Thai cuisine

Yam wun sen kung,a spicyThai saladwithglass noodlesandprawns

Thai cuisine(Thai:อาหารไทย,RTGS:ahan thai,pronounced[ʔāː.hǎːntʰāj]) is the nationalcuisineofThailand.

Thai cooking places emphasis on lightly prepared dishes with aromatics andspicy heat.The Australian chefDavid Thompson,an expert on Thai food, observes that unlike many other cuisines, Thai cooking is "about the juggling of disparate elements to create a harmonious finish. Like a complex musical chord it's got to have a smooth surface but it doesn't matter what's happening underneath. Simplicity isn't the dictum here, at all."

Traditional Thai cuisine loosely falls into four categories:tom(boiled dishes),yam(spicy salads),tam(pounded foods), andkaeng(curries). Deep-frying, stir-frying and steaming are methods introduced fromChinese cuisine.

In 2011, seven Thai dishes appeared on a list of the "World's 50 Best Foods", an online poll of 35,000 people worldwide byCNN Travel.Thailand had more dishes on the list than any other country:tom yum kung(4th),pad thai(5th),som tam(6th),massaman curry(10th),green curry(19th),Thai fried rice(24th) andnam tok mu(36th).

History

Historical influences

The local art ofvegetable carvingis believed to have begun in theSukhothai Kingdomnearly 700 years ago.

Thai cuisine and the culinary traditions and cuisines of Thailand's neighbors, especially Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, India, Malaysia and Indonesia, have influenced one another over the course of many centuries.

According to the Thai monk VenerableBuddhadasaBhikku's writing, ‘India's Benevolence to Thailand’, Thai cuisine wasinfluencedbyIndian cuisine.He wrote that Thai people learned how to usespicesin their food in various ways from Indians. Thais also obtained the methods of makingherbal medicinesfrom the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of the familyGuttiferae,panika orharsinghar,phikun orMimusops elengiand bunnak or therose chestnutetc. were brought from India.According to the bookMae Khrua Hua Pa(first published in 1908) by LadyPlian Bhaskarawongse,she found that Thai cuisine had a strong gastronomical cultural line from Sukhothai (1238–1448) through Ayuttthaya (1351–1767) and Thonburi period (1767–1782) vis-à-vis Siamese governmental officers' daily routines (such as royal cooking) and their related cousins. Thai food during the Thonburi period tended to be more similar to that from the Ayutthaya period, except the addition of Chinese food resulted from her prosperous international trade.

Chili peppers,originally from the Americas, were introduced to Thailand by the Portuguese and Spanish.

Western influences, starting in 1511 when the first diplomatic mission from thePortuguesearrived at the court of Ayutthaya, have created dishes such asfoi thong,the Thai adaptation of the Portuguesefios de ovos,andsangkhaya,where coconut milk replaces cow's milk in making a custard.These dishes were said to have been brought to Thailand in the 17th century byMaria Guyomar de Pinha,a woman of mixedJapanese-Portuguese-Bengaliancestry who was born in Ayutthaya, and became the wife ofConstantine Phaulkon,a Greek adviser toKing Narai.The most notable influence from the West must be the introduction of thechili pepperfrom theAmericasin the 16th or 17th century. It, and rice, are now two of the most important ingredients in Thai cuisine.During theColumbian Exchange,PortugueseandSpanishships brought new foodstuffs from the Americas includingtomatoes,corn,papaya,pea eggplants,pineapple,pumpkins,culantro,cashews, and peanuts.

Regional variations

Regional variations tend to correlate to neighboring states (often sharing the same cultural background andethnicityon both sides of the border) as well as climate and geography. Northern Thai cuisine shares dishes withShan Statein Burma, northernLaos,and alsowith YunnanProvince in China, whereas the cuisine ofIsan(northeastern Thailand) is similar tothat of Southern Laos,and byVietnamese cuisineto its east. Southern Thailand, with many dishes that contain liberal amounts ofcoconut milkand freshturmeric,has that in common withIndian,Malaysian,andIndonesian cuisine.

Thai cuisine is more accurately described as five regional cuisines, corresponding to the five mainregions of Thailand:

• Bangkok:cuisine of the Bangkok metropolitan area, withTeochewandPortugueseinfluences. In addition, as a capital city, Bangkok cuisine is sometimes influenced by more dedicated royal cuisine. Tastes and looks of food in Bangkok have changed somewhat over time as they have been influenced by other cuisines such as Asian, European or Western countries.
• Central Thai:cuisine of the flat and wet centralrice-growingplains, site of the former Thai kingdoms ofSukhothaiandAyutthaya,and theDvaravaticulture of theMon peoplefrom before the arrival ofSiamesein the area.Coconut milkis one of major ingredients used in Central Thai cuisine.
• Isanor Northeastern Thai: cuisine of the more aridKhorat Plateau,influenced by theculture of Laosand also byKhmer cuisine.
• Northern Thai:cuisine of the cooler valleys and forested mountains of theThai highlands,once ruled by the formerLanna Kingdomand home ofLannaese,the majority ofnorthern Thailand.This cuisine shares many ingredients with Isan.
• Southern Thai:cuisine of theKra Isthmuswhich is bordered on two sides by tropical seas, with its many islands and including theethnic Malay,formerSultanate of Pattaniin the deep south. The complex curries, food preparation techniques and usage of chillies and spices in Southern Thai cuisine form a great influence on the whole cuisine in general.

Royal cuisine

Kaeng phet pet yang,a legacy of the palace cuisine of Ayutthaya

In addition to these regional cuisines, there is also Thai royal cuisine which can trace its history back to thecosmopolitanpalace cuisine of theAyutthaya kingdom(1351–1767 CE). Its refinement, cooking techniques, presentation, and use of ingredients were of great influence to the cuisine of the central Thai plains.Thai royal cuisine has been influenced by theKhmer royal cuisinethrough the Khmer palacecooksbrought to the Ayutthaya Kingdom during its conquests of theKhmer Empire.Thai royal cuisine has become very well known from theRattanakosin Eraonwards.

Typically, Thai royal cuisine has basic characteristics that are close to the basic food prepared by general people. However, Thai royal cuisine focuses on the freshness of seasonal products. Other than that, it is crucial that the way in which Thai royal food is cooked, should be complex and delicate.

La Loubère, an envoy from France during the reign ofKing Narai,recorded that the food at the court was generally similar to villager food. What makes Thai Royal cuisine different food is its beautiful presentation. For example, they served fish and chicken with the bones removed, and the vegetables were served in bite-sized portions. In addition, if beef is used, it should be tenderloin only.

There are many types of Thai royal cuisine such asranchuancurry,nam phrik long ruea,matsamancurry, rice in jasmine-flavored iced water orkhao chae,spicy salad, fruit, and carved vegetable.

Thai chefMcDang,himself descended from the royal family, asserts that the difference between royal Thai cuisine and regular Thai cuisine is fiction. He maintains that the only difference between the food of the palace and that of the common people is the former's elaborate presentation and better ingredients.

Serving

Phat thai kung,fromBangkok

A typical family meal on the floormatinIsanregion

Thai food was traditionally eaten with the handwhile seated on mats or carpets on the floor or coffee table in upper middle class families, customs still found in more traditional households. Today, however, most Thais eat with a fork and spoon. Tables and chairs were introduced as part of a broaderWesternizationdrive during the reign ofKing Mongkut,Rama IV. The fork and spoon were introduced byKing Chulalongkornafter his return from a tour of Europe in 1897 CE.

Important to Thai dining is the practice ofkhluk,mixing the flavors and textures of different dishes with the rice from one's plate. The food is pushed by the fork, held in the left hand, into the spoon held in the right hand, which is then brought to the mouth.A traditional ceramic spoon is sometimes used for soup, and knives are not generally used at the table.It is common practice for both the Thais and thehill tribe peopleswho live inLannaandIsanto use sticky rice as an edible implement by shaping it into small, and sometimes flattened, balls by hand (and only the right hand by custom) which are then dipped into side dishes and eaten.

Thai meal in a village temple

Chopstickswere foreign utensils to mostethnic groups in Thailandwith the exception of theThai Chinese,and a few other cultures such as theAkha people,who are recent arrivals fromYunnanProvince,China.Traditionally, the majority of ethnicThai peopleate with their hands like the people of India. Chopsticks are mainly used in Thailand for eating Chinese-style noodle soups, or atChinese,Japanese,orKorean restaurants.Stir-fried noodle dishes such asdrunken noodles,pad see ew,andpad thai,and curry-noodle dishes such askhanom chinnam ngiao,are also eaten with a fork and spoon in the Thai fashion.

Thai meals typically consist of rice (khaoin Thai) with many complementary dishes shared by all. The dishes are all served at the same time, including the soups, and it is also customary to provide more dishes than there are guests at a table. A Thai family meal would normally consist of rice with several dishes which should form a harmonious contrast of flavors and textures as well as preparation methods. Traditionally, a meal would have at least five elements: a dip or relish for raw or cooked vegetables (khrueang chim) is the most crucial component of any Thai meal.Khrueang chim,considered a building block of Thai food by Chef McDang, may come in the form of a spicychili sauce or relishcallednam phrik(made of raw or cooked chilies and other ingredients, which are then mashed together), or a type of dip enriched with coconut milk calledlon.The other elements would include a clear soup (perhaps a spicytom yamor a mellowtom chuet), a curry or stew (essentially any dish identified with thekaengprefix), a deep-fried dish, and a stir-fried dish of meat, fish, seafood, or vegetables.

A plate of raw vegetables and herbs, together withnam phrikkapi,is often served as a complementary dish atsouthern Thaieateries.

