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Not to be confused withThulium.
Thallium,81Tl
Thallium
Pronunciation/ˈθæliəm/​(THAL-ee-əm)
Appearancesilvery white
Standard atomic weightAr°(Tl)
Thallium in theperiodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
In
↑
Tl
↓
Nh
mercury←thallium→lead
Atomic number(Z)81
Groupgroup 13 (boron group)
Periodperiod 6
Blockp-block
Electron configuration[Xe] 4f145d106s26p1
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3
Physical properties
PhaseatSTPsolid
Melting point577K​(304 °C, ​579 °F)
Boiling point1746 K ​(1473 °C, ​2683 °F)
Density(at 20° C)11.873 g/cm3 [3]
when liquid (atm.p.)11.22 g/cm3
Heat of fusion4.14kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization165 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity26.32 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P(Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
atT(K) 882 977 1097 1252 1461 1758
Atomic properties
Oxidation statescommon:+1, +3
−5,[4]−2,?−1,?+2?
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.62
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 589.4 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1971 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 2878 kJ/mol
Atomic radiusempirical: 170pm
Covalent radius145±7 pm
Van der Waals radius196 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral linesof thallium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure​hexagonal close-packed(hcp) (hP2)
Lattice constants
Hexagonal close packed crystal structure for thallium
a= 345.66 pm
c= 552.52 pm (at 20 °C)[3]
Thermal expansion29.9 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity46.1 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity0.18 µΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic[5]
Molar magnetic susceptibility−50.9×10−6cm3/mol (298 K)[6]
Young's modulus8 GPa
Shear modulus2.8 GPa
Bulk modulus43 GPa
Speed of soundthin rod818 m/s (at 20 °C)
Poisson ratio0.45
Mohs hardness1.2
Brinell hardness26.5–44.7 MPa
CAS Number7440-28-0
History
Namingafter Greekthallos,green shoot or twig
DiscoveryWilliam Crookes(1861)
First isolationClaude-Auguste Lamy(1862)
Isotopes of thallium
Main isotopes[7] Decay
abun­dance half-life(t1/2) mode pro­duct
201Tl synth 3.0421 d ε 201Hg
203Tl 29.5% stable
204Tl synth 3.78 y β− 204Pb
ε + β+ 204Hg
205Tl 70.5% stable
Category: Thallium
|references

Thalliumis achemical element;it hassymbolTlandatomic number81. It is a silvery-whitepost-transition metalthat is not found free in nature. When isolated, thallium resemblestin,but discolors when exposed to air. ChemistsWilliam CrookesandClaude-Auguste Lamydiscovered thallium independently in 1861, in residues ofsulfuric acidproduction. Both used the newly developed method offlame spectroscopy,in which thallium produces a notable green spectral line. Thallium, fromGreekθαλλός,thallós,meaning "green shoot" or "twig", was named by Crookes. It was isolated by both Lamy and Crookes in 1862; Lamy by electrolysis and Crookes by precipitation and melting of the resultant powder. Crookes exhibited it as a powder precipitated by zinc at theinternational exhibition,which opened on 1 May that year.[8]

Thallium tends to form the +3 and +1 oxidation states. The +3 state resembles that of the other elements ingroup 13(boron,aluminium,gallium,indium). However, the +1 state, which is far more prominent in thallium than the elements above it, recalls the chemistry ofalkali metalsand thallium(I) ions are found geologically mostly in potassium-based ores and (when ingested) are handled in many ways like potassium ions (K+) byion pumpsin living cells.

Commercially, thallium is produced not from potassium ores, but as a byproduct from refining of heavy-metal sulfide ores. Approximately 65% of thallium production is used in theelectronics industryand the remainder is used in thepharmaceutical industryand inglass manufacturing.[9]It is also used ininfrared detectors.The radioisotope thallium-201 (as the soluble chloride TlCl) is used in small amounts as an agent in anuclear medicinescan, during one type of nuclearcardiac stress test.

