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Mari, Syria

Coordinates:34°32′58″N40°53′24″E/ 34.54944°N 40.89000°E/34.54944; 40.89000
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Mari
تل حريري(in Arabic)
Ruins of Mari
Mari lies in the east of Syria, close to the border with Iraq.
Mari lies in the east of Syria, close to the border with Iraq.
Shown within Near East
Mari lies in the east of Syria, close to the border with Iraq.
Mari lies in the east of Syria, close to the border with Iraq.
Mari, Syria (Syria)
Alternative nameTell Hariri
LocationAbu Kamal,Deir ez-Zor Governorate,Syria
Coordinates34°32′58″N40°53′24″E/ 34.54944°N 40.89000°E/34.54944; 40.89000
TypeSettlement
Area60 hectares (150 acres)
History
Foundedc. 2900 BC
Abandoned3rd century BC
PeriodsBronze Age
CulturesEast-Semitic (Kish civilization),Amorite
Site notes
ArchaeologistsAndré Parrot
ConditionRuined
OwnershipPublic
Public accessYes

Mari(Cuneiform:𒈠𒌷𒆠,ma-riki,modernTell Hariri;Arabic:تل حريري) was an ancientSemiticcity-statein modern-daySyria.Its remains form atell11 kilometers north-west ofAbu Kamalon theEuphrates Riverwestern bank, some 120 kilometers southeast ofDeir ez-Zor.It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC.[note 1]The city was built in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes betweenSumerin the south and theEblaite kingdomand theLevantin the west.

Mari was first abandoned in the middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonicEast Semiticstate before 2500 BC. This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rivalEblaand is known for its strong affinity with Sumerian culture. It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by theAkkadians,who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor (Shakkanakku). The governors became independent with the disintegration of the Akkadian Empire, and rebuilt the city as a regional center of the Euphrates valley. The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC, when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons. A short time later, Mari became the capital of theAmoriteLim dynasty. The Amorite Mari lasted only a short time before it was destroyed byBabyloniain c. 1761 BC, but it survived as a small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and theAssyriansbefore being abandoned and forgotten during theHellenistic period.

The Mariotes worshiped bothSemitic and Sumerian deitiesand established their city as a major trading center. Although the pre-Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence, Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but a Semitic-speaking nation with a dialect similar toEblaite.The Amorites wereWest Semiteswho began to settle the area before the 21st century BC; by the Lim dynasty (c. 1830 BC), they became the dominant population in theFertile Crescent.

Mari's discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancientMesopotamiaandSyria,due to the discovery of more than 25,000 tablets explicating the state administration in the 2nd millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations among the political powers of the region. They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC, which connected areas as far asAfghanistaninSouthern AsiaandCretein theMediterranean.

Name

[edit]
The name of Mari (Cuneiform:𒈠𒌷𒆠,ma-riki), on thestatue of Iddi-Ilum,c. 2090 BC

Written inCuneiform𒈠𒌷𒆠(ma-riki),[1]the name of the city can be traced toItūr-Mēr,an ancientstorm deityof northernMesopotamiaand Syria, who was considered thetutelary deityof the city,[2]Georges Dossinnoted that the name of the city was spelled identically to that of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him.[3]

History

[edit]

Early Bronze Age

[edit]

First kingdom

[edit]

It is believed that Mari did not grow from a small settlement,[4]but was founded c. 2900 BC during the MesopotamianEarly Dynastic period Ias a new city to control the waterways of theEuphratestrade routes connecting theLevantwith theSumeriansouth.[4][5]The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods,[4]and was connected to the river by an artificialcanal7 to 10 kilometers long whose route is hard to identify today.[6]

Mari's landmarks

The city is difficult to excavate as it is buried deep under later layers of habitation.[5]A circular flood embankment was unearthed,[5]containing an area 300 meters in length for gardens and craftsmen's quarters,[6]and a defensivecircular internal rampart6.7 m thick[5]and 8 to 10 meters high, strengthened by defensive towers.[6]Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, and residential houses.[5]Mari had a central mound,[7]but no temple or palace has been unearthed there.[5]A large building was however excavated (with dimensions of 32 m x 25 m), seemingly with an administrative function. It had stone foundations and rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide.[8]The city was abandoned c. 2550 BC at the end of theEarly Dynastic period II,for unknown reasons.[5]