In most Thai restaurants, diners will have access to a selection of Thai sauces (nam chim) and condiments, either brought to the table by wait staff or present at the table in small containers. These may includephrik nam pla/nam pla phrik(fish sauce, lime juice, chopped chilies and garlic), dried chili flakes,sweet chili sauce,sliced chili peppers in rice vinegar,Sriracha sauce,and even sugar. With certain dishes, such askhao kha mu(pork trotter stewed in soy sauce and served with rice), wholeThai peppersand rawgarlicare served in addition to the sour chili sauce. Cucumber is sometimes eaten to cool the mouth with particularly spicy dishes. They often feature as agarnish,especially with one-dish meals. The plain rice, sticky rice or thekhanom chin(Thai rice noodles) served alongside a spicyThai curryor stir-fry, tends to counteract the spiciness.

When time is limited or when eating alone, single dishes, such as fried rice or noodle soups, are quick and filling. An alternative is to have one or more smaller helpings of curry, stir fries and other dishes served together on one plate with a portion of rice. This style of serving food is calledkhao rat kaeng(lit. 'rice covered with curry'), or for shortkhao kaeng(lit. 'rice curry'). Eateries and shops that specialize in pre-made food are the usual place to go to for having a meal this way. These venues have a large display showing the different dishes one can choose. When placing an order at these places, Thais will state if they want the food served as separate dishes or together on one plate with rice (rat khao). Very often, regular restaurants will also feature a selection of freshly made "rice curry" dishes on their menu for single customers.

Ingredients

Main article:List of Thai ingredients

Ingredients, green curry paste

Pla thuat a market

Thai cuisine, as a whole, features many different ingredients (suan phasom;Thai:ส่วนผสม), and ways of preparing food. Thai chefMcDangcharacterises Thai food as having "intricacy, attention to detail, texture, color, and taste.

Thai food is known for its enthusiastic use of fresh (rather than dried)herbsandspices.Common flavors in Thai food come from garlic,galangal,coriander/cilantro,lemongrass,shallots,pepper,kaffir limeleaves,shrimp paste,fish sauce,andchilies.Palm sugar,made from the sap of certainBorassuspalms, is used to sweeten dishes whilelimeandtamarindcontribute sour notes. Meats used in Thai cuisine are usually pork and chicken, and also duck,beef,andwater buffalo.Goat, lamb, and mutton are rarely eaten except byMuslim ThaisinSouthern Thailand.Game,such aswild boar,deerand wild birds, are now less common due toloss of habitat,the introduction of modern methods ofintensive animal farmingin the 1960s, and the rise ofagribusinesses,such as ThaiCharoen Pokphand Foods,in the 1980s.Traditionally, fish, crustaceans, and shellfish play an important role in the diet of Thai people. In 2006 the per capita consumption of fish was 33.6 kg.Anna Leonowens(ofThe King and Ifame) observed in her bookThe English Governess at the Siamese Court(1870):

"The stream is rich in fish of excellent quality and flavour, such as is found in most of the great rivers of Asia; and is especially noted for itsplatoo,a kind of sardine, so abundant and cheap that it forms a common seasoning to the labourer's bowl of rice. "

Freshwater varieties come from the many rivers, lakes, ponds, andpaddy fieldsinland, and seafood from the tropical seas of the southern half of the country. Some species, such as thegiant river prawn,need brackish water as juveniles but live out their lives in freshwater once mature.Aquacultureof species such asNile tilapia,catfish,tiger prawns,andblood cockles,now generates a large portion of the seafood sold in, and exported from Thailand.

Rice, noodles and starches

Khanom chin,freshly made Thai rice noodles

Like most other Asian cuisines, rice is the staple grain of Thai cuisine. According to Thai food expert McDang, rice is the first and most important part of any meal, and the words for rice and food are the same:khao.As in many other rice eating cultures, to say "eat rice" (in Thai"kin khao",pronounced[kīnkʰâːw]) means to eat food. Rice is such an integral part of the diet that a common Thai greeting is"kin khao rue yang?"(lit. '"have you eaten rice yet?').

Thai farmers historically have cultivated tens of thousands of rice varieties. The traditional recipe for a rice dish could include as many as 30 varieties of rice.That number has been drastically reduced due to genetic modifications.

Non-glutinous rice (Oryza sativa) is calledkhao chao(lit. 'royal rice'). One type, which is indigenous to Thailand, is the highly prized, sweet-smellingjasmine rice(khao hom mali). This naturally aromatic long-grained rice grows in abundance in thepatchwork of paddy fieldsthat blanket Thailand's central plains. Once therice is steamedor cooked, it is calledkhao suai(lit. 'beautiful rice'). Non-glutinous rice is used for making fried rice dishes, and forcongee,of which there are three main varieties:khao tom(a thin rice soup, most often with minced pork or fish),khao tom kui(a thick, unflavored rice porridge that is served with side dishes), orchok(a thick rice porridge that is flavored with broth and minced meat).

Som tam, grilled chicken andsticky riceis a popular combination.

Other varieties of rice eaten in Thailand include:sticky rice(khao niao), a unique variety of rice which contains an unusual balance of the starches present in all rice, causing it to cook up to a sticky texture. ThaiRed Cargo rice,an unpolished long grain rice with an outer deep reddish-brown color and a white center, has a nutty taste and is slightly chewy compared to the soft and gummy texture of jasmine rice. Only the husks of the red rice grains are removed which allows it to retain all its nutrients and vitamins, but unlike brown rice, its red color comes from antioxidants in the bran. Black sticky rice is a type of sticky rice with a deep purple-red color that may appear black. Another unpolished grain, black sticky rice has a rich nutty flavor that is most often used in desserts.

Noodles in Thailand are usually made from the flour of rice, wheat, or mung bean. Perhaps one of the oldest type of noodle in Thailand iskhanom chin,which is a fresh type of rice vermicelli made from fermented rice, and eaten with toppings likegreen curry(kaeng khiao wan) with chicken or ingreen papaya salad(som tam). Other noodle varieties were subsequently introduced by Chinese migrants to Thailand, as is testified by their Sino-Thai namekuaitiao(ก๋วยเตี๋ยว;Chinese:Quả điều;pinyin:guǒtiáo). The three most common rice varieties ofkuaitiaoaresen yai(เส้นใหญ่) wide flat noodles,sen lek(เส้นเล็ก) narrow flat noodles, andsen miเส้นหมี่;orrice vermicelli), which are round and thin. A fourth popular variety,bami(บะหมี่;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:bah-mī) is made from egg andwheatflour and is usually sold fresh.Bamiare similar to the Teochewmee pok.A fifth type,wun sen(วุ้นเส้น;lit. 'jelly strands'), calledcellophane noodlesorglass noodlesin English, are thin round noodles made frommung beanflour which are sold dried. Lastly, and least common in noodle shops, are "silver needle noodles"kiam-i(เกี้ยมอี๋), a somewhat thick round rice noodle similar in size and shape to bean sprouts. Thai noodle dishes, whether stir fried likepad thaior in the form of a noodle soup, usually come as an individual serving and are not meant to be shared and eaten communally.

Rice flour (paeng khao chao) andtapiocaflour (paeng man sampalang) are often used in desserts or as thickening agents.

Pastes and sauces

Nam pla phrik,a table sauce most often eaten with rice dishes, is made from fish sauce and sliced chilies, and often also includes garlic and lime.

An ingredient found in many Thai dishes and used in every region of the country isnam pla,a clearfish saucethat is very aromatic. Fish sauce is a staple ingredient in Thai cuisine and imparts a unique character to Thai food. Fish sauce is prepared with fermented fish that is made into a fragrant condiment and provides a salty flavor. There are many varieties of fish sauce and many variations in the way it is prepared. Some fish may be fermented with shrimp or spices. Another type of sauce made from fermented fish ispla ra.It is more pungent thannam pla,and, in contrast tonam pla,which is a clear liquid,pla rais opaque and often contains pieces of fish. To add this sauce to asom tam(spicy papaya salad) is a matter of choice.Kapi,Thaishrimp paste,is a combination of fermented ground shrimp and salt. It is used in the famous chili paste callednam phrik kapi,in rice dishes such askhao khluk kapiand it is indispensable for makingThai currypastes.Tai plais a pungent sauce used in thesouthern Thaicuisine, that is made from the fermented innards of theshort mackerel(pla thu).It is one of the main condiments ofkaeng tai placurry and is also used to makenam phrik tai pla.Far removed from the nearest sea, from northern Thailand comesnam pu,a thick, black paste made by boiling mashedrice-paddy crabsfor hours. It is used as an ingredient for certain northern Thai salads, curries, and chili pastes. It too has a strong and pungent flavor.

Nam phrikpla chi(a chili paste from northern Thailand made with grilled fish) is served here with raw and steamed vegetables as one of the dishes in a communal meal.

Nam phrik long ruea.

Nam phrikare Thai chili pastes, similar to theIndonesianandMalaysiansambals.Each region has its own special versions. The words"nam phrik"are used by Thais to describe many pastes containing chilies used for dipping, although the more watery versions tend to be callednam chim.Thai currypastes are normally calledphrik kaengorkhrueang kaeng(lit. curry ingredients), but some people also use the wordnam phrikto designate a curry paste. Red curry paste, for instance, could be calledphrik kaeng phetorkhrueang kaeng phetin Thai, but alsonam phrik kaeng phet.Bothnam phrikandphrik kaengare prepared by crushing together chilies with various ingredients such as garlic and shrimp paste using amortar and pestle.Somenam phrikare served as a dip with vegetables such as cucumbers, cabbage and yard-long beans, either raw or blanched. One such paste isnam phrik num,a paste of pounded fresh green chilies, shallots, garlic and coriander leaves. The sweet roasted chili paste callednam phrik phaois often used as an ingredient intom yamor when frying meat or seafood, and it is also popular as a spicy "jam" on bread, or served as a dip withprawn crackers.The drynam phrik kung,made with poundeddried shrimp(kung haeng), is often eaten plain with rice and a few slices of cucumber. French diplomatSimon de la Loubèreobserved that chili pastes were vital for the way Thai people eat. He provides us with a recipe fornam phrikwithpla raand onions inDu Royaume de Siam,an account of his mission to Thailand published in 1691.

