Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada

The association between themonarchy of Canadaand Indigenous peoples in Canada stretches back to thefirst interactionsbetweenNorth American Indigenous peoplesandEuropeancolonialists and, over centuries of interface,treatieswere established concerning the monarch and Indigenous nations.First Nations,Inuit,andMétispeoples in Canada have a unique relationship with the reigning monarch and, like theMāoriand theTreaty of Waitangiin New Zealand,generally view the affiliation as being not between them and the ever-changingCabinet,but instead with the continuousCrownof Canada, as embodied in the reigning sovereign.

These agreements with the Crown are administered byCanadian Aboriginal law,overseen by theminister of Crown–Indigenous relations,and expressed through numerous meetings and ceremonies, as well as exchanges of gifts and honours, involving Indigenous leaders, the monarch, his viceroy or viceroys, and/or other members of theCanadian royal family.

Relations

Prince Arthurwith the Chiefs of theSix Nationsat theMohawk Chapel,Brantford,1869

The association betweenIndigenous peoples in Canadaand the Canadian Crown is both statutory and traditional, the treaties being seen by the first peoples both as legal contracts and as perpetual and personal promises by successive reigning kings and queens to protect the welfare of Indigenous peoples, define their rights, and reconcile their sovereignty with that of the monarch in Canada. This was reinforced by theSupreme Court's ruling inGuerin v the Queenin 1985.The agreements are formed with the Crown, not the government,because the monarchy is thought to have inherent stability and continuity, as opposed to the transitory nature of populist whims that rule the political government,meaning the link between monarch and Indigenous peoples in Canada will theoretically last for "as long as the sun shines, grass grows, and rivers flow".

The relationship has thus been described as mutual— "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, whereinCanadais the short-form reference toHer Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada"—and "special",having a strong sense of "kinship" and possessing familial aspects.Constitutional scholars have observed that First Nations are "stronglysupportive of the monarchy",even if not necessarily regarding the monarch as supreme.The nature of the legal interaction between Canadian sovereign and First Nations has similarly not always been supported.

Definition

The Office that I hold represents the Canadian Crown. As we are all aware the Crown has a fiduciary responsibility for the ongoing well being of Canada's First Citizens.

Lieutenant Governor of British ColumbiaIona Campagnolo,2005

While treaties were signed between European monarchs and First Nations in North America as far back as 1676, the only ones that survived theAmerican Revolutionare those in Canada, which date to the beginning of the 18th century. Today, the main guide for relations between the monarchy and Canadian First Nations is KingGeorge III'sRoyal Proclamation of 1763.Though not a treaty, it is regarded by First Nations as theirMagna Cartaor "Indian Bill of Rights",binding on not only theBritish Crown,but, the Canadian one, as well,as the document remains a part of theCanadian constitution.The proclamation set parts of the King'sNorth Americanrealm aside for colonists andreserved others for the First Nations,thereby affirming native title to their lands and making clear that, under thesovereigntyof the Crown, the Aboriginal bands were autonomous political units in a "nation-to-nation" association with non-native governments,with the monarch as the intermediary.

This created a "constitutional and moral basis of alliance" between indigenous Canadians and the Canadian stateas personified in the monarch,as affirmed inSparrow v. The Queen,meaning that the "honour of the Crown" is at stake in dealings between it and First Nations leaders.The Crown's governmental representatives must thus act with good faith in matters relating to Indigenous peoples, predominantly via a duty to consult and accommodate whenever Indigenous peoples' rights and interests might be involved.The duty derives "from the Crown's assertion of sovereignty in the face of prior Aboriginal occupation"and is "not a mere incantation, but, rather, a core precept that finds its application in concrete practices",and "cannot be interpreted narrowly or technically".

Given the"divided" nature of the Crown,the sovereign may be party to relations with Indigenous Canadians distinctly within a provincial jurisdiction.This has, at times, led to a lack of clarity regarding which of the monarch's jurisdictions should administer his or her duties towards Indigenous peoples.

Lieutenant Governor of British ColumbiaJudith Guichonput a strong focus on the interaction of the Crown with Indigenous peoples, which she believed needs to be defined by "respect, relationships, and responsibility," and stating that the Canadian Crown is central to the treaty relationship. Guichon also drew a parallel between monarchy and Indigenous culture, elaborating, "monarchs have a role somewhat like hereditary chiefs and elders in the First Nations communities. The monarch in our constitutional monarchy represents sober second thought and wisdom, not the next political cycle, but, rather, enduring truths and the historical evolution of our nation through generations."

Expressions

Further information:Style and title of the Canadian sovereign § Titles bestowed by Indigenous peoples

This stone was taken from the grounds ofBalmoral Castle[...] a place dear to my great-great-grandmother,Queen Victoria.It symbolises the foundation of the rights of First Nations peoples reflected in treaties signed with the Crown during her reign. [I] hope that it will serve as a reminder of the special relationship between the sovereign and all First Nations peoples.

Elizabeth II,Queen of Canada,2005

Wampumbelts were made to mark agreements with the Crown, "serving as important records of an understanding between parties." In 2019, Queen Elizabeth II was given a replica of the Two Row Wampum (Kaswentha), which symbolizedan agreementbetween the Iroquois and representatives of theDutch Crownin 1613, which formed the foundation of theCovenant Chainof later treaties with the English Crown. The parallel rows of purple beads "represent two groups living in harmony—each following their own path, without forcing their customs or laws on one another."

From time to time, the link between the Crown and Indigenous peoples will be symbolically expressed, throughpow-wowsor other types of ceremony held to mark the anniversary of a particular treaty—sometimes with the participation of the monarch, another member of theCanadian royal family,or one of the sovereign's representatives—or simply an occasion mounted to coincide with the presence of a member of the royal family on a royal tour,Indigenous peoples having always been a part of such tours of Canada.Gifts have been frequently exchangedandtitles have been bestowed upon royaland viceregal figures since the early days of Indigenous contact with the Crown.

KingCharles IIIasPrince of Wales,inHalifax,2014. He was namedAttaniout Ikeneegoby theInuitofNunavut,Leading Starby the Ojibwa of Winnipeg, andKīsikāwipīsimwa miyo ōhcikanawāpamikby the Cree ofSaskatchewan.

Since as early as 1710, Indigenous leaders have met to discuss treaty business with royal family members or viceroys in private audience and many continue to use their connection to the Crown to further their political aims.The above-mentioned pageants and celebrations have, for instance, been employed as a public platform on which to present complaints to the monