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Tapas (Indian religions)

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Tapasya - Jain meditation in progress.[1]

Tapas(Sanskrit:तपस्, romanized: tapas) is a variety of austere spiritual meditation practices in Indian religions. InJainism,it meansasceticism(austerities, body mortification);[1][2]inBuddhism,it denotes spiritual practices includingmeditationand self-discipline;[3]and in the different traditions within Hinduism it means a spectrum of practices ranging from asceticism, 'inner cleansing' to self-discipline by meditation practices.[4][5][6]TheTapaspractice often involves solitude and is a part of monastic practices that are believed to be a means tomoksha(liberation, salvation).[2]

In theVedasliterature of Hinduism, fusion words based ontapasare widely used to expound several spiritual concepts that develop through heat or inner energy, such as meditation, any process to reach special observations and insights, the spiritual ecstasy of ayoginorTāpasa(avṛddhiderivative meaning "a practitioner of austerities, an ascetic" ), even warmth of sexual intimacy.[7]In certain contexts, the term means penance, pious activity, as well as severe meditation.[8]

Etymology and meaning

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See also:Dhyāna in Hinduism § Agnihotra,andYajna

Tapasis based on the rootTap(तप्) meaning "to heat, to give out warmth, to shine, to burn".[9]The term evolves to also mean "to suffer, to mortify the body, undergo penance" in order to "burn away pastkarma"and liberate oneself.[9][10]The termTapasmeans "warmth, heat, fire".[9]

The meaning of the word evolves in ancientIndian literature.The earliest discussions oftapas,and compound words from the roottaprelate to the heat necessary for biological birth.[11][12]Its conceptual origin is traced to the natural wait, motherly warmth and physical "brooding" provided by birds such as a hen upon her eggs - a process that is essential to hatching and birth. The Vedic scholars used mother nature's example to explain and extend this concept to the hatching of knowledge and spiritual rebirth.[13]

Some of the earliest reference oftapas,and compound words from the roottapis found in many ancient Hindu scriptures, including theŖig Veda(10.154.5),Shatapatha Brahmana(5.3 - 5.17), andAtharva Veda(4.34.1, 6.61.1, 11.1.26). In these texts,tapasis described as the process that led to the spiritual birth ofṛṣis- sages of spiritual insights.[11]The Atharva Veda suggests all the gods weretapas-born (tapojās), and all earthly life was created from the sun'stapas(tapasah sambabhũvur).[11][14]In the Jāiminiya-Upanisad Brāhmaņa, life perpetuates itself and creates progeny bytapas,a process that starts with sexual heat.[15][16]

Sanskrittapasyā(neuter gender), literally "produced by heat", refers to a personal endeavor of discipline, undertaken to achieve a goal. One who undertakes tapas is aTapasvin.The fire deity in Hinduism,Agni,is central to many Hindu rituals such asyajnaandhoma.Agni is considered an agent of heat, of sexual energy, of incubation; Agni is considered a greattapasvin.[17][18]

The wordtapasvirefers to a male ascetic or meditator, whiletapasvinīto a female.[19][20]

Buddhism

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Before he reached his enlightenment, the Buddha triedasceticism(self-mortification) of the type found in otherŚramaṇareligions (Jainism), and this is referred to asTapas(Tibetan:dka' thub,Chinese:kuxing,Japanese:kugyo,Korean:kohaeng).[21][22]Post-enlightenment, the Buddhist doctrines of theMiddle WayandNoble Eightfold Pathdid not include ascetic practices.[23]

The Buddha, in multiple Buddhist texts, such asMajjhima NikayaandDevadaha Sutta,attributes the ascetic self-mortification styleTapaspractices to Jainism (Niganthas), wherein such practices annihilate pastKarmasand stop new Karmas from being created, ones that lead to the cycle of rebirths inSaṃsāra.[10]These ancient Buddhist texts are significant in their claims of the existence of Jain Brahmins and ascetics, along with their karma doctrine and reasons for theirTapaspractices in ancient times:[24]

The Blessed One [Buddha] said,
"There are, o monks, some ascetics and Brahmins who speak thus and are of such opinion: 'Whatever a particular person experiences, whether pleasant or painful, or neither pleasant nor painful, all this has its cause in what was previously done. For this reason, the elimination of previous deeds through penance [Tapas] and the non-performing of new deeds [kamma] is tantamount to non-inflow in the future. From the non flow in the future, there is destruction of deeds. From the destruction of deeds, there is destruction of pain. From the destruction of pain, there is destruction of feeling; from the destruction of feeling, all pain will become erased. Thus say, o monks, those free of bonds [Jainas].
"ONiganthas,you...

— Cula Dukkha Kkhandha Sutta,early Buddhist text, Translated by Piotr Balcerowicz[24][25][note 1]

These asceticTapaspractices is also confirmed by Jainism texts such asUttarajjhyayana.[10]The Buddhist scholarDharmakirtistrongly criticizes the Jaina practice ofTapasas a means of liberation, while many Jainism scholars have in turn strongly criticized Dharmakirti opinion and analysis, explaining why their approach to asceticTapasis appropriate.[10]

According to Hajime Nakamura and other scholars, some scriptures of early Buddhism suggest that asceticTapaswas a part of Buddhist practice in its early days, wherein body-mortification was an option for the Buddhist monk in his spiritual practice.[23][26][note 2]

In the Theravada tradition of Thailand, a monastic practice emerged in the 12th-century who didTapasas ascetic wandering and forest or crematory dwelling monks, with austere practices, and these came to be known asThudong.[28][29]These ascetic Buddhist monks are also found in Myanmar, and as in Thailand, they are known to pursue their own version of Buddhism, resisting the hierarchical institutionalizedsanghastructure of monasteries in Buddhism.[30]Textual evidence suggests that asceticTapaspractices were a part of the Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka by the 3rd century BCE, and this tradition continued through the medieval era in parallel tosanghastyle monastic tradition.[31]

In the Mahayana tradition, asceticism with esoteric and mystical meanings became an accepted practice, such as in the Tendai and Shingon schools of Japanese Buddhism.[31]These Japanese practices included penance, austerities, ablutions under a waterfall, and rituals to purify oneself.[31]Japanese records from the 12th century record stories of monks undertaking severe asceticism, while records suggest that 19th centuryNichiren Buddhistmonks woke up at midnight or 2:00 AM daily, and performed ascetic water purification rituals as a part ofTapas.[31]Other practices include the extreme ascetic practices of eating only pine needles, resins, seeds and ultimately self-mummification, while alive, orSokushinbutsu(miira) in Japan.[32][33]

Elsewhere, in mainstream Buddhism, over time the meaning of the wordTapasevolved, wherein ascetic penance was forsaken, andTapasmeant meditative and spiritual practices.[23]

The wordTapasappears extensively in Buddhist literature where, statesRichard Gombrich,it does not mean "asceticism or mortification".[3]The termTapasmeans "meditation" or "reasoned moral self discipline" or both in Buddhism.[3]According to Bailey and Mabbett, these Buddhist ideas are similar to those found in the Brahmanical (Vedic) tradition, wherein there is a great deal of overlap in the concepts ofTapas,Yoga, meditation and gnosis (knowledge), yet the termTapasis rooted in the inner "mystic heat" themes of the Indian religions.[34]

Hinduism

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History

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The earliest mention ofTapasis in the Vedic texts.[11]The concept ofTapasas symbolism for spiritual rebirth begins in theVedas.[35][36]Atharva Veda verse 11.5.3 compares the process of spiritual rebirth of a student in care of his or her teacher, with the gestation process during the biological birth of a baby in a mother's womb.[37][38]

Tapasis also found in theUpanishads.TheChāndogya Upaniṣad,for example, suggests that those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their spiritual practice while those who engage in tapas and self-examination will succeed.[39]TheŚvetāśvatara Upaniṣadstates that realization of self requires a search for truth andTapas(meditation).[39][40]TheMundakaUpaniṣadalso emphasizes the importance ofTapasas a means to attain spiritual knowledge and realization:

By Truth can this Self be grasped,
by Tapas, by Right Knowledge,
and by a perpetually chaste life.

— Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad,3.1.5-6,[39][41]

Meditation and achievement of lucid knowledge is declared essential to self-realization in ancient scriptures. Texts byAdi SankarasuggestsTapasis important, but not sufficient for spiritual practice. Later Hindu scholars introduce a discussion of ‘false ascetic’, as one who go through the mechanics of tapas, without meditating on the nature ofBrahman.[39]Tapas is an element of spiritual path, state Indian texts.[39][40]The concept is extensively mentioned in theVedas,[42]and the Upanishads.[43]

Agni, the fire deity, is common at Hindu rituals such asweddings.Agni is considered a greattapasvin,and symbolizes the heat and patience necessary to recreate and incubate life.[17]

According to Walter Kaelber,[11]and others,[15][44][45]in certain translations of ancient Sanskrit documentsTapasis interpreted as austerities and asceticism; however, this is frequently inadequate because it fails to reflect the context implied, which is of sexual heat or warmth that incubates the birth of life. The idea of linking austerity, exertion, fatigue and self-renunciation to the ancient idea of heat, brooding and inner devotion, comes from the observed labor every mother puts in caring for its embryo and delivering her baby, regardless of the life form.[46]The concept and reference to 'egg hatching' is replaced in Sanskrit texts written in later centuries, with simply 'brooding' or 'incubation'.[47][48]

In ancient literature of Hinduism dedicated to love, desire, lust, seduction and sex, the root of the wordTapasis commonly used. For example, in Atharva Veda, amantrarecommended for a woman who wishes to win or compel a man's love is, 'Love's consuming longing, this passion this yearning, which the gods have poured, into the waters of life, I kindle for thee (tam te tapāmi), by the law of Varuna.'[49]Desire (kāma) is homologized with the concept ofTapas,to explain the feelings and inner energy that leads to sexual intercourse.[50][51]Agnicayana, Satapatha Brahmana and other ancient texts similarly use the root of the wordTapasto symbolize emotions, biological stages and a mother's effort from conception to the birth of a baby.[52]

Both meanings ofTapasare found in various Hindu texts. In some ancient texts,Tapashas the sense of ascetic mortification in a sense similar to other Indian religions,[53]while in theBhagavad Gitaand theYogaschool of Hinduism, the term means self-training and virtuous living in a sense similar to Buddhism.[54]In thePuranasand the texts of the goddess tradition of Hinduism, the term is equivalent to a devotion with intense self-discipline, believed to yield special inner powers.[55][56]In contemporary usage, any practice that includes hardship and requires perseverance – such as fasting duringVrata– is calledTapas.[57]

Yoga and brahmacharya

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Patañjali,in hisYoga Sūtra,listsTāpasas one of theNiyamas(virtuous practices),[58][59]and describes it in several sections such as 2.32, 2.43 and 4.1.[6]The term includes self-discipline, meditation, simple and austere living or any means of inner self-purification.[46][60][61]Tapasin thePatanjalitext and other Hindu texts on Yoga, states Benjamin Smith, is that which is "a means for perfection of the body and the organs through the lessening of impurities" and a foundation for ayogi'spursuit of perfection.[6]Yama, niyama, asanaandpranayamafromAshtanga yogacomes under tapas.[62]

Tapasin the Hindu traditions is part of a stage of life, calledbrahmacharya.[63]The Vedic literature suggestsdiksa(incubation of a student in a field of knowledge) requirestapas,andtapasis enabled by the state of brahmacharya. This state sometimes includestapassuch asvrata(fasting, sacrifice of food),sram(philanthropic social work, sacrifice of income), silence (sacrifice of speech), andasceticism(bare minimum living, sacrifice of comfort).[63]Oldenberg notes that Brahmana scripture suggests that the Brahmachari should carry tapas to the very tip of his existence, which includes not cutting his hair, nail and beard.[64]Thus, during this process of spiritual rebirth anddiksa,thetapasobserved by a Brahmachari may include silence, fasting, seclusion, chastity, as well other activities. The goal oftapasis to help focus the Brahmachari on meditation, observation of reality, reflection and spiritual rebirth.[63]Brahmacharya andtapasyaare interrelated, with the student life expected to be simple and austere, dedicated to the learning.[65][66]

Jainism

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Main article:Jain meditation

Tapasis a central concept in Jainism.[67]It refers to the spiritual practice of body mortification, penance, and austerities, in order to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, thereby reachingsiddha(liberating oneself).[10]AsceticTapasamong Jaina monks, both internal and external, is believed to be essential for spiritual growth andkevalya(moksha, liberation).[68][69]The details of theTapaspractices vary between the different traditions within Jainism.[68]

The Jain textSarvarthasiddhi,a commentary by Pujyapada, claims that the HinduSamkhyaschool emphasizes "knowledge only, no practices", while theVaisheshikasemphasize "practices only, no knowledge" as part ofTapasand the means of reaching moksha.[69]Another Jain textTattvartha Sutra,byUmaswati,in chapter 9, asserts thatTapasincludes several kinds of meditation.[69][70]