The soy sauces which are used in Thai cuisine are of Chinese origin, and the Thai names for them are (wholly or partially)loanwordsfrom theTeochew dialect:si-io dam(black soy sauce),si-io khao(light soy sauce),si-io wan(sweet soy sauce), andtaochiao(fermented whole soy beans).Namman hoi(oyster sauce) is also of Chinese origin. It is used extensively in vegetable and meat stir fries.

Satayis also common in Thailand, grilled or skewered meat served with a spicy peanut dipping sauce made from roasted or fried peanuts.

Vegetables, herbs and spices

A vegetable stall,Chiang Mai

At southern Thai restaurants most often a vegetable and herbs platter withnam phrik kapiis served as a complimentary dish

Thai dishes use a wide variety of herbs, spices and leaves rarely found in the West. The characteristic flavor ofkaffir limeleaves (bai makrut) appears in many Thai soups (e.g., the hot and sourtom yam) or curry from the southern and central areas of Thailand. The Thailime(manao) is smaller, darker and sweeter than the kaffir lime, which has a rough looking skin with a stronger lime flavor. Kaffir lime leaves or rind is frequently combined withgalangal(kha) andlemongrass(takhrai), either kept whole in simmered dishes or blended together with liberal amounts of chilies and other aromatics to make curry paste. FreshThai basil,distinctively redolent ofcloves,and with stems which are often tinged with a purple color, are used to add fragrance in certain dishes such asgreen curry.Other commonly used herbs in Thai cuisine includephak chi,(corianderor cilantro leaves),rak phak chi(cilantro/coriander roots),spearmint(saranae),holy basil(kaphrao), ginger (khing),turmeric(khamin),fingerroot(krachai),culantro(phak chi farang),pandanusleaves (bai toei), andThai lemon basil(maenglak). Spices and spice mixtures used in Thai cuisine includephong phalo(five-spice powder),phong kari(curry powder), and fresh and driedpeppercorns(phrik thai). Northern Thailarbuses a very elaborate spice mix, calledphrik lap,which includes ingredients such ascumin,cloves,long pepper,star anise,prickly ash seedsandcinnamon.

Snakehead fishpacked with lemongrass and kaffir lime leaves ready for steaming

Besides kaffir lime leaves, several other tree leaves are used in Thai cuisine such ascha-om,the young feathery leaves of theAcacia pennatatree. These leaves can be cooked in omelettes, soups and curries or eaten raw in northern Thai salads.Banana leavesare often used as packaging for ready-made food or as steamer cups such as inho mokpla,a spicy steamedpâtéorsoufflémade with fish and coconut milk.Bananaflowers are also used inThai saladsor as a vegetable ingredient for certain curries. The leaves and flowers of theneem tree(sadao) are also eaten blanched.Phak lueat(leaves from theFicus virens) are cooked in curries, andbai makok(from theSpondias mombin) can be eaten raw with a chili paste.

Five main chilies are generally used as ingredients in Thai food. One chili is very small (about 1.25 centimetres (0.49 in)) and is known as the hottest chili:phrik khi nu suan( "garden mouse-dropping chili" ). The slightly larger chiliphrik khi nu( "mouse-dropping chili" ) is the next hottest. The green or redphrik chi fa( "sky pointing chili" ) is slightly less spicy than the smaller chilies. The very largephrik yuak,which is pale green in color, is the least spicy and used more as a vegetable. Lastly, the dried chilies:phrik haengare spicier than the two largest chilies and dried to a dark red color.

The elaborate spice mix needed for northern Thailarb

Other typical ingredients are the several types ofeggplant(makhuea) used in Thai cuisine, such as the pea-sizedmakhuea phuangand the egg-sizedmakhuea suai,often also eaten raw. Althoughbroccoliis often used in Asian restaurants in the west inphat phak ruam(stir fried mixed vegetables) andrat na(rice noodles served in gravy), it was never used in any traditional Thai food in Thailand and was rarely seen in Thailand. Usually in Thailand,khanais used, for which broccoli is a substitute. Other vegetables which are often eaten in Thailand arethua fak yao(yardlong beans),thua ngok(bean sprouts),no mai(bamboo shoots), tomatoes,cucumbers,phak tam lueng(Coccinia grandis),phak kha na(Chinese kale),phak kwangtung(choy sum),sweet potatoes(both the tuber and leaves), a few types ofsquash,phak krathin(Leucaena leucocephala),sato(Parkia speciosa),tua phū(winged beans) andkhaophot(corn).

Among the green, leafy vegetables and herbs that are usually eaten raw in a meal or as a side dish in Thailand, the most important are:phak bung(morning glory),horapha(Thai basil),bai bua bok(Asian pennywort),phak kachet(water mimosa),phak kat khao(Chinese cabbage),phak phai(praew leaves),phak kayang(rice paddy herb),phak chi farang(culantro),phak tiu(Cratoxylum formosum),phak "phaai"(yellow burr head) andkalamplī(cabbage).Some of these leaves are highly perishable and must be used within a couple of days.

Several types ofmushroom(het) also feature in Thai cuisine such asstraw mushrooms(het fang),shiitake(het hom), andwhite jelly fungus(het hu nu khao).

Flowers are also commonly used ingredients in many Thai dishes, either as a vegetable, such asdok khae(Sesbania grandiflora) andhuapli(the flower bud of thebanana), or as a food coloring, such as with the blue-coloreddok anchan(the flowers of theClitoria ternatea,which can also be eaten raw or fried).

Fruits

Durians at a Thai market

Fresh fruit forms a large part of the Thai diet, and are customarily served after a meal as dessert. The Scottish authorJohn Crawfurd,sent on an embassy to Bangkok in 1822, writes in his account of the journey:

"The fruits of Siam, or at least of the neighbourhood of Bangkok, are excellent and various, surpassing, according to the experience of our party (...) those of all other parts of India."The Siamese themselves consume great quantities of fruit, and the whole neighbourhood of Bangkok is one forest of fruit trees.

Fruit is not only eaten on its own, but often served with spicy dips made from sugar, salt, and chilies.Fruits feature in spicy salads such assom tam(green papaya salad) andyam som-o(pomelo salad), in soups withtamarind juicesuch astom khlongandkaeng som,and in Thai curries such askaeng khanun(jackfruit curry),kaeng phet pet yang(grilled duck curry with pineapple or grapes), andkaeng pla sapparot(fish and pineapple curry). Fruits are also used in certain Thai chili pastes, such as innam phrik long ruemade withmadan(a close relative of themangosteen),andnam phrik luk namliap,salted blackChinese olivechilli paste.

Although many of the exotic fruits of Thailand may have been sometimes unavailable in Western countries, Asian markets now import such fruits asrambutanandlychees.In Thailand one can findpapaya,jackfruit,mango,mangosteen,langsat,longan,pomelo,pineapple,rose apples,durian,Burmese grapesand other native fruits.Chanthaburiin Thailand each year holds theWorld Durian Festivalin early May. This single province is responsible for half of the durian production of Thailand and a quarter of the world production.TheLangsat Festivalis held each year inUttaraditon weekends in September. Thelangsat(Lansium parasiticum), for which Uttaradit is famous, is a fruit that is similar in taste to thelongan.

Kaeng kanun,a northern Thai curry made with jackfruit

From thecoconutcomescoconut milk,used both in curries and desserts, andcoconut oil.Thejuice of a green coconutcan be served as a drink and the young flesh is eaten in either sweet or savory dishes. The grated flesh of a mature coconut is used raw or toasted in sweets, salads and snacks such asmiang kham.Thais not only consume products derived from the nut (actually adrupe), but they also make use of thegrowth bud of the palm treeas a vegetable. From the stalk of the flowers comes a sap that can be used to makecoconut vinegar,alcoholic beverages, and sugar. Coconut milk and other coconut-derived ingredients feature heavily in the cuisines of central and southern Thailand. In contrast to these regions, coconut palms do not grow as well in northern and northeastern Thailand, where in wintertime the temperatures are lower and where there is a dry season that can last five to six months. In northern Thai cuisine, only a few dishes, most notably the noodle soupkhao soi,use coconut milk. In the southern parts of northeastern Thailand, where the region bordersCambodia,one can again find dishes containing coconut. It is also here that the people eat non-glutinous rice, just as in central and southern Thailand, and not glutinous rice as they do in northern Thailand and in the rest of northeastern Thailand.

Apples,pears,peaches,grapes,andstrawberries,which do not traditionally grow in Thailand and in the past had to be imported, have become increasingly popular in the last few decades since they were introduced to Thai farmers by the Thai Royal Projects, starting in 1969, and theDoi TungProject since 1988. These temperate fruit grow especially well in the cooler, northernThai highlands,where they were initially introduced as areplacement for the cultivation of opium,together with other crops such as cabbages,tea,andarabica coffee.

Food controversies

Agricultural chemicals

Kung phao,grilled prawns, made with thegiant river prawnsthat are native to the rivers of central Thailand

According to the Thai government'sThe Eleventh National Economic and Social Development Plan (2012–2016),Thailand is number one in the world in the application of chemicals in agriculture. The report stated that, "The use of chemicals in the agricultural and industrial sectors is growing while control mechanisms are ineffective making Thailand rank first in the world in the use of registered chemicals in agriculture."