Soluble thallium salts (many of which are nearly tasteless) are highlytoxicand they were historically used inrat poisonsandinsecticides.Because of their nonselective toxicity, use of these compounds has been restricted or banned in many countries. Thallium poisoning usually results in hair loss. Because of its historic popularity as a murder weapon, thallium has gained notoriety as "the poisoner's poison" and "inheritance powder" (alongsidearsenic).[10]

Characteristics

[edit]

A thallium atom has 81 electrons, arranged in the electron configuration [Xe]4f145d106s26p1;of these, the three outermost electrons in the sixth shell are valence electrons. Due to theinert pair effect,the 6s electron pair is relativistically stabilised and it is more difficult to get these involved in chemical bonding than it is for the heavier elements. Thus, very few electrons are available for metallic bonding, similar to the neighboring elementsmercuryandlead.Thallium, then, like its congeners, is a soft, highly electrically conducting metal with a low melting point, of 304 °C.[11]

A number of standard electrode potentials, depending on the reaction under study,[12]are reported for thallium, reflecting the greatly decreased stability of the +3 oxidation state:[11]

+0.73 Tl3++ 3 e− ↔ Tl
−0.336 Tl++ e− ↔ Tl

Thallium is the first element in group 13 where the reduction of the +3 oxidation state to the +1 oxidation state is spontaneous under standard conditions.[11]Since bond energies decrease down the group, with thallium, the energy released in forming two additional bonds and attaining the +3 state is not always enough to outweigh the energy needed to involve the 6s-electrons.[13]Accordingly, thallium(I) oxide and hydroxide are more basic and thallium(III) oxide and hydroxide are more acidic, showing that thallium conforms to the general rule of elements being more electropositive in their lower oxidation states.[13]

Thallium ismalleableandsectileenough to be cut with a knife at room temperature. It has a metallic luster that, when exposed to air, quickly tarnishes to a bluish-gray tinge, resembling lead. It may be preserved by immersion in oil. A heavy layer of oxide builds up on thallium if left in air. In the presence of water, thalliumhydroxideis formed.Sulfuricandnitric acidsdissolve thallium rapidly to make thesulfateandnitratesalts, whilehydrochloric acidforms an insolublethallium(I) chloridelayer.[14]

Isotopes

[edit]
Main article:Isotopes of thallium

Thallium has 41isotopeswhich haveatomic massesthat range from 176 to 216.203Tl and205Tl are the onlystable isotopesand make up nearly all of natural thallium. The five short-lived isotopes206Tl through210Tl inclusive occur in nature, as they are part of the naturaldecay chainsof heavier elements.204Tl is the most stableradioisotope,with ahalf-lifeof 3.78 years.[15]It is made by theneutron activationof stable thallium in anuclear reactor.[15][16]The most useful radioisotope,201Tl (half-life 73 hours), decays by electron capture, emitting X-rays (~70–80 keV), and photons of 135 and 167 keV in 10% total abundance;[15]therefore, it has good imaging characteristics without an excessive patient-radiation dose. It is the most popular isotope used for thallium nuclearcardiac stress tests.[17]

Compounds

[edit]
See also:Category:Thallium compoundsandThallium halides

Thallium(III)

[edit]

Thallium(III) compounds resemble the corresponding aluminium(III) compounds. They are moderately strong oxidizing agents and are usually unstable, as illustrated by the positive reduction potential for the Tl3+/Tl couple. Some mixed-valence compounds are also known, such as Tl4O3and TlCl2,which contain both thallium(I) and thallium(III).Thallium(III) oxide,Tl2O3,is a black solid which decomposes above 800 °C, forming the thallium(I) oxide and oxygen.[14]

The simplest possible thallium compound,thallane(TlH3), is too unstable to exist in bulk, both due to the instability of the +3 oxidation state as well as poor overlap of the valence 6s and 6p orbitals of thallium with the 1s orbital of hydrogen.[18]The trihalides are more stable, although they are chemically distinct from those of the lighter group 13 elements and are still the least stable in the whole group. For instance,thallium(III) fluoride,TlF3,has theβ-BiF3structure rather than that of the lighter group 13 trifluorides, and does not form theTlF−
4complex anion in aqueous solution. The trichloride and tribromidedisproportionatejust above room temperature to give the monohalides, andthallium triiodidecontains the lineartriiodideanion (I−
3) and is actually a thallium(I) compound.[19]Thallium(III) sesquichalcogenides do not exist.[20]

Thallium(I)

[edit]

Thethallium(I) halidesare stable. In keeping with the large size of the Tl+cation, the chloride and bromide have thecaesium chloridestructure, while the fluoride and iodide have distortedsodium chloridestructures. Like the analogous silver compounds, TlCl, TlBr, and TlI arephotosensitiveand display poor solubility in water.[21]The stability of thallium(I) compounds demonstrates its differences from the rest of the group: a stableoxide,hydroxide,andcarbonateare known, as are many chalcogenides.[22]

Thedouble saltTl
4(OH)
2CO
3has been shown to have hydroxyl-centred triangles of thallium,[Tl
3(OH)]2+
,as a recurring motif throughout its solid structure.[23]

