLi Yi( lý ích ) andLu Lun( lư luân, 739–799).
The traditional association between poetry and scholarship was shown by the existence of a group of ten poets ( đại lịch thập tài tử ), who tended to ignore the woes of the people, preferring to sing and chant their poems in praise of peace, beautiful landscapes and the commendability of seclusion. They are:Qian Qi( tiền khởi, 710–782), Lu Lun is also a part of this group, Ji Zhongfu ( cát trung phu ), Han Yi ( hàn dực ),Sikong Shu( tư không thự, 720–790), Miao Fa—or Miao Bo – ( miêu phát / miêu phát ), Cui Tong ( thôi động ), Geng Hui ( cảnh húy / cảnh húy ), Xia Hou Shen ( hạ hầu thẩm ), and the poetLi Duan[zh]( lý đoan, 743–782).
One of the greatest Tang poets wasBai Juyi( bạch cư dịch, 772–846), considered the leader of the somewhat angry, bitter, speaking-truth-to-power New Yuefu Movement ( tân nhạc phủ vận động ). Among the other poets considered to be part of this movement areYuan Zhen( nguyên chẩn, 779–831),Zhang Ji( trương tịch, 767–830), andWang Jian( vương kiến ).
Several Tang poets stand out as being too individualistic to really be considered a group, yet sharing a common interest in experimental exploration of the relationship of poetry to words, and pushing the limits thereof; including:Han Yu( hàn dũ, 768–824), Meng Jiao ( mạnh giao, 751–814),Jia Dao( giả đảo / giả đảo, 779–843), and Lu Tong ( lư đồng / lư đồng, 795–835).
Two notable poets wereLiu Yuxi( lưu vũ tích, 772–842) andLiu Zongyuan( liễu tông nguyên, 773–819).
Another notable poet, the short-livedLi He( lý hạ, 790–816), has been called "the ChineseMallarmé".^[11]

Late Tang

In the Late Tang ( vãn đường ), similarly to how eventually the earlier duo of Li Bo and Du Fu came to be known by the combined name of Li-Du ( lý đỗ ), so in the twilight of the Late Tang there was the duo of the Little Li-Du ( tiểu lý đỗ ), referring toDu Mu(803–852) andLi Shangyin(813–858). These dual pairs have been considered to typify two divergent poetic streams which existed during each of these two times, the flourishing Tang and the late Tang:

The Late Tang poetry of Du Mu's type tended toward a clear, robust style, often looking back upon the past with sadness, perhaps reflecting the times. The Tang dynasty was falling apart, it was still in existence, but obviously in a state of decline.
The poetry of Li Shangyin's type tended towards the sensuously abstract, dense, allusive, and difficult. Other poets of this style wereWen Tingyun( ôn đình quân, 812–870) and Duan Cheng Shi ( đoạn thành thức, about 803–863). These poets have been attracting gaining interest in modern times.
There were also other poets belonging to one or the other of two major schools of the Late Tang. in one school wereLuo Yin( la ẩn / la ẩn, 833–909), Nie—or Zhe or She or Ye—Yizhong ( nhiếp di trung / nhiếp di trung, 887–884),Du Xunhe( đỗ tuân hạc ),Pi Rixiu( bì nhật hưu, approximately 834/840—883),Lu Guimeng( lục quy mông / lục quy mông?-881), and others. In the other group, were Wei Zhuang ( vi trang, 836–910), Sikong Tu ( tư không đồ, 837–908), Zheng Gu ( trịnh cốc, 849–911),Han Wo(844-?), and others. During the final twilight of Tang, both schools were prone to a melancholic angst; they varied by whether they tended towards metaphor and allusiveness or a more clear and direct expression.^{[better source needed]}
Yu Xuanjiwas a famous female poet of Late Tang.

Continuation in Southern Tang

After the official fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, some members of its ruling house of Li managed to find refuge in the south of China, where their descendants founded theSouthern Tangdynasty in the year 937. This dynasty continued many of the traditions of the former great Tang dynasty, including poetry, until its official fall in 975, when its ruler,Li Yu,was taken into captivity. Importantly for the history of poetry, Li survived another three years as a prisoner of theSong dynasty,and during this time composed some of his best known works.^{[citation needed]}Thus, including this "afterglow of the T'ang dynasty", the final date for the Tang Poetry era can be considered to be at the death ofLi Yu,in 978.^[12]

After the fall of the Tang dynasty

Surviving the turbulent decades of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era, Tang poetry was perhaps the major influence onthe poetry of the Song dynasty,for example seeing such major poets asSu Shicreating new works based upon matching lines of Du Fu's.^[13]This matching style is known from the Late Tang. Pi Rixiu and Lu Guimeng, sometimes known as Pi-Lu, were well known for it: one would write a poem with a certain style and rhyme scheme, then the other would reply with a different poem, but matching the style and with the same rhymes. This allows for subtleties which can only be grasped by matching the poems together.