The Thai Pesticide Alert Network (ThaiPAN), a food safety advocacy group, annually tests Thai farm produce for contamination. In their June 2019 report, the group found that of 286 samples, 41% of produce was found to contain unsafe levels of chemicals.The group surveyed both wet markets and retail stores across the nation. Contaminants were found in 44% of samples from retail stores, and 39% of samples from wet markets. Vegetables with the highest levels of contamination were Chinese mustard greens, kale, hot basil, parsley, chilis, and cauliflower. Fruits with the highest contamination were tangerines, rose apples, guavas, and grapes. Contamination levels decreased from 2018, when 46% of samples were found to be contaminated, and 2016, when more than 50% of tested produce was found to be unsafe.

In prior years, "Q-Mark" goods showed a higher prevalence of contamination, 61.5%, than they did during ThaiPAN's March 2016 survey, 57%. Q-Mark is Thailand's National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards (ACFS) mark of quality.

In a survey of hydroponically-grown vegetables, ThaiPAN, in late-2017, tested 30hydroponicvegetables purchased at Thai fresh markets and supermarkets. Of 30 vegetables tested, 19 contained noxious chemical levels above maximum limits. Three samples were contaminated, but at levels below the legal maximum. Eight samples were free of harmful chemicals.

On 22 October 2019, the 26-member National Hazardous Substances Committee (NHSC) changedparaquat,glyphosate,andchlorpyrifosfrom Type 3 toxic substances to Type 4, effectively prohibiting their production, import, export, or possession. Their use will be prohibited as of 1 December 2019.On 27 November 2019, the NHSC amended that timetable, moving the date for the ban of paraquat and chlorpyrifos to 1 June 2020. They lifted the ban on glyphosate with restrictions on usage: glyphosate will be used only on six major crops: corn, cassava, sugarcane, rubber, oil palms, and fruit. It is not permitted in watershed areas and other sensitive environment zones, and farmers must submit proof of use including the type of crops and the size of their farms when purchasing glyphosate. Industry MinisterSuriya Jungrungreangkit,who chairs the NHSC, said the committee reached its decision after reviewing information provided by the Department of Agriculture and the Ministry of Public Health.NCHS member Jirapon Limpananon, chair of the Pharmacy Council of Thailand, announced her resignation from the NCHS Wednesday night following the meeting.

Misrepresentation

• In September 2016, a shipment of pork labelled "halal"—a permissible food for Muslims—was delivered to a hotel inKrabi Province.The Central Islamic Committee of Thailand (CICOT) denounced the use of a halal-certified logo on pork, saying it will take legal action against people responsible. The committee found the halal label to be fake. Under Thai laws, CICOT is responsible for certifying halal products.
• A survey of the quality offish saucesold across Thailand reported that just over one-third of the samples were not up to standards set by thePublic Health Ministry.The three-year survey, from 2012 to 2015, involved 1,121 samples of fish sauce sold under 422 brands from 245 manufacturers. Of the total analysed, 410 samples, or 36.5 percent, did not meet the standard. The major reasons for the substandard fish sauce were lownitrogenreadings and the ratio ofglutamic acidto nitrogen either higher or lower than the required standards.

Representative dishes

Main article:List of Thai dishes

See also:Thai curryandThai salads

Whereas many Thai dishes are now familiar in the West, the vast majority are not. In many of the dishes below, different kinds of protein, or combinations of protein, are interchangeable as the main ingredient. Beef (nuea), chicken (kai), pork (mu), duck (pet),tofu(taohu), fish (pla), prawns or shrimp (kung), crab (pu),shellfish(hoi), oregg(khai) can, for example, all be used as main ingredients forkaeng phet(red curry). Thuskaeng phet kaiis red curry with chicken andkaeng phet muis red curry made with pork.

Breakfast dishes

Khao chao(Thai:ข้าวเช้า;lit. 'morning rice/food'), breakfast dishes, for Thais are limited. Very often, a Thai breakfast can consist of the same dishes with rice which are also eaten for lunch or dinner. Single dishes such as fried rice, noodle soups, and steamed rice with something simple such as an omelette, fried/grilled pork or chicken, or a stir fry with vegetables, are commonly sold for breakfast fromstreet stallsas a quicktake-out.

The following dishes are viewed as being specific breakfast dishes but they can also be found at any other moment of the day:

• Chok– a rice porridge commonly eaten in Thailand for breakfast. Similar to therice congeeeaten in other parts of Asia.
• Khao khai chiao– an omelet (khai chiao) with white rice, often eaten with a chili sauce and slices of cucumber.
• Khao tom– a Thai style rice soup, usually with pork, chicken, fish, or shrimp.
• Pathongko– The Thai version of the Chinese deep-fried bread calledyoutiao.It can be topped up with spreads such assangkhayaor with chocolate and sweetenedcondensed milk.
• Nam taohu–Soy milkwhich is often served with sweet jellies.

Individual dishes

Khao phat

Khao soi nam na

The termahan chan diao(Thai:อาหารจานเดียว;lit. 'single dish food') represents truly single-plate dishes as well as dishes that are served"rat khao"(lit. 'poured on rice'): one or more dishes served together with rice on one plate. Some eateries offer a large selection of (pre-cooked) dishes; others specialize in only a one dish, or a few dishes, with rice.

• Phat kaphraomu rat khao– minced pork fried with chilies, garlic, soy sauce and holy basil, served together with rice, and withnam pla phrikas a condiment.
• Khanom chin kaeng kiao wan kai– fresh Thai rice noodles (khanom chin) served in a bowl with green chicken curry as a sauce. Raw vegetables, herbs, and fish sauce are served on the side and can be added to taste.
• Khanom chinnam ngiao– A specialty of northern Thailand, it is Thai fermented rice noodles served with porkblood tofuand raw vegetables, in a sauce made with pork broth and tomato, crushed fried dry chilies, chicken blood, dry fermented soy bean, and dried redkapokflowers.
• Khanom chin namya– round boiled rice noodles topped with a fish-based sauce and eaten with fresh leaves and vegetables.
• Khao kha mu– steamed rice served withred cookedpork leg, steamed mustard greens, pickled cabbage, sweet-sour chili sauce, raw garlic, fresh bird's eye chilies, and boiled egg.
• Khao khluk kapi– rice stir fried with shrimp paste, served with sweetened pork and vegetables.
• Khao man kai– rice steamed in chicken stock with garlic, with boiled chicken, chicken stock, and a spicy dipping sauce. It is usually served with a bowl of radish soup, ornam kaeng hua chai thao.
• Khao mu daeng– slices of Thai-style Chinesechar siuis served with rice, sliced cucumber, and a thickened gravy. This often comes with a bowl of broth and a few stalks of raw scallions. Thick, black soy sauce with sliced chilies is used as condiment.
• Khao na pet– rice served with slices of red-roast duck, sliced cucumber, and a thickened gravy. It is served with the same spicy soy sauce condiment as aforementionedkhao mu daengand also often comes with a bowl of soup, and additional stalks of raw scallions.
• Khao phat– One of the most common rice dishes in Thailand. Usually with chicken, beef, shrimp, pork, crab, coconut or pineapple, or vegetarian (che;Thai:เจ).
  • Khao phat American– although devised in Thailand, it is called "American-style" fried rice because the rice is fried with tomatoketchup,may contain raisins, and is served with afried egg,hot dogs, and bacon, which were all viewed as being typically American ingredients.
  • Khao phat kai– fried rice with chicken.
  • Khao phat mu– fried rice with pork.
  • Khao phat pu– fried rice with crab meat.
  • Khao phat kung– fried rice with shrimp.
  • Khao phat naem– fried rice with fermented sausage (naem,a typically sausage from the northeast, it is similar to theVietnamesenemchua).
• Khao soi– curried noodle soup enriched with coconut milk (traditionally a novel ingredient in the cooking traditions of northern Thailand), garnished with crispy fried wheat noodles, and served with pickled cabbage, lime, a chili paste, and raw shallots on the side. Arguably Chiang Mai's most iconic dish, it was originally a dish of theChin Haw,Chinese-Muslim traders fromYunnanProvince in China.

Kuaitiaorat na

• Kuaitiao namandbami nam– noodle soup can be eaten at any time of day; served with many combinations of proteins, vegetables, and spicy condiments. The wordkuaitiao,although originally designating onlysen yai(wide rice noodles), is now used colloquially for rice noodles in general:sen mi(rice vermicelli),sen lek(narrow rice noodles) and the aforementionedsen yai.The yellow egg noodles are calledbami.Four condiments are usually provided on the table: sugar, fish sauce, chili flakes, and sliced chilies in vinegar.
  • Kuaitiao lukchin pla– noodle soup withfish balls.
  • Bami mu daeng– egg noodles with Thai-stylechar siu.
• Kuaitiao rat na– wide rice noodles covered in a gravy, with beef, pork, chicken, shrimp, or seafood.
• Kuaitiao ruea– also known asboat noodlesin English, it is a rice noodle dish, which has a strong flavor. It contains both pork and beef, as well as dark soy sauce, pickled bean curd, and some other spices, and is normally served with meatballs and pig's liver.
• Mi Krop– deep fried rice vermicelli with a sweet and sour sauce.
• Phat khi mao– noodles stir fried with chilies and holy basil.
• Phat si-io– rice noodles (oftenkuai tiao) stir fried withsi-io dam(thick sweet soy sauce) andnam pla(fish sauce) and pork or chicken.
• Pad thai– rice noodles pan fried with fish sauce, sugar, lime juice or tamarind pulp, chopped peanuts, and egg combined with chicken, seafood, or tofu. It is listed at number five on the World's 50 most delicious foods readers' poll compiled byCNNGoin 2011.

Bangkok shared dishes

Kaeng khiao wanorGreen currywith chicken, served withroti.