TheTapasin Jainism include internal practices and external austerities.[71][72]ExternalTapasinclude fasting, tolerating hardships inflicted by other people or animals, tolerating all discomfort from weather by nakedness or near nakedness and the lack of any possessions, lack of shelter, walking and wandering alone without fearing anything and without hurting anyone.[71]The internalTapasinclude words and inner thoughts (intent) that resonate with the externalTapas(action).[71]The list of internal and external austerities in Jainism vary with the text and tradition, withTattvartha Sutra,Uttaradhyayana SutraandBhagavati Sutrastating:[72][70]

  • Bahya Tapas(external austerities): fasting, abstinences, restraint in begging alms, renunciation of delicacies, self-mortification, retreat from the world.
  • Abhyantara Tapas(internal austerities): penance, respect to elders, service to others, study, meditation, abandonment of the body in one's thoughts.

InJainism,Tapasimplies a control on desires,[73]and is a form a self purification.[68]Mahavira,the 24thTirthankaraundertook asceticTapasfor twelve years, after which he attainedKevala Jnana(liberating supreme knowledge).[74][75]

Ajivikas

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Ajivikaswas another ancient Indian religion which survived through about 13th-century CE, but became extinct thereafter, in whichTapaswas a central concept as a means of salvation.[76]According to Arthur Basham, the Ajivikas believed in the most rigorous ascetic practices in public.[77]They believed in not harming anything and not being a cause of hurt to any living creature or substance, so they ate refuse, waste products, went deep into forests, mountains or isolated caves to live their austere life.[77]

One of the Buddhist canonical texts,Nanguttha Jataka,claims that the Ajivikas perform severe ascetic practices as part of theirTapas,including sleeping on a bed of thorns and other forms of self-mortification.[78]The Jainism textSthananga Sutraclaims that the Ajivikas performed severe penances and self-mortification as part of theirTapaspractice.[79]A mention of the ascetic practices of Ajivikas is found in Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature, where they are spelled asAshibikas.[79]

Ajivikas were aŚramaṇareligion, just like Buddhism and Jainism, and these competed with each other.[80]Most of the Ajivika texts have not survived. TheTapaspractices of Ajivikas, as well as other information about them is primarily from the Buddhist and Jain texts; scholars question whether the description of Ajivikas has been fairly and completely summarized in these, or are these polemic misrepresentations.[81][82][83]

Modern practice

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Modern practitioners pursueTapas- meditation and study of religion inashramsacrossIndia.[84]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^A similar discussion contrastingTapasin Buddhism and Jainism is found in Devadaha Sutta. The translations vary with scholars, with some translatingTapasin Jainism as asceticism, some as penance. Further, the opening varies: "ascetics and Brahmins", or "contemplatives and Brahmins", or "recluses and Brahmins", with former meaning those who seek salvation but do not preach, the latter meaning those who seek salvation and also preach. See: Piotr Balcerowicz (2015) ibid; Piya Tan (2005), Devadaha Sutta,Living Word of the Buddha,volume 18, number 4, pages 46-47 with footnotes 52-58; Padmanabh S. Jaini (2001), Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, page 123
  2. ^The optional ascetic practices are not mentioned in the Buddhist Vinaya texts, but listed in some Sila texts, where they are calledDhutanga(Tibetan:sbyang pa'i yan lag,Japanese:zudagyo,Chinese:toutouxing). An illustrative list of thirteen permissible ascetic practices for Buddhists, attributed to Buddha are, according to Buswell and Lopez:[27][1] wearing clothes made from discarded clothing; [2] wearing only three robes; [3] alms seeking; [4] not begging food only at those houses that provide good food, but also begging at homes that do not; [5] eating daily once, in one sitting; [6] not eatingsanghafood, but only what one gathered in a bowl after begging; [7] refusing more food; [8] dwelling in a forest; [9] dwelling at the root of a tree; [10] dwelling in open air with tent made from one's own robe; [11] dwelling in cremation ground; [12] dwelling anywhere and being satisfied with it; [13] repeatedly sleeping only in a sitting position without ever lying down. In other Buddhist texts, the list varies, and in some cases allowed ascetic practices for monks include wearing only clothes made from coarse hemp or wool. Ascetic practices were suggested particularly for those Buddhist monks who were found to be greedy or of deluded character.[27]

References

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