Second kingdom

[edit]

Around the beginning ofEarly Dynastic period III(earlier than 2500 BC)[9]Mari was rebuilt and populated again.[5][10]The new city kept many of the first city's exterior features, including the internal rampart and gate.[5][11]Also kept was the outer circular embankment measuring 1.9 km in diameter, which was topped by a wall two meters thick capable of[11]protecting archers.[5]

Statue of Ebih-Il,a superintendent in Mari. (25th century BC)

However, the internal urban structure was completely changed[12]and the new city was carefully planned. First to be built were the streets that descended from the elevated center into the gates, ensuring the drainage of rain water.[5]

At the heart of the city, aroyal palacewas built that also served as a temple.[5]Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom's palace have been unearthed (the oldest is designatedP3,while the latest isP0). The last two levels are dated to theAkkadian period.[13]The first two levels were excavated;[13]the findings include a temple (Enceinte Sacrée orsacred enclosure) dedicated to an unknown deity,[13][14]a pillared throne room, and a hall with three double wood pillars leading to the temple.[13]

Six smaller temples were discovered in the city, including the temple called the Massif Rouge (unknown dedication), and temples dedicated toNinni-Zaza[it](INANA.ZA.ZA),[15]Ishtarat,[16]Ishtar,Ninhursag,andShamash.[14]All the temples were located in the center of the city except for the Ishtar temple; the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is considered to have been the administrative center of thehigh priest.[14]

The second kingdom appears to have been a powerful and prosperous political center,[9]its kings held the title ofLugal,[17]and many are attested in the city, the most important source being the letter of kingEnna-Daganc. 2350 BC,[note 2][19]which was sent toIrkab-DamuofEbla,[note 3].In it, the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements.[21]However, the reading of this letter is still uncertain and many interpretations have been presented by scholars.[22][23][24]

Mari–Ebla war
[edit]
Helmetted warrior with axe, Mari
Ishqi-Mari,king of the Second Kingdom of Mari, circa 2300 BC

The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan isAnsud,who is mentioned as attacking Ebla, the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war,[25]and conquering many of Ebla's cities, including the land ofBelan.[note 4][24]The next king mentioned in the letter isSaʿumu,who conquered the lands ofRa'akandNirum.[note 5][24]KingKun-Damuof Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC.[28]The war continued withIšhtup-Išarof Mari's conquest ofEmar[24]at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BC. KingIgrish-Halamof Ebla had to pay tribute toIblul-Ilof Mari,[28][29]who is mentioned in the letter, conquering many of Ebla's cities and campaigning in theBurmanregion.[24]

Enna-Dagan also received tribute;[29]his reign fell entirely within the reign ofIrkab-Damuof Ebla,[30]who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute.[20]Mari defeated Ebla's allyNagarin year seven of the Eblaite vizierIbrium's term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.[31]The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizierIbbi-Sipishmade an alliance with Nagar andKishto defeat Mari in a battle nearTerqa.[32]Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c. 2300 BC,[33]during the reign of the Mariote kingHidar.[34]According toAlfonso Archi[de],Hidar was succeeded byIshqi-Mariwhose royal seal was discovered. It depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general.[34][35]

Destruction of Mari by Sargon of Akkad
[edit]
Soldiers, shell inlay. Mari

Just a decade after Ebla's destruction (c. 2300 BC middle chronology), Mari itself was destroyed and burned bySargon of Akkad,as shown by one of his year names ( "Year in which Mari was destroyed").[36][37][38][32]Michael Astourproposed the date as c. 2265 BC (short chronology).[39]Ishqi-Mariwas probably the last king of Mari before the conquests by theAkkadian Empire.[40]Sargon of Akkadcollected tribute from Mari andElam:[41]

Sargon the King bowed down toDaganinTuttul.He (Dagan) gave to him (Sargon) the Upper Land: Mari, Iarmuti, andEbla,as far as the Cedar Forest and the Silver Mountains

— Nippur inscription of Sargon[42][43]

Third kingdom

[edit]

Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian kingManishtushu.[44]A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the titleShakkanakku(military governor).[45]Akkad kept direct control over the city, which is evident byNaram-Sin of Akkad's appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city.[45]