Ho mok placan be likened to a fish curry pâté.

Kaeng phanaengorPhanaeng curry.

Ahan Krung Thep(Thai:อาหารกรุงเทพ;lit. 'Bangkok food'), the cuisine has also incorporated manyThai Chinesedishes.

• Kai phat khing– chicken stir fried with sliced ginger.
• Kaeng khiao wan– called "green curry" in English, it is a coconut curry made with fresh green chillies and flavoured with Thai basil, and chicken or fish meatballs. This dish can be one of the spiciest of Thai curries.
• Kaeng phanaeng– a mild creamy coconut curry with beef (phanaeng nuea), chicken, or pork. It includes some roasted dried spices similar tokaeng matsaman.
• Kaeng phet(lit. 'spicy curry') – also known asred curryin English, it is a coconut curry made with copious amounts of dried red chillies in the curry paste.
• Kaeng som– a hot and sour soup/curry usually eaten together with rice
• Kai phat met mamuang himmaphan– TheThai Chineseversion of theSichuanstyle chicken withcashewsknown ascashew chicken,fried with whole dried chilies.
• Phak bung fai daeng– stir friedmorning glorywithyellow bean paste.
• Phat phak ruam– stir fried combination of vegetables depending on availability and preference.
• Phat phrik– often eaten asnuea phat phrik:beef stir fried with chilli.
• Phat khana mu krop– khana (gailan) stir fried with crispy pork.
• Phat kaphrao– beef, pork, prawns, or chicken stir fried withThai holy basil,chillies, garlic, and soy sauce; for instancemu phat kaphrao/kaphrao muwith minced pork.
• Suki– a Thai variant of the Chinesehot pot.
• Thot man– deep fried fishcake made fromknifefish(thot man pla krai) or shrimp (thot man kung).
• Tom chuetorkaeng chuet– a clear soup with vegetables and, for instance,wunsen(cellophane noodles),taohu(silken tofu),mu sap(minced pork), orhet(mushrooms). It is of Thai Chinese origin.
• Tom kha kai– hot spicy soup with coconut milk, galangal, and chicken.
• Tom yam– hot & sour soup with meat. With shrimp it is calledtom yam goongortom yam kung,with seafood (typically shrimp, squid, fish)tom yam thale,with chickentom yam kai.

Central Thai shared dishes

Som tam, which contains peanuts, is the Central Thai dish that became famous internationally

Ahan Phak Klang(Thai:อาหารภาคกลาง;lit. 'central region food') is most often eaten with the non-glutinousjasmine rice.Due to the extensive, centuries-long contact betweenAyutthaya KingdomandKhmer Empire,the flavour principles of many Central Thai dishes, such as sour fish soups, stews and coconut-based curries, includingsteamed curries,are almost identical to that ofCambodian cuisine,with the notable exception of Central Thai dishes containing much more chilli and sugar.

• Chuchi pla kaphong– snapper inchuchicurry sauce (thick red curry sauce)
• Ho mokpla– apâtéorsouffléof fish, spices, coconut milk and egg, steamed in a banana leaf cup and topped with thick coconut cream before serving.
• Pla nueng manao– steamed fish with a spicy lime juice dressing.
• Pla sam rot– literally, 'three flavours fish': deep fried fish with a sweet, tangy and spicy tamarind sauce.
• Pu cha– a mixture of cooked crab meat, pork, garlic and pepper, deep fried inside the crab shells and served with a simple spicy sauce, such as Sriracha sauce, sweet-hot garlic sauce,nam phrik phao(roasted chilli paste),nam chim buai(plum sauce), or in a red curry paste, with chopped green onions. It is sometimes also served as deep fried patties instead of being fried in the crab shell.
• Som tam– gratedgreen papaya salad,pounded with amortar and pestle,similar to the Laotian and IsanTam mak hoong.There are three main variations There are three main variations:Som tamwith peanuts, dried shrimp and palm sugar,Som tam puwith pickledrice-paddy crab,andSom tampla rawith saltedgouramifish, white eggplants, fish sauce andlong beans.Som tam is usually eaten with sticky rice but a popular variation is to serve it withKhanom chin(rice noodles) instead.

Thot man khaophotdeep-fried fritters made with corn and herbs, served with a sweet chilli sauce.

• Yam– general name for many different kinds of sourThai salads,such as those made withglass noodles(yam wunsen), with seafood (yam thale), or grilled beef (yam nuea). The dressing of a"yam"will normally consist of shallots, fish sauce, tomato, lime juice, sugar, chilies and Thai celery (khuenchai), or coriander.
• Yam pla duk fu– crispy fried catfish with a spicy, sweet-and-sour, green mango salad.

Northeastern shared dishes

Larbandsticky riceis typical isan dish

Tam maak hoong,more spicy and salty version ofsom tam,usually containspla ra(a sauce of fermented fish).

Yam naem khao thot;the crisp rice balls are on the right

Ahan Isan(Thai:อาหารอีสาน;lit. 'Isanfood') generally features dishes similar to those found inLaos,asIsan peoplehistorically have close ties withLaoculture and speak a language that is generally mutually intelligible with theLao language.Thestaple foodof Isan isglutinous riceand most of the Isan food is spicy and cooked with local ingredients found on the farms all through northeastern Thailand. Isan people primarily get their income from farming. Rice, sugar cane, pineapple, potato, and rubber are all farmed in this region.

• Kaeng khae hoi(snail curry) –Kaeng khae hoiorkaeng khao khua hoirequires the same ingredients as kaeng khae except for using snails instead of chicken. Roasted ground rice thickens the liquid.
• Lap kai–Lap kairequires minced chicken meat and fresh chicken blood mixed with chili paste for lap made from roasted dried chilies and spices. It is usually eaten with a variety of vegetables and herbs that are pungent known as "phak kap lap". Lap dip refers to the uncooked kind. "Lap suk" is the cooked version which is stir fried with a little oil and water.
• Yam tao(paddy crabs in algae with eggplant) –Yam taoortam taois made from fresh water algae grown in paddy fields in Isan and 2–3 kinds of sliced eggplant with boiled crabs and ginger leaves as well as fresh bird chilies.
• Tam khai mot daeng(ant eggs and roasted vegetables) –Tam khai mot daengis made the same as other kinds of "tam" dishes with roasted long peppers and two kinds of chopped mint to enhance the flavor. Shrimp paste is not used in this recipe.
• Namphrik maeng da(water beetle and chili dip) – This is a rather dry or very thick kind of chili dish. Any kind of chilies (preferably fresh) can be used. Other kinds of edible beetles or wasps or bees can be used instead of the maeng da. Because of the pungent odor of the maeng da, garlic should be left out.
• Yam phak kum dong(pickled phak kum leaf) – The greens of phak kum have to be pickled for at least three days the same way as pickling mustard greens (phak kat). This recipe calls for roasted dried chilies.
• Nam tok mu– made with pork (mu) or beef (nuea) and somewhat identical toLap,except that the pork or beef is cut into thin strips rather than minced.
• No o(pickled bamboo shoots) – No o refers to bamboo shoots that have a strong smell by the process of quick pickling (2–3 days). Some recipes pickle the shoots with the peels and take off the peel just before boiling. Boiling should be rather long for a good result.
• Namphrik maeng chon(mola crickets and chili dip) – This kind of chili dish is rather dry and very thick. Use fresh chilies of any kind. Other kinds of edible insects or larvae can be used instead of mola crickets which will be called by the name of the insects used as the main ingredients such as wasp, grasshopper, or bee larvae (namphrik to, namphrik taen and namphrik phueng).
• Khai mot daeng–ant eggs– clean and high in protein nutrients. Red ants eat mango leaves so their bodies taste like a squirt of lime, but their fresh eggs are fatty and sweet.
• Kai yang– marinated, grilled chicken.

Lap mu krop,is a variation on the standard lap

• Lap– a traditional Laosaladcontaining meat, onions, chillies, roasted rice powder, and garnished with mint.
• Nam chim chaeo– is a sticky, sweet and spicy dipping sauce made with dried chilies, fish sauce, palm sugar, and black roasted rice flour. It is often served as a dip withmu yang(grilled pork).
• Phat mi Khorat– a stir fried rice noodle dish commonly served with papaya salad in Thailand. Dried rice noodles of many colors are a specific ingredient for this dish.
• Tam maak hoongorSom tam pla ra– spicy papaya salad, similar to central thaisom tam,but more spicy and less sweet, and containtspla ra(a sauce of fermented fish).
• Suea rong hai- Grilled beefbrisket.
• Tom saep– Northeastern-style hot and sour soup.
• Yam naem khao thotornaem khluk– a salad made of crumbled rice-and-currycroquettesand sour pork sausage.

Northern shared dishes

A selection of northern Thai dishes, served as starters

Miangpla,literally means "wrapped fish"

Ahan Phak Nuea(Thai:อาหารภาคเหนือ;lit. 'northern region food') shares certain dishes with neighboringShan State,in Burma, and withLaos.As in northeastern Thailand, glutinous rice, not jasmine rice, is eaten as the staple food.