The metalorganic compound thallium ethoxide (TlOEt, TlOC2H5) is a heavy liquid (ρ3.49 g·cm−3,m.p. −3 °C),[24]often used as a basic and soluble thallium source in organic and organometallic chemistry.[25]

Organothallium compounds

[edit]
See also:Organothallium chemistry

Organothallium compounds tend to be thermally unstable, in concordance with the trend of decreasing thermal stability down group 13. The chemical reactivity of the Tl–C bond is also the lowest in the group, especially for ionic compounds of the type R2TlX. Thallium forms the stable [Tl(CH3)2]+ion in aqueous solution; like the isoelectronicHg(CH3)2and [Pb(CH3)2]2+,it is linear. Trimethylthallium and triethylthallium are, like the corresponding gallium and indium compounds, flammable liquids with low melting points. Like indium, thalliumcyclopentadienylcompounds contain thallium(I), in contrast to gallium(III).[26]

History

[edit]

Thallium (Greekθαλλός,thallos,meaning "a green shoot or twig" )[27]was discovered byWilliam CrookesandClaude Auguste Lamy,working independently, both using flame spectroscopy (Crookes was first to publish his findings, on March 30, 1861).[28]The name comes from thallium's brightgreenspectralemission lines[29]derived from the Greek 'thallos', meaning a green twig.[30]

After the publication of the improved method of flame spectroscopy byRobert BunsenandGustav Kirchhoff[31]and the discovery ofcaesiumandrubidiumin the years 1859 to 1860, flame spectroscopy became an approved method to determine the composition of minerals and chemical products. Crookes and Lamy both started to use the new method. Crookes used it to make spectroscopic determinations fortelluriumon selenium compounds deposited in thelead chamberof a sulfuric acid production plant nearTilkerodein theHarz mountains.He had obtained the samples for his research on selenium cyanide fromAugust Hofmannyears earlier.[32][33]By 1862, Crookes was able to isolate small quantities of the new element and determine the properties of a few compounds.[34]Claude-Auguste Lamyused a spectrometer that was similar to Crookes' to determine the composition of a selenium-containing substance which was deposited during the production ofsulfuric acidfrompyrite.He also noticed the new green line in the spectra and concluded that a new element was present. Lamy had received this material from the sulfuric acid plant of his friendFrédéric Kuhlmannand this by-product was available in large quantities. Lamy started to isolate the new element from that source.[35]The fact that Lamy was able to work ample quantities of thallium enabled him to determine the properties of several compounds and in addition he prepared a small ingot of metallic thallium which he prepared by remelting thallium he had obtained by electrolysis of thallium salts.[citation needed]

As both scientists discovered thallium independently and a large part of the work, especially the isolation of the metallic thallium was done by Lamy, Crookes tried to secure his own priority on the work. Lamy was awarded a medal at the International Exhibition in London 1862:For the discovery of a new and abundant source of thalliumand after heavy protest Crookes also received a medal:thallium, for the discovery of the new element.The controversy between both scientists continued through 1862 and 1863. Most of the discussion ended after Crookes was electedFellow of the Royal Societyin June 1863.[36][37]

The dominant use of thallium was the use as poison for rodents. After several accidents the use as poison was banned in the United States byPresidential Executive Order11643 in February 1972. In subsequent years several other countries also banned its use.[38]

Occurrence and production

[edit]

Thalliumconcentration in the Earth's crustis estimated to be 0.7 mg/kg,[39]mostly in association withpotassium-basedmineralsinclays,soils,andgranites.The major source of thallium for practical purposes is the trace amount that is found incopper,lead,zinc,and other heavy-metal-sulfideores.[40][41]

A close view of a rock crusted with groups of glassy, lustrous, silvery-blue hutchinsonite, in tight clusters of loosely aligned needle-like crystals, among smaller clusters of tiny orange-brown crystals
Crystals ofhutchinsonite((Tl,Pb)2As5S9)

Thallium is found in the mineralscrookesiteTlCu7Se4,hutchinsoniteTlPbAs5S9,andloránditeTlAsS2.[42]Thallium also occurs as a trace element iniron pyrite,and thallium is extracted as a by-product of roasting this mineral for the production ofsulfuric acid.[9][43]

Thallium can also be obtained from thesmeltingof lead and zinc ores.Manganese nodulesfound on theocean floorcontain some thallium.[44]In addition, several other thallium minerals, containing 16% to 60% thallium, occur in nature as complexes of sulfides or selenides that primarily containantimony,arsenic,copper, lead, andsilver.These minerals are rare, and have had no commercial importance as sources of thallium.[39]TheAllchar depositin southernNorth Macedoniawas the only area where thallium was actively mined. This deposit still contains an estimated 500 tonnes of thallium, and it is a source for several rare thallium minerals, for example lorándite.[45]