Shakkanakku dynasty
[edit]
Puzur-Ishtar,Shakkanakku(Military Governor) of Mari, circa 2050 BC

The first member of the Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists isIdidish,who was appointed in c. 2266 BC.[note 6][47]According to the lists, Ididish ruled for 60 years[48]and was succeeded by his son=, making the position hereditary.[49]

The third Mari followed the second city in terms of general structure,[50]phaseP0of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku.[51]Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city,[7]and contained royal burials that date to the former periods.[52]The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached 10 meters in width.[51]The former sacred inclosure was maintained,[51]so was the temple of Ninhursag. However, the temples of Ninni-Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared,[51]while a new temple called the "temple of lions" (dedicated toDagan),[53]was built by the ShakkanakkuIshtup-Ilumand attached to it, was a rectangular terrace that measured 40 x 20 meters for sacrifices.[51][7][54]

Akkad disintegrated duringShar-Kali-Sharri's reign,[55]and Mari gained its independence, but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the followingThird Dynasty of Urperiod.[56]A princess of Mari married the son of kingUr-NammuofUr,[57][58]and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony.[59]However, the vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari,[60][61]and some Shakkanakkus used the royal titleLugalin their votive inscriptions, while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur's court.[62]The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty, which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC.[63][64][65]

Middle Bronze Age

[edit]

Lim dynasty

[edit]

The second millennium BC in theFertile Crescentwas characterized by the expansion of theAmorites,which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region,[66]including Mari which in c. 1830 BC, became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under kingYaggid-Lim.[65][67]However, theepigraphicaland archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras.[note 7][57]

Yaggid-Lim was the ruler ofSuprumbefore establishing himself in Mari,[note 8][note 9][70]he entered an alliance withIla-kabkabuofEkallatum,but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war.[69][71]The conflict ended with Ila-kabkabu capturing Yaggid-Lim's heirYahdun-Limand according to a tablet found in Mari, Yaggid-Lim who survived Ila-kabkabu was killed by his servants.[note 10][69]However, in c. 1820 BC Yahdun-Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari.[note 11][71]

Goddess of the vase, Mari, 18th century BC

Yahdun-Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders, and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur-Yahdun-Lim.[73]He then expanded west and claimed to have reached theMediterranean,[74][75]however he later had to face a rebellion by theBanu-Yaminanomads who were centered atTuttul,and the rebels were supported byYamhad's kingSumu-Epuh,whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun-Lim andEshnunna.[60][74]Yahdun-Lim defeated the Yamina but an open war with Yamhad was avoided,[76]as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry withShamshi-Adad IofShubat-Enlil,the son of the late Ila-kabkabu.[77]The war ended in a defeat for Mari,[77][78]and Yahdun-Lim was assassinated in c. 1798 BC by his possible sonSumu-Yamam,[79][80]who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi-Adad advanced and annexed Mari.[81]

Shamshi-Adad of Assyria and Yasmah-Adad

[edit]

Shamshi-Adad (r. 1809-1775 BC) appointed his sonYasmah-Adadon the throne of Mari, the new king married Yahdun-Lim's daughter,[82][83]while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad,[84]and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi-Adad considered sinful acts on the side of the Lim family.[85]To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad, Shamshi-Adad married Yasmah-Adad to Betlum, the daughter ofIshi-AdduofQatna.[83]However, Yasmah-Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna, and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c. 1776 BC,[83][86][87]while the armies ofYarim-Lim Iof Yamhad were advancing in support ofZimri-Lim,the heir of the Lim dynasty.[note 12][87]

Investiture of Zimri-Lim(18th century BC)

Zimri-Lim of Mari

[edit]

As Zimri-Lim advanced, a leader of theBanu-Simaal(Zimri-Lim's tribe) overthrew Yasmah-Adad,[89]opening the road for Zimri-Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah-Adad's escape,[90]and married princessShibtuthe daughter of Yarim-Lim I a short time after his enthronement in c. 1776 BC.[87]Zimri-Lim's ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim-Lim I affected Mari's status, Zimri-Lim referred to Yarim-Lim as his father, and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad's main deityHadadand Zimri-Lim, who declared himself a servant of Hadad.[91]