• Aep– Slow-grilled wrapped in banana leaves, this dish is most often made with chopped meat, small fish oredible insects,mixed with beaten eggs and spices.
• Kaeng hang le– a Burmese-influenced stewed pork curry which uses peanuts, dried chilies, tamarind juice and curry paste in the recipe, but no coconut milk.
• Kaeng khae– is a spicy curry of herbs, vegetables, the leaves of an acacia tree (cha-om) and meat (chicken,water buffalo,pork orfrog). It does not contain coconut milk.
• Kaeng khanun– a curry of pork stewed with green jackfruit. Like all northern Thai curries, it does not contain coconut milk.
• Kaeng pa–Pain this context has nothing to do withahan pa('jungle food'). It does not consist of ingredients found in the forest. It refers to a simple dish with spicy and salty flavours.
• Kaep mu– deep fried crispy pork rinds, often eaten with chili pastes such asnam phrik num.
• Lab nuea– drier and smokier in taste, northern Thai larb does not contain lime or fish sauce. Instead it's flavoured and seasoned with a mix of ground dried chillies, dried spices likecumin,cloves,long pepper,star anise,Sichuan pepper,cinnamon,and occasionally blood of the animal used.
• Nam phrik kha– thick relish made with roasted chilies, garlic, galangal, and salt. This specialty is often served as a dip for steamed mushrooms or steamed sliced beef shank.
• Nam phrik nam oi – brown sugar chili sauce– brown cane sugar sauce is good as a dip for such sour tasting fruit as green mangoes, mango plums, or tamarinds.
• Nam phrik nam pu – crab and chili Sauce– Namphrik nam pu is rather thick to almost dry. Many kinds of fresh chilies can be used also. Including smoked chilies.
• Nam phrik num– a chili paste of pounded large green chilies, shallots, garlic, coriander leaves, lime juice and fish sauce; eaten with steamed and raw vegetables, and sticky rice.
• Nam phrik pla – fish chili sauce– Namphrik pla or fish chili sauce can be a little thick or thin depending on the amount of liquid from the boiling fish one puts in it. Grilled fish can be used instead of boiled fish. Any kinds of fresh chilies can be used from mild to the hottest kinds to suit one's taste. It goes well with water clover, tips of lead tree greens, or crispy eggplant.
• Nam phrik ong– resembling a thickBolognese sauce,it is made with dried chilies, minced pork, fermented soy beans, and tomato; eaten with steamed and raw vegetables, and sticky rice.
• Sai ua– a grilled sausage of ground pork mixed with spices and herbs; it is often served with chopped fresh ginger and chilies at a meal. It is sold at markets in Chiang Mai as a snack.
• Tam som-o– a salad made from the slightly pounded flesh of a pomelo fruit, which is mixed with garlic, sliced lemongrass, and a thick pungent black paste (nam pu) made from boiling down the juices and meat of rice-paddy crab.

Southern shared dishes

A southern Thaikaeng som,a spicy and sour prawn and vegetable soup/curry.

Ahan Phak Tai(Thai:อาหารภาคใต้;lit. 'southern region food') shares certain dishes with thecuisine of northern Malaysia.Southern Thais, just like the people of central Thailand to the north, and the people of Malaysia to the south, eat non-glutinous rice as their staple food.

• Kaeng matsaman– known in English asMassaman curry,is an Indian-Malay style curry of stewed beef containing roasted dried spices, such as coriander seeds, that are rarely found in other Thai curries. In 2011CNNGoranked massaman as number one in an article titled World's 50 most delicious foods.
• Kaeng som(southern Thai name) orkaeng lueang(central Thai name) – a sour curry with fish, vegetables or fruit, deriving its acidity from the use of tamarind juice.
• Kaeng tai pla– a thick sour vegetable curry made withturmericand shrimp paste, often containing roasted fish or fish innards, bamboo shoots, and eggplant.
• Khao mok– Thai-Malay style biryani, a specialty of southern Thailand's Malay community.
• Khao yam– a rice salad from southern Thailand.
• Khua kling– a dry spicy curry made with minced or diced meat with sometimes yard long beans added to it; often served with fresh greenphrik khi nu(Thai chilies) and finely shreddedbai makrut(kaffir lime leaves).
• Sate– grilled meat, usually pork or chicken, served with cucumber salad and peanut sauce (of Malaysian-Indonesian origin, but now a popular street food in Thailand).
• Bai liang phat khai– orGnetum gnemonis native to Southeast Asia. It is widely used in Thai.Bai liangtastes sweet and a bit greasy, not rank and bitter like other species. It is commonly eaten as a vegetable with chili sauce and used to make a variety of dishes such as stir-fry with red curry. A popular dish is stir-fried with eggs calledBai liang phat khai.

Desserts and sweets

Main article:List of Thai khanom

See also:Maria Guyomar de Pinha

A selection of sweet snacks at a market in Thailand

Khong wan

(Thai:ของหวาน;RTGS:khong wan) lit. 'sweet things'). Although most Thai meals finish with fresh fruit, sometimes sweet snacks, often eaten between meals, will also be served as a dessert.

• Bua loi– mashedtaro rootandpumpkinmixed with rice flour into small balls, boiled, then served in coconut milk.
• Chaokuai–grass jellyis often served with only shaved ice andbrown sugar.
• Chor muang
• Khanom krok– coconut-rice pancakes, one of the ancient Thai desserts.
• Khanom krok bai toei– ancient Thai dessert, shaped to look like flowers.
• Khao tom mat– a traditional Thai dessert prepared from sticky rice, coconut milk, and banana.
• Khanom chan– multi-layers ofpandanus-flavouredsticky riceflour mixed with coconut milk. It is one of thenine auspicious Thai desserts.
• Khanom dok chok– crispy lotus blossom cookie made from starch, eggs, and coconut milk.
• Khanom farang kudi chin– a sponge cake of Portuguese origin made in the Kudi Chin community in Bangkok'sThon Buri District.The cake was baked Portuguese-style in a wood-fired oven, but the pumpkin topping came from local Chinese who considered the fruit auspicious. It uses only three ingredients: flour, duck eggs, and sugar. The cake has been named by Bangkok City Hall as one of the six "local wisdoms" of Bangkok considered worthy of preservation.
• Khanom chak– sticky rice flour mixed with shredded coconut, covered with nipa palm leaves.
• Khanom ja mongkut– One of nine auspicious Thai sweets made of egg yolks, coconut milk, sugar, and flour which is slow cooked until it becomes a paste, which is then carved into crown shapes.
• Khanom kai hong– Sphere candy has mincemeat eaten only palace people in reign of King Rama I.
• Khanom kho
• Khanom la
• Khanom mo kaeng– a sweet bakedpuddingcontaining coconut milk, eggs, palm sugar, and flour, sprinkled with sweet fried onions.
• Khanom piakpun– square shaped, made from coconut milk and pandan juice, cut into pieces and served.
• Khanom tan– palm–flavoured mini cake topped with shredded coconut.
• Khanom tom– a rice flour dumpling filled with palm sugar and shredded coconut and topped with shredded coconut.
• Khanom thuaitalai– steamed sweet coconut jelly and cream.
• Khanom wong
• Khao lam– cake made from steamed rice mixed with beans or peas, grated coconut, and coconut milk.
• Khao niao mamuang– sticky rice cooked in sweetened thick coconut milk, served with slices of ripe mango.
• Khao niew tua dum–sticky rice cooked in sweetened thick coconut milk with black turtle beans.
• Kluai buat chi– bananas in coconut milk.
• Lot chong nam kathi–pandanflavouredrice flournoodles in coconut milk, similar to the Indonesiancendol.
• Mamuang kuan– sweets made from preserved mango, often sold as flat wafers, or as a roll.
• Roti saimai– Thai-style cotton candy wrapped in roti.
• Ruam mit– mixed ingredients, such as chestnuts covered in flour,jackfruit,lotus root,tapioca, andlot chong,in coconut milk.
• Sangkhaya– coconut custard variant.
• Sangkhaya fak thong– egg and coconutcustardserved with pumpkin, similar to thecoconut jamof Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
• Sarim– multi-colored mung bean flour noodles in sweetened coconut milk served with crushed ice.
• Tako–jasminescented coconut pudding set in cups ofpandanusleaf.
• Thong yip- "pinched gold egg yolks". One of the nine auspicious Thai desserts.
• Thong yot– sweet round egg ball. One of the nine auspicious Thai desserts.

• 
  Khao tom mat,sticky rice and banana
• 
  Khanom krok,coconut milk
• 
  Khao niao mamuang,glutinous rice, fresh mango and coconut milk
• 
  Thong yip
• 
  Kluai buat chibanana, coconut milk and coconut cream
• 
  Khanom tom,glutinous rice powder, coconut cream, grated coconut, sugar and flavourings
• 
  Khanom tako
• 
  Khanom mo kaeng

Ice cream

Ice cream withthapthim krop,Bangkok

Ice cream was introduced to Thailand during the reign ofKing Rama Vwhen the first ice cream machine was imported to Thailand.Ice cream in the second half of the 19th century was made of coconut water blended with ice. At first, ice could not be produced in Thailand. That led to importing ice from Singapore. Ice cream was then an upper-class treat, but over time ice cream became more widely available and the product was improved by replacing coconut water with coconut milk.

There were two types of ice cream in Thailand. First, ice cream in the palace was made of coconut juice with roasted tamarind on top. Second, ice cream for the public was coconut ice cream with the scent of the Nommaeo flower with a slight sweet taste. The ice cream "tube" was born during the reign ofRama VII.Its ingredients were contained inside a zinc tube which was shaken until it solidified, then skewered stick to serve as a handle. It was sold by mobile vendors using dry ice and salt to keep the ice cream cold. Eventually, ice cream was manufactured and sold in small cups.

According to theBangkok Post,aitim tat(Thai:ไอติมตัด;"cut ice cream" ), was very popular 30 years ago (1986). It came in rectangular bars of various flavors, sliced into pieces by the vendor, who then inserted two wooden sticks into the pieces to use as holders.Aitim tatwas made from milk, coconut milk, flour, sugar, and artificial flavour. The price was one or twobaht,depending on the size.

The Pop Company in the 1970s set up the first ice-cream manufacturing plant in Thailand. The company used a duck logo, resulting it the nicknameaitim tra pet(Thai:ไอติมตราเป็ด;"duck brand ice cream" ).It was sold in front of Chaloemchai Theater. Its most popular offering was called "banana split", with three flavors of ice cream, chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry.