TheUnited States Geological Survey(USGS) estimates that the annual worldwide production of thallium is 10 metric tonnes as a by-product from the smelting of copper, zinc, and lead ores.[39]Thallium is either extracted from the dusts from the smelter flues or from residues such asslagthat are collected at the end of the smelting process.[39]The raw materials used for thallium production contain large amounts of other materials and therefore a purification is the first step. The thallium is leached either by the use of an alkali or sulfuric acid from the material. The thallium is precipitated several times from the solution to remove impurities. At the end it is converted to thallium sulfate and the thallium is extracted byelectrolysisonplatinumorstainless steelplates.[43]The production of thallium decreased by about 33% in the period from 1995 to 2009 – from about 15 metrictonnesto about 10 tonnes. Since there are several small deposits or ores with relatively high thallium content, it would be possible to increase the production if a new application, such as a thallium-containinghigh-temperature superconductor,becomes practical for widespread use outside of the laboratory.[46]

Applications

[edit]

Historic uses

[edit]

The odorless and tastelessthallium sulfatewas once widely used as rat poison and ant killer. Since 1972 this use has been prohibited in the United States due to safety concerns.[38][9]Many other countries followed this example. Thallium salts were used in the treatment ofringworm,otherskin infectionsand to reduce thenight sweatingoftuberculosispatients. This use has been limited due to their narrowtherapeutic index,and the development of improved medicines for these conditions.[47][48][49]

Optics

[edit]

Thallium(I) bromideandthallium(I) iodidecrystalshave been used as infrared optical materials, because they are harder than other common infrared optics, and because they have transmission at significantly longer wavelengths. The trade nameKRS-5refers to this material.[50]Thallium(I) oxidehas been used to manufacture glasses that have a highindex of refraction.Combined with sulfur orseleniumand arsenic, thallium has been used in the production of high-densityglasses that have lowmelting pointsin the range of 125 and 150 Celsius°. These glasses have room-temperature properties that are similar to ordinary glasses and are durable, insoluble in water and have uniquerefractive indices.[51]

Electronics

[edit]
A heavily pitted, blackish cylindrical rod, with extensive, crumbling brown-and-white corrosion
A corroded thallium rod

Thallium(I) sulfide'selectrical conductivitychanges with exposure toinfrared light,making this compound useful inphotoresistors.[47]Thallium selenide has been used inbolometersfor infrared detection.[52]Dopingselenium semiconductors with thallium improves their performance, thus it is used in trace amounts inselenium rectifiers.[47]Another application of thallium doping is thesodium iodideandcesium iodidecrystals ingamma radiationdetection devices. In these, the sodium iodide crystals are doped with a small amount of thallium to improve their efficiency asscintillationgenerators.[53]Some of the electrodes indissolved oxygen analyzerscontain thallium.[9]

High-temperature superconductivity

[edit]

Research activity with thallium is ongoing to develop high-temperaturesuperconductingmaterials for such applications asmagnetic resonance imaging,storage of magnetic energy,magnetic propulsion,andelectric power generationand transmission. The research in applications started after the discovery of the firstthallium barium calcium copper oxidesuperconductor in 1988.[54]Thalliumcupratesuperconductors have been discovered that have transition temperatures above 120 K. Some mercury-doped thallium-cuprate superconductors have transition temperatures above 130 K at ambient pressure, nearly as high as the world-record-holding mercury cuprates.[55]

Nuclear medicine

[edit]

Before the widespread application oftechnetium-99minnuclear medicine,theradioactiveisotopethallium-201,with a half-life of 73 hours, was the main substance fornuclear cardiography.The nuclide is still used for stress tests for risk stratification in patients withcoronary artery disease(CAD).[56]This isotope of thallium can be generated using a transportable generator, which is similar to thetechnetium-99m generator.[57]The generator containslead-201(half-life 9.33 hours), which decays byelectron captureto thallium-201. The lead-201 can be produced in acyclotronby the bombardment of thallium withprotonsordeuteronsby the (p,3n) and (d,4n) reactions.[58][59]

Thallium stress test

[edit]

A thallium stress test is a form ofscintigraphyin which the amount of thallium in tissues correlates with tissue blood supply. Viable cardiac cells have normalNa+/K+ion-exchange pumps.The Tl+cation binds the K+pumps and is transported into the cells. Exercise ordipyridamoleinduces widening (vasodilation) of arteries in the body. This producescoronary stealby areas where arteries are maximally dilated. Areas of infarct orischemic tissuewill remain "cold". Pre- and post-stress thallium may indicate areas that will benefit from myocardialrevascularization.Redistribution indicates the existence of coronary steal and the presence of ischemiccoronary artery disease.[60]