Zimri-Lim started his reign with a campaign against theBanu-Yamina,he also established alliances with Eshnunna andHammurabiofBabylon,[84]and sent his armies to aid the Babylonians.[92]The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in theUpper Khaburregion, which was namedIdamaraz[ca],[93]where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such asUrkesh,[94]andTalhayum[ca],forcing them into vassalage.[95]The expansion was met by the resistance ofQarni-Lim,the king ofAndarig,[96]whom Zimri-Lim defeated, securing the Mariote control over the region in c. 1771 BC,[97]and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace.[87]Zimri-Lim's greatest heritage was the renovation of theRoyal Palace,which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms,[7][98]exquisite artifacts such asThe Goddess of the Vasestatue,[99]and a royal archive that contained thousands of tablets.[100]

Babylonian period

[edit]

The relations with Babylon worsened with a dispute over the city ofHītthat consumed much time in negotiations,[101]during which a war againstElaminvolved both kingdoms in c. 1765 BC.[102]Finally, the kingdom was invaded by Hammurabi who defeated Zimri-Lim in battle in c. 1761 BC and ended the Lim dynasty,[103]while Terqa became the capital of a rump state named theKingdom of Hana.[104]In the south, the region ofSuhumbecame a Babylonian province.

Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c. 1759 BC, causing Hammurabi to destroy the whole city.[105]However, by an act of mercy Hammurabi may have allowed Mari to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration (according to Marc Van De Mieroop).[105]

Late Bronze Age

[edit]

Later, Mari became part ofAssyriaand was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian kingTukulti-Ninurta I(reigned 1243–1207 BC).[106]Afterward, Mari constantly changed hands between Assyria and Babylon.[106]

Iron Age

[edit]

In the middle of the eleventh century BC, Mari became part of Hana whose kingTukulti-Mertook the titleking of Mariand rebelled against Assyria, causing the Assyrian kingAshur-bel-kala(r. 1074-1056 BC) to attack the city.[106]Mari came firmly under the authority of theNeo-Assyrian Empire,and was assigned in the first half of the 8th century BC to a certainNergal-Erishto govern under the authority of kingAdad-Nirari III(r. 810–783 BC).[106]

Shamash-Risha-Usur (c. 760 BC)

In c. 760 BC,Shamash-Risha-Usur,[107]an autonomous governor ruling parts of the upper middle Euphrates under the nominal authority ofAshur-dan III,styled himself the governor of the lands ofSuhuand Mari, so did his sonNinurta-Kudurri-Usur.[106]However, by that time, Mari was known to be located in the so-calledLand of Laqe,[note 13]making it unlikely that the Usur family actually controlled it, and suggesting that the title was employed out of historical reasons.[106]

The city continued as a small settlement until theHellenistic periodbefore disappearing from records.[106]

Modern history

[edit]

By 2015,ISISdevastated and looted systematically the site and specially theroyal palace.[109]It was one of the first archaeological sites to be occupied by this group.[110]

People, language and government

[edit]
Further information:List of kings of Mari
A Mariote from the second kingdom. (25th century BC)

The founders of the first city may have been Sumerians or more probablyEast Semiticspeaking people fromTerqain the north.[4]I. J. Gelbrelates Mari's foundation with theKish civilization,[111]which was a cultural entity of East Semitic speaking populations, that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant.[112]

At its height, the second city was the home of about 40,000 people.[113]This population was East-Semitic speaking one, and used a dialect much similar to the language of Ebla (theEblaite language),[10][114]while the Shakkanakku period had an East-SemiticAkkadianspeaking population.[115]West Semiticnames started to be attested in Mari from the second kingdom era,[116]and by the middleBronze-Age,the west SemiticAmoritetribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates andKhaburvalleys.[117]Amorite names started to be observed in the city toward the end of the Shakkanakku period, even among the ruling dynasty members.[118]

Statues from Mari in theNational Museum of Aleppo

During the Lim era, the population became predominantly Amorite but also included Akkadian named people,[note 14]and although theAmorite languagebecame the dominant tongue, Akkadian remained the language of writing.[119][120][121]The pastoral Amorites in Mari were called theHaneans,a term that indicate nomads in general,[122]those Haneans were split into theBanu-Yamina(sons of the right) andBanu-Simaal(sons of the left), with the ruling house belonging to theBanu-Simaalbranch.[122]The kingdom was also a home to tribes ofSuteanswho lived in the district ofTerqa.[123]