Succeeding eras have seen the popularity of various Tang poets wax and wane. TheQing dynastysaw the publication of the massive compilation of the collected Tang poems, theComplete Tang Poems,as well as the less-scholarly (for example, no textual variants are given), but more popular,Three Hundred Tang Poems.Furthermore, in the Qing dynasty era theimperial civil service examinationsthe requirement to compose Tang style poetry was restored.^[14]In China, some of the poets, such as Li Bo and Du Fu have never fallen into obscurity; others, such as Li Shangyin, have had modern revivals.

Anthologies

Many collections of Tang poetry have been made, both during the Tang dynasty and subsequently. In the first century of the Tang period several early collections of contemporary poetry were made, some of which survive and some which do not: these early anthologies reflect the imperial court context of the early Tang poetry.^[15]Later anthologies of Tang poetry compiled during the Qing dynasty include both the imperially commissionedComplete Tang Poemsand the scholarSun Zhu's own privately compiledThree Hundred Tang Poems.Part of an anthology byCui Rong,theZhuying jialso known as theCollection of Precious Glorieshas been found among theDunhuang manuscripts,consisting of about one-fifth of the original, with fifty-five poems by thirteen men, first published in the reign ofWu Zetian(655–683). The book contains poems by Cui Rong (653–706),Li Jiao(644–713),Zhang Yue(677–731), and others.^[16]

The300 Tang Poems

The most popular Tang Poems collection might be the so-called300 Tang Poemscompiled by Qing dynasty scholarSun Zhu. It is so popular that many poems in it have been adopted by Chinese language text books of China's primary schools and secondary schools. Some of the poems in it are normally regarded as must-recite ones.

He said he found the poems in the poetry textbook students that had been using, "Poems by A Thousand Writers"(Qian-jia-shi), were not carefully selected but a mixture of Tang dynasty poems and Song dynasty poems written in different styles. He also regarded that some poetry works in that book were not very well-written in terms of language skill and rhyme.

Therefore, he picked those best and most popular poems from Tang dynasty only and formed this new collection of about 310 poems including poems by the most renowned poets such as Li Bai and Du Fu.

These poems are about various topics including friendship, politics, idyllic life and ladies' life, and so on.

Exemplary verse

《 lữ dạ thư hoài 》
Đỗ phủ
Tế thảo vi phong ngạn, nguy tường độc dạ chu.
Tinh thùy bình dã khoát, nguyệt dũng đại giang lưu.
Danh khởi văn chương trứ, quan ứng lão bệnh hưu.
Phiêu phiêu hà sở tự? Thiên địa nhất sa âu.

My Reflection by Night
by Du Fu
Some scattered grass. A shore breeze blowing light.
A giddy mast. A lonely boat at night.
The wide-flung stars o’erhang all vasty space.
The moonbeams with the Yangtze’s current race.
How by my pen can I to fame attain?
Worn out, from office better to refrain.
Drifting o’er life — and what in sooth am I?
A sea-gull floating twixt the Earth and Sky.

Translated by W.J.B. Fletcher (1919)

The first twenty characters translate literally as:

"fine grass micro- wind shore / highboom[= part of rigging] alone night boat.

stars hanging-down level field width / moon[-light] surge big river flow. "

Translation into western languages

Major translators of Tang poetry into English includeHerbert Giles,L. Cranmer-Byng,Archie Barnes,Amy Lowell,Arthur Waley,Witter Bynner,A. C. Graham,Shigeyoshi Obata,Burton Watson,Gary Snyder,David Hinton,Wai-lim Yip,Red Pine (Bill Porter),and Xian Mao.Ezra Pounddrew on notes given to him by the widow ofErnest Fenollosain 1913 to create English poems indirectly through the Japanese, including some Li Bai poems, which were published in his bookCathay.Some popular Western adaptations of Tang poetry include songs likePink Floyd's "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun".^[17]

Characteristics

Tang poetry has certain characteristics. Contextually, the fact that the poems were generally intended to be recited in more-or-less contemporary spoken Chinese (now known asClassical Chinese;or, sometimes, asLiterary Chinese,in post-Han dynastycases) and that the poems were written inChinese charactersare certainly important. Also important are the use of certain typical poetic forms, various common themes, and the surrounding social and natural milieu.