Other uses

[edit]

A mercury–thallium alloy, which forms aeutecticat 8.5% thallium, is reported to freeze at −60 °C, some 20 °C below the freezing point of mercury. This alloy is used in thermometers and low-temperature switches.[47]In organic synthesis, thallium(III) salts, as thallium trinitrate or triacetate, are useful reagents for performing different transformations in aromatics, ketones and olefins, among others.[61]Thallium is a constituent of the alloy in theanodeplates ofmagnesium seawater batteries.[9]Soluble thallium salts are added togold platingbaths to increase the speed of plating and to reduce grain size within the gold layer.[62]

A saturated solution of equal parts of thallium(I)formate(Tl(HCO2)) and thallium(I)malonate(Tl(C3H3O4)) in water is known asClerici solution.It is a mobile, odorless liquid which changes from yellowish to colorless upon reducing the concentration of the thallium salts. With a density of 4.25 g/cm3at 20 °C, Clerici solution is one of the heaviest aqueous solutions known. It was used in the 20th century for measuring the density of minerals by theflotationmethod, but its use has discontinued due to the high toxicity and corrosiveness of the solution.[63][64]

Thallium iodide is frequently used as an additive inmetal-halide lamps,often together with one or two halides of other metals. It allows optimization of the lamp temperature and color rendering,[65][66]and shifts the spectral output to the green region, which is useful for underwater lighting.[67]

Toxicity

[edit]
Main article:Thallium poisoning
Thallium
Hazards
GHSlabelling:
GHS06: ToxicGHS08: Health hazardGHS09: Environmental hazard
Danger
H300,H330,H373,H413
P260,P264,P284,P301,P310[68]
NFPA 704(fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 4: Very short exposure could cause death or major residual injury. E.g. VX gasFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 2: Undergoes violent chemical change at elevated temperatures and pressures, reacts violently with water, or may form explosive mixtures with water. E.g. white phosphorusSpecial hazards (white): no code
4
0
2

Thallium and its compounds are extremely toxic, with numerous recorded cases of fatal thallium poisoning.[69][70]TheOccupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for thallium exposure in the workplace as 0.1 mg/m2skin exposure over an eight-hour workday. TheNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health(NIOSH) also set arecommended exposure limit(REL) of 0.1 mg/m2skin exposure over an eight-hour workday. At levels of 15 mg/m2,thallium isimmediately dangerous to life and health.[71]

Contact with skin is dangerous, and adequate ventilation is necessary when melting this metal. Thallium(I) compounds have a high aqueous solubility and are readily absorbed through the skin, and care should be taken to avoid this route of exposure, ascutaneousabsorption can exceed the absorbed dose received by inhalation at thepermissible exposure limit(PEL).[72]Exposure by inhalation cannot safely exceed 0.1 mg/m2in an eight-hour time-weighted average (40-hour work week).[73]TheCenters for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC) states, "Thallium is not classifiable as a carcinogen, and it is not suspected to be a carcinogen. It is unknown whether chronic or repeated exposure to thallium increases the risk of reproductive toxicity or developmental toxicity. Chronic high level exposure to thallium through inhalation has been reported to cause nervous system effects, such as numbness of fingers and toes."[74]For a long time thallium compounds were readily available as rat poison. This fact and that it is water-soluble and nearly tasteless led to frequent intoxication caused by accident or criminal intent.[37]

One of the main methods of removing thallium (both radioactive and stable) from humans is to usePrussian blue,a material which absorbs thallium.[75]Up to 20 grams per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the patient, and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in their stool.Hemodialysisandhemoperfusionare also used to remove thallium from the blood serum. At later stages of the treatment, additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissues.[76][77]

According to theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency(EPA), artificially-made sources of thallium pollution include gaseous emission ofcement factories,coal-burning power plants, and metal sewers. The main source of elevated thallium concentrations in water is the leaching of thallium from ore processing operations.[41][78]

See also

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
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  3. ^abArblaster, John W. (2018).Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements.Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.ISBN978-1-62708-155-9.
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  11. ^abcGreenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 222–224
  12. ^Haynes, William M., ed. (2011).CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics(92nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL:CRC Press.p. 8.20.ISBN1-4398-5511-0.
  13. ^abGreenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 224–7
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  20. ^Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 254
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  22. ^Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 246–7
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    3    ]2+
    triangle as a building unit in thallium compounds: synthesis and crystal structure ofTl
    4    (OH)
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General bibliography

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