Mari was an absolute monarchy, with the king controlling every aspect of the administration, helped by thescribeswho played the role of administrators.[124][125]During the Lim era, Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital, the provincial seats were located at Terqa,Saggaratum,Qattunanand Tuttul. Each province had its own bureaucracy,[125]the government supplied the villagers with ploughs and agricultural equipments, in return for a share in the harvest.[126]

Culture and religion

[edit]
A Mariote woman. (25th century BC)

The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south.[127]The society was led by an urbanoligarchy,[128]and the citizens were well known for elaborate hair styles and dress.[129][130]The calendar was based on asolar yeardivided into twelve months, and was the same calendar used in Ebla "the old Eblaite calendar".[131][132]Scribes wrote inSumerian languageand the art was indistinguishable from Sumerian art, so was the architectural style.[133]

Mesopotamian influence continued to affect Mari's culture during the Amorite period,[134]which is evident in the Babylonian scribal style used in the city.[135]However, it was less influential than the former periods and a distinct Syrian style prevailed, which is noticeable in the seals of kings, which reflect a clear Syrian origin.[134]The society was a tribal one,[136]it consisted mostly of farmers and nomads (Haneans),[137]and in contrast to Mesopotamia, the temple had a minor role in everyday life as the power was mostly invested in the palace.[138]Women enjoyed a relative equality to men,[139]queen Shibtu ruled in her husband's name while he was away, and had an extensive administrative role and authority over her husband's highest officials.[140]

The Pantheon included both Sumerian and Semitic deities,[141]and throughout most of its history,Daganwas Mari's head of the Pantheon,[142]while Mer was the patron deity.[143]Other deities included the Semitic deities; Ishtar the goddess of fertility,[141]Athtar,[144]andShamash,the Sun god who was regarded among the city most important deities,[145]and believed to be all-knowing and all-seeing.[146]Sumerian deities included Ninhursag,[141]Dumuzi,[147]Enki,Anu,andEnlil.[148]Prophecyhad an important role for the society, temples included prophets,[149]who gave council to the king and participated in the religious festivals.[150]

Economy

[edit]

The first Mari provided the oldest wheel workshop yet discovered in Syria,[151]and was a center of bronzemetallurgy.[4]The city also contained districts devoted tosmelting,dyeing,and pottery manufacture,[13]using charcoal brought by river boats from the upperKhaburand Euphrates area.[4]

The second kingdom's economy was based on both agriculture and trade.[120]It was centralized and directed through a communal organization,[120]with grain stored in communal granaries and distributed according to social status.[120]The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom.[120]Some groups were direct beneficiaries of the palace instead of the communal organization, including the metal and textile producers and military officials.[120]Ebla was an important trading partner and rival,[152]Mari's position made it an important trading center astride the road linking the Levant and Mesopotamia.[153]

The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy, still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley.[120]The city remained a trading center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms,[154]with goods from the south and east transported on riverboats bound for the north, northwest and west.[155]The main trade was metals and tin from theIranian Plateauexported west as far asCrete.Other goods included copper fromCyprus,silver fromAnatolia,wood fromLebanon,gold fromEgypt,olive oil, wine, and textiles, and even precious stones from modernAfghanistan.[155]

Excavations and archive

[edit]
Excavations by the archaeological team ofAndré Parrotin 1936. Discovery of the statue of military GovernorIshtup-Ilum

Mari was discovered in 1933, on the eastern flank of Syria, near the Iraqi border.[156]ABedouintribe was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman, when they came across a headless statue.[156]After the news reached theFrenchauthorities currently incontrolof Syria, the report was investigated, and digging on the site was started on December 14, 1933 by archaeologists from theLouvrein Paris.[156]The location of the fragment was excavated, revealing the temple of Ishtar, which led to the commencing of the full scale excavations.[157]Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the "most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture".[158]

Since the beginning of excavations, over 25,000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written incuneiformwere discovered.[159]Finds from the excavation are on display in theLouvre,[160]theNational Museum of Aleppo,[161]theNational Museum of Damascus,[146]and theDeir ez-Zor Museum.In the latter, the southernfaçadeof theCourt of the Palmsroom fromZimri-Lim's palacehas been reconstructed, including the wall paintings.[162]

Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns in 1933–1939, 1951–1956, and since 1960.[163]André Parrotconducted the first 21 seasons up to 1974,[164]and was followed byJean-Claude Margueron[fr](1979–2004),[165]andPascal Butterlin(starting in 2005).[163]A journal devoted to the site, released in 8 volumes between 1982 and 1997, wasMari: Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires.[166][167]Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends, according to French archaeologist André Parrot, "each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site's history down to virgin soil, such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed."[168]

Mari tablets

[edit]

Over 25,000 tablets were found in the burnt library of Zimri-Lim written in Akkadian[169]from a period of 50 years between circa 1800 – 1750 BC.[170]They give information about the kingdom, its customs, and the names of people who lived during that time.[67]More than 3000 are letters, the remainder includes administrative, economic, and judicial texts.[171]Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50 years of Mari's independence,[171]and most have now been published.[172]The language of the texts is officialAkkadian,but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Mari's inhabitants wasNorthwest Semitic.[173]Six of the tablets found were in theHurrian language.[174]

Current situation

[edit]

Excavations stopped from 2011 as a result of theSyrian Civil Warand have not restarted.[175]The site came under the control of armed gangs and suffered large scale looting. A 2014 official report revealed that robbers were focusing on the royal palace, the public baths, the temple of Ishtar, and the temple of Dagan.[176]Based on satellite imagery, looting continued until at least 2017.[177]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Dates are estimated according to theMiddle chronologyunless otherwise stated.
  2. ^In old readings, it was thought that Enna-Dagan was a general of Ebla. However, the deciphering of Ebla's tablets showed him in Mari and receiving gifts from Ebla during the reigns of his Mariote predecessors.[18]
  3. ^Irkab-Damu is not named in the letter but it is almost certain that he was the recipient.[20]
  4. ^Located 26 km west ofRaqqa.[26]
  5. ^Located in the Euphrates middle valley close toSweyhat.[27]
  6. ^According toJean-Marie Durand,this Shakkanakku was appointed by Manishtushu, other opinions consider Naram-Sin as the appointer of Ididish.[46]
  7. ^This ruled out the former theory that there was an abandonment of Mari during the transition period.[57]
  8. ^Suprum is 12 kilometers upstream from Mari, perhaps the modern Tel Abu Hasan.[68]
  9. ^It is not certain that Yaggid-Lim controlled Mari, however he is traditionally considered the first king of the dynasty.[69]
  10. ^The credibility of the tablet is doubted as it was written byYasmah-Adadwho was Ila-kabkabu grandson.[69]
  11. ^The transition of the Lim family from Suprum to Mari could have been the work of Yahdun-Lim after the war with Ila-kabkabu.[72]
  12. ^Although officially a son of Yahdun-Lim, in reality he was a grandchild or nephew.[88]
  13. ^An ancient designation for the land that include the confluence of the Khabur and the Euphrates rivers.[108]
  14. ^Jean-Marie Durand, although not speculating the fate of the East-Semitic population, believe that the Akkadians during the Lim dynasty are not descended from the East-Semites of the Shakkanakku period.[115]

References

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^Tinney et al. 2020.
  2. ^Paul-Alain Beaulieu (20 November 2017).A History of Babylon, 2200 BC - AD 75.John Wiley & Sons. p. 106.ISBN978-1-119-45907-1.OCLC1010542283.
  3. ^Oldenburg 1969,p.60.
  4. ^abcdefViollet 2007,p.36.
  5. ^abcdefghijklMargueron 2003,p.136.
  6. ^abcMargueron 2013,p.520.
  7. ^abcdAkkermans & Schwartz 2003,p.286.
  8. ^Margueron 2013,p.522.
  9. ^abAkkermans & Schwartz 2003,p.267.
  10. ^abLiverani 2013,p.117.
  11. ^abMargueron 2013,p.523.
  12. ^Margueron 2013,p.524.
  13. ^abcdeMargueron 2003,p.137.
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Wikimedia Commons has media related toMari.
  • MariMari passage on the Syrian ministry of culture website (in Arabic).
  • Syrie - MariMari page on Britannica.
  • Mari (Tell Hariri)Suggestion to have Mari (Tell Hariri) recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site, in 1999
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