Beverages

"Thai beverages" redirects here. For for company Thai Beverage, seeThaiBev.

Khrueang duem(Thai:เครื่องดื่ม;lit. 'beverages')

• Cha yen– Thai iced tea.
• Krating Daeng– anenergy drinkand the origin ofRed Bull.
• Nam maphrao– the juice of a young coconut, often served inside the coconut.
• Nam matum– a refreshing and healthy drink made from the fruit of theBael tree.
• Nom yen– a drink made from sala syrup and hot milk.
• Oliang– a sweet Thai blackiced coffee.
• Lao Khao– a traditionaldistilled spirits,sinceAyutthayaperiod, which perhaps give origin toOkinawaliquor calledAwamori.
• Satho– a traditionalrice winefrom theIsanregion.
• Nam bai bua bok– A refreshing and healthy drink is made from the green leaf of theCentella asiatica.

Other alcoholic beverages from Thailand include Hong Thong, Phraya, Regency,MekhongandSang Som.Several brands of beer arebrewed in Thailand;the two most prominent brands areSinghaandChang.

Insects

See also:List of edible insects by country

A street stall selling fried insects

Edible insects,whole or in chili paste and as ingredients in fortified products, are common in Thailand. Some claim that Thailand is the world leader in edible insects.The UNFood and Agriculture Organization(FAO) estimates that there are about 20,000cricketfarms alone in 53 of Thailand's 76 provinces.

A wide range ofinsects are eatenin Thailand, especially in Isan and in the north. Many markets in Thailand sell deep-friedgrasshoppers,crickets (ching-rit),bee larvae,silkworm(non mai),ant eggs(khai mot) andtermites.The culinary creativity even extends to naming: one tasty larva, which is also known under the name "bamboo worm" (non mai phai,Omphisa fuscidentalis),is colloquially called "express train" (rot duan) due to its appearance.

Most insects reportedly taste fairly bland when deep-fried. In contrast to the bland taste of most of these insects, themaeng daormaelong da na(Lethocerus indicus) has been described as having a very penetrating taste, similar to that of a very ripegorgonzola cheese.Thisgiant water bugis famously used in a chili dip callednam phrik maeng da.Ant eggs and silkworms are eaten boiled in a soup inIsan,or used in egg dishes in northern Thailand.

Street food, food courts, and market food

A stall at a wet market inChiang Maiselling a wide selection of dishes

Main article:Street food of Thailand

The street food culture of much of Southeast Asia was introduced byChinese immigrantsduring the late 19th century. As a result, many Thai street foods are derived from or heavily influenced byChinese cuisine.Street food was commonly sold by theethnic Chinese population of Thailandand did not become popular among native Thai people until the early 1960s, when the rapid urban population growth stimulated the street food culture,and by the 1970s, it had "displaced home-cooking."

The quality and choice of street food in Thailand is world-renowned. Bangkok is often mentioned as one of the best street food cities in the world, and even called the street food capital of the world.The websiteVirtualTouristsays: "Few places in the world, if any, are as synonymous with street food as Thailand. For the variety of locations and abundance of options, we selected Bangkok, Thailand, as our number one spot for street food. Bangkok is notable for both its variety of offerings and the city's abundance of street hawkers."

There is scarcely a Thai dish that is not sold by a street vendor or at a market somewhere in Thailand. Some specialize in only one or two dishes; others offer a complete menu that rival that of restaurants. Some sell only pre-cooked foods, while others make food to order. Foods that are made to order tend to be dishes that can be quickly prepared: quick stir fries with rice, such asphat kaphrao(spicy basil-fried minced pork, chicken, or seafood)orphat khana(stir friedgailan) and quick curries such aspladuk phat phet(catfish fried with red curry paste).

Street food during theYasothonRocket Festival

Noodles are a popular street food item as they are mainly eaten as a single dish. Chinese-style noodle soups, fried noodles, and fermented Thai rice noodles (khanom chin), served with a choice of different Thai curries, are popular. Nearly everywhere in Thailand, you will seesom tam(green papaya salad) and sticky rice sold at stalls and roadside shops. This is popularly eaten together with grilled chicken, but if the shop does not sell any themselves, someone else nearby will. In most cities and towns there will be stalls selling sweetroti,a thin, flat fried dough envelope, with fillings such as banana, egg, and chocolate. Therotiis similar to the Malayroti canaiand Singaporeanroti prata,and the stalls are often operated byThai Muslims.Sweets snacks, collectively calledkhanom,such astako(coconut cream jelly),khanom man(coconutcassavacake), andkhanom wun(flavored jellies), can be seen displayed on large trays in glass covered push-carts. Other sweets, such askhanom bueangandkhanom krok(somewhat similar to Dutchpoffertjes), are made to order.

In the evenings, mobile street stalls, often only a scooter with a side car, drive by and temporarily set up shop outside bars in Thailand, sellingkap klaem( "drinking food" ). Popularkap klaemdishes sold by mobile vendors are grilled items such as sun-dried squid, meats on skewers, or grilled sour sausages, and deep-fried snacks such as fried insects or fried sausages. Peeled and sliced fruits are also sold from street carts, laid out on a bed of crushed ice to preserve their freshness.Salapao,steamed buns filled with meat or sweet beans and the Thai version of the Chinese steamedbaozi,are also commonly sold by mobile vendors.

A motorcycle with a side car selling grilled fast food snacks

Food markets in Thailand, large open air halls with permanent stalls, tend to operate as a collection of street stalls, each vendor with their own set of tables and providing (limited) service, although some resemble the regular food courts at shopping malls and large supermarkets, with service counters and the communal use of tables. Food courts and food markets offer many of the same foods as street stalls, both pre-cooked as well as made to order. Night food markets, in the form of a collection of street stalls and mobile vendors, spring up in parking lots, along busy streets, and at temple fairs and local festivals in the evenings, when the temperatures are more agreeable and people have finished work.

The dishes sold atwet marketsin Thailand tend to be offered pre-cooked. Many people go there, and also to street vendors, to buy food for at work, or to take back home. It is a common sight to see Thais carrying whole communal meals consisting of several dishes, cooked rice, sweets, and fruit, all neatly packaged in plastic bags andfoam food containers,to be shared with colleagues at work or at home with friends and family. Due to the fact that many dishes are similar to those that people would cook at home, it is a good place to find regional, and seasonal, foods.

Vegetarianism in Thailand

Traditional Thai vegetarian restaurants will carry yellow signs withche(Thai:เจ) (left) orahan che(Thai:อาหารเจ) (right) written in red inThai script.

Although theVegetarian Festivalis celebrated each year by a portion of Thailand's population, and many restaurants in Thailand will offer vegetarian food during this festival period, pure vegetarian food is usually difficult to find in normal restaurants and eateries in Thailand. All traditionally madeThai curries,for instance, containshrimp paste,andfish sauceis used as salt in many Thai dishes. At shops and restaurants that specifically cater to vegetarians, substitutes for these ingredients are used. Meat dishes are also commonly part of thealmsoffered toBuddhist monks in Thailand,asvegetarianismis not considered obligatory inTheravadaBuddhism, but having an animal killed specifically to feed Buddhist monks is prohibited.

A salad made with deep-fried banana blossom at a vegetarian restaurant in Chiang Mai

In most towns and cities, traditionalBuddhist vegetarian fare,without any meat or seafood products of any kind and also excluding certain strong tasting vegetables and spices, is sold at specialized vegetarian restaurants which can be recognized by a yellow sign with in Thai script the wordche(Thai:เจ) orahan che(Thai:อาหารเจ) written on it in red. These restaurants serve what can be regarded asveganfood. Many Indian restaurants of the sizableThai-Indian communitywill also have vegetarian dishes on offer, due to the fact that vegetarianism is held as an ideal by manyfollowers of the Hindu faith.Indian vegetarian cuisine can incorporatedairy productsandhoney.Due to the increased demand for vegetarian food from foreign tourists, many hotels, guesthouses and restaurants that cater to them will now also have vegetarian versions of Thai dishes on their menu.Pescatarianswould have very few problems with Thai cuisine due to the abundance of Thai dishes which only contain fish and seafood as their source of animal protein.

Culinary diplomacy

A dish of peanuts, ginger, and chili,Kiin Kiin(Copenhagen)

Thai cuisine only became well-known worldwide from the 1960s on, whenThailand became a destination for international tourismand US troops arrived in large numbers during theVietnam War.The number of Thai restaurants went up from four in the 1970sLondonto between two and three hundred in less than 25 years.The earliest attested Thai restaurant in the United States, "Chada Thai", opened its doors in 1959 inDenver,Colorado. It was run by the former newspaper publisher Lai-iad (Lily) Chittivej. The oldest Thai restaurant in London, "The Bangkok Restaurant", was opened in 1967 by Mr and MrsBunnag,a former Thai diplomat and his wife, inSouth Kensington.

The global popularity of Thai cuisine is seen as an important factor in promoting tourism, and also increased exports of Thailand'sagricultural sector.From the 2000s, it was developed as a deliberategastrodiplomacy.TheThaksin administration(2001–2006) launched the "Kitchen of the World" campaign early in its tenure to promote Thai cuisine internationally, with a yearly budget of 500 millionbaht.It provided loans and training forrestaurateursseeking to establish Thai restaurants overseas; established the "Thai Select" certification program which encouraged the use of ingredients imported from Thailand; and promoted integration between Thai investors,Thai Airways,and the Tourism Authority of Thailand with Thai restaurants overseas.

The "Global Thai" program, launched in 2002, was a government-led culinary diplomacy initiative. It aimed to boost the number of Thai restaurants worldwide to 8,000 by 2003 from about 5,500 previously.By 2011, that number had swelled to more than 10,000 Thai restaurants worldwide.