Relationship to Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism

The Tang dynasty time was one of religious ferment, which was reflected in the poetry. Many of the poets were religiously devout. Also, at that time religion tended to have an intimate relation with poetry.

Gender studies

There has been some interest in Tang poetry in the field ofgender studies.Although most of the poets were men, there were several significant women. Also, many of the men wrote from the viewpoint of a woman, or lovingly of other men. Historically and geographically localized in Tang dynasty China, this is an area which has not escaped interest from the perspective of historical gender roles.

References

^Jing-Schmidt, 256, accessed July 20, 2008
^Roberts, John Anthony George (1996).A History of China.New York: St Martin's Press. p. 129.
^Paragraph 3 inPaul W. Kroll"Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.
^Paragraph 4 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.
^^a ^b ^cParagraph 1 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.
^^a ^bParagraph 5 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.
^^a ^b ^cParagraph 15 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^fParagraph 16 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.
^Paragraph 17 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.
^Watson, 109
^Paragraph 87 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.
^Wu, 190 and chapter on Li Yu 211–221
^Murck (2000),passim.
^Yu, 66
^Yu, 55–57
^Yu, 56
^""Allusions to Classical Chinese Poetry in Pink Floyd"".

Cited works

Hoyt, Ed; Vanessa Lide Whitcomb, Michael Benson (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Modern China. Alpha Books.ISBN 0-02-864386-0.
Jing-Schmidt, Zhuo (2005). Dramatized discourse: the Mandarin Chinese ba-construction. John Benjamins Publishing Company.ISBN 90-272-1565-0.
Mair, Victor H.(ed.) (2001).The Columbia History of Chinese Literature.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN 0-231-10984-9.(Amazon Kindleedition.)
Murck, Alfreda (2000).Poetry and Painting in Song China: The Subtle Art of Dissent.Harvard University Asia Center.ISBN 978-0-674-00782-6.
Watson, Burton (1971).CHINESE LYRICISM: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN 0-231-03464-4
Wu, John C. H. (1972). The Four Seasons of Tang Poetry. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E.Tuttle.ISBN 978-0-8048-0197-3
Yu, Pauline (2002). "Chinese Poetry and Its Institutions", inHsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2,Grace S. Fong, editor. (Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University).

External links

Three Hundred Tang Poems(online: Chinese + English)

[1] Jing-Schmidt, 256, accessed July 20, 2008

[2] Roberts, John Anthony George (1996).A History of China.New York: St Martin's Press. p. 129.

[columbia_14-3-3] Paragraph 3 inPaul W. Kroll"Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.

[columbia_14-4-4] Paragraph 4 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.

[columbia_14-1-5] Paragraph 1 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.

[columbia_14-5-6] Paragraph 5 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.

[columbia_14-15-7] Paragraph 15 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.

[columbia_14-16-8] Paragraph 16 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.

[columbia_14-17-9] Paragraph 17 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.

[10] Watson, 109

[columbia_14-87-11] Paragraph 87 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.

[12] Wu, 190 and chapter on Li Yu 211–221

[FOOTNOTEMurck2000''passim''-13] Murck (2000),passim.

[14] Yu, 66

[15] Yu, 55–57

[16] Yu, 56

[17] ""Allusions to Classical Chinese Poetry in Pink Floyd"".

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v t e Chinese poetry
Major eras	Classical Chinese poetry Modern Chinese poetry
Poetry bydynasty	Han poetry Jian'an poetry Six Dynasties poetry Tang poetry Song poetry Yuan poetry Ming poetry Qing poetry
Poetry works and collections	Classic of Poetry Chu Ci New Songs from the Jade Terrace Nineteen Old Poems Complete Tang Poems Three Hundred Tang Poems Wangchuan ji Wen Xuan Zhuying ji
Major forms	Antithetical couplet ci fu shi qu yuefu
Individual poems list	Chinese poems (category list) List of poems (article)
Modern compilations	Sunflower Splendor: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Poetry The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature
Regional styles	Cantonese poetry