The program was explained inThailand: Kitchen of the World,an e-book published to promote the program. The point of the e-book: "In the view of the Export Promotion Department, Thai restaurants have a good business potential that can be developed to maintain a high level of international recognition. To achieve that goal, the department is carrying out a public relations campaign to build up a good image of the country through Thai restaurants worldwide."

The Department of Export Promotion of the ThaiMinistry of Commerceoffers potential restaurateurs plans for three different "master restaurant" types—from fast food to elegant—which investors can choose as a prefabricated restaurant plan.Concomitantly, theExport-Import Bank of Thailandoffered loans to Thai nationals aiming to open restaurants abroad, and the Small and Medium Enterprise Development Bank of Thailand set up an infrastructure for loans of up to US$3 million for overseas food industry initiatives, including Thai restaurants.

One survey conducted in 2003 by theKellogg School of Management and Sasin Instituteshowed that Thai cuisine ranked fourth when people were asked to name anethniccuisine, afterItalian,French,andChinese cuisine.When asked "what is your favourite cuisine?", Thailand's cuisine came in at sixth place, behind the three aforementioned cuisines, andIndianandJapanese cuisine.

In June 2009, theTourism Authority of Thailandorganised a conference to discuss these matters at theQueen Sirikit National Convention Centrein Bangkok. TAT Governor Seree Wangpaichitr said, "This conference was long overdue. The promotion of Thai cuisine is one of our major niche-market targets. Our figures show that visitors spent 38.8 billion baht on eating and drinking last year, up 16% over 1997."

In the list of the "World's 50 most delicious foods", compiled byCNNin 2011,som tamstands at place 46,nam tokmuat 19,tom yamkungat 8, andmassaman currystands on first place as most delicious food in the world.In a reader's poll held a few months later by CNN,Nam tok mucame in at 36, Thai fried rice at 24, green curry at 19,massamancurry at 10, and Thaisom tam,pad thai, andtom yam kungat six, five, and four.

In 2012, the BritishRestaurant MagazineincludedNahm Bangkokof chefDavid Thompsonin its yearly list ofThe World's 50 Best Restaurants.

Awards

Thai chefs of the Thailand Culinary Academy took second place in the Gourmet Team Challenge (Practical) of the FHC China International Culinary Arts Competition 14 in Shanghai, China on 14–16 November 2012. They won the IKA Culinary Olympic 2012 competition held inErfurt,Germany between 5–10 October 2012, where they received four gold and one silver medal.

In 2011, theJames Beard Foundation Awardfor Best Chef in theNorthwestern United States,was presented toAndy Rickerof restaurant "Pok Pok"inPortland, Oregon,and for Best Chef in theSouthwestern United Statesto Saipin Chutima of restaurant "Lotus of Siam" inWinchester, Nevada.

Michelin stars

Three restaurants that specialize in Thai cuisine, but are owned by non-Thai chefs, have receivedMichelin stars:

• 2002 – 2011 "Nahm"inLondon,run by chefDavid Thompson
• 2009 – "Kiin Kiin" inCopenhagen,run by chef Henrik Yde-Andersen andLertchai Treetawatchaiwong
• 2015 – "Pok PokNY "inNew York City,run by chefAndy Ricker

Culinary tours and cooking courses

Food tours and cooking courses in Thailand almost always include a trip to the local market.

Culinary tours of Thailand have gained popularity in recent years. Alongside other forms oftourism in Thailand,food tours have carved a niche for themselves. Many companies offer culinary and cooking tours of Thailand and many tourists visiting Thailand attend cooking courses offered by hotels, guesthouses and cooking schools.

Governmental interventions

The Thai government believes that a substandard Thai restaurant meal served abroad "...sabotages the country's reputation."To ensure the quality of Thai food abroad, the government has over the years initiated a series of programs designed to create universal standards for Thai food.

In 2003 theMinistry of Financesent officials to the US to award certificates to deserving restaurants. On their return the project was abandoned.

Soon thereafter, theMinistry of LaborcreatedKrua Thai Su Krua Lok('Thai kitchen goes global'). Its centerpiece was a 10-day Thai cooking course for those who wanted to prepare Thai food overseas.The effort was short-lived.

After some officials had a bad Thai meal abroad, in 2013 theYingluck administrationhad the idea of standardising Thai food everywhere. TheNational Food Institute (NFI)came up with a program calledRod Thai Tae('authentic Thai taste').A parallel effort was called the "Thai Delicious" project.

Thai Delicious project

Thailand's National Innovation Agency (NIA), a public organization under the ThaiMinistry of Science and Technology,spearheaded a 30 million baht (US$1 million),effort by the government to:

• Develop Thai recipes with "authentic taste" and establish them as standard recipes
• Develop biosensor equipment to analyze and evaluate taste and flavors
• Develop institutional food (ready-to-cook products) based on the standardized recipes to meet the demand for Thai food in foreign countries
• Provide a food certification service as well as training for local and foreign chefs working in Thai restaurants worldwide

The agency has posted 11 "authentic" recipes fortom yamkung(nam sai),tom yam kung(nam khon),pad thai,Massaman curry,kaeng khiao wan(green curry),kaeng lueang(southern Thai sour curry),golekchicken sauce,khao soi,sai ua(northern Thai sausage),nam phrik num(green pepper chili paste), andnam phrik ong(northern Thai chili paste).These recipes were featured at a gala dinner promoting "Authentic Thai Food for the World", held at thePlaza AthénéeHotel Bangkok on 24 August 2016 at which Thailand's Minister of Industry was the honored guest.By 2020, Thai Delicious plans to post over 300 Thai food recipes.

To determine authenticity, Thai researchers developed the "e-delicious machine", described as "...an intelligent robot that measures smell and taste in food ingredients through sensor technology in order to measure taste like a food critic."The machine evaluates food by measuring its conductivity at different voltages. Readings from 10 sensors are combined to produce a chemical signature. Because the machine cannot judge taste, the food is compared with a standard derived from a database of popular preferences for each dish. Fortom yam,the spicy soup flavored withKaffir limeleaves andcoriander,researchers posted notices atChulalongkorn Universityin Bangkok, requesting 120 tasters. The tasters—students, university staff, and area workers—were paid a fewbahtfor their opinions. They were served 10 differently prepared soups and rated each one. The winning soup was declared the standard, and its chemical characteristics were programmed into the machine. When testing food, the machine returns a numerical score from one to 100. A score lower than 80 is deemed "not up to standard". The machine cost about US$100,000 to develop.Restaurants that follow officially sanctioned recipes can affix a "Thai Delicious" logo to their menus.Each machine sold for 200,000baht.This project was shelved.

The Thai Delicious project has been criticized, the main rationale being that "Standardisation is the enemy of Thai food."Some observers think, however, that the quality of Thai food, at least in the US, is declining with its increased popularity,a state of affairs that Thai Delicious aims to fix.

In August 2018, Thailand'sMinistry of Commercekicked off a project called "Thai Select". It issues certificates in three grades to domestic Thai restaurants: gold (five stars); red (four stars); and orange (three stars). The goal is to enable tourists to Thailand to choose a worthy restaurant.

Culture Minister Vira Rojpojchanarat announced in 2018 that between 2020 and 2024, his ministry will investigate ways to preserve authentic Thai cuisine from the increasing influence of foreign dishes. "Unique in its preparation with recipes handed down for generations, Thai culinary art needs better protection against foreign influences which are now changing the look and taste of certain local dishes," he warned. The plan will conform to theConvention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage,initiated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). The 2003 convention intends to protect the "uses, representations, expressions, knowledge and techniques that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals, recognised as an integral part of their cultural heritage".

Salt reduction efforts

On average, Thai people consume 4,300 mg of sodium per day, twice theWHO's recommended maximum.Thai street food is one of the top three contributors to high salt intake. ThePublic Health Ministryhas embarked on a program to reduce the population's salt consumption by 30 percent.

See also

• List of Thai dishes(includes names inThai script)
• List of Thai ingredients(includes names inThai script)
• List of Thai khanom
• List of Thai restaurants
• List of Thai desserts and snacks
• Tourism in Thailand
• Culture of Thailand
• Thai curry
• Thai salads
• Filipino cuisine
• Indonesian cuisine
• Khmer royal cuisine

Further reading

• David Thompson,Classic Thai Cuisine,145 pages, Berkeley:Ten Speed Press,1993,ISBN0-89815-563-0
• Vatcharin Bhumichitr,The Essential Thai Cookbook,192 pages, New York: Clarkson N. Potter Inc., 1994,ISBN978-0517596302
• Padoongpatt, Mark (September 2017).Flavors of Empire: Food and the Making of Thai America.American Crossroads (Book 45) (1st ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN9780520293748.Retrieved17 July2019.
• Joe Cummings,Lonely Planet World Food Thailand,288 pages,Lonely PlanetPublications, 2000,ISBN978-1-86450-026-4
• Andy Ricker,Pok Pok: Food and Stories from the Streets, Homes, and Roadside Restaurants of Thailand,304 pages, Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2013,ISBN978-1607742883
• ML Sirichalerm Svasti (ChefMcDang),The Principles of Thai Cookery,304 pages, McDang dot Com Company, Limited, 2010,ISBN978-6-16906-010-9
• Leela Punyaratabandhu,Simple Thai Food: Classic Recipes from the Thai Home Kitchen,236 pages, Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2014,ISBN978-1607745235

External links

• Thaifoodmaster – Step by Step recipes, Thai cuisine history and Thai culture
• Mae Ban – Traditional Thai Recipes
• Thailand Food Culture: Thai Cuisine’s 9 Best DishesArchived2 March 2021 at theWayback Machine
• Vegetarian Thai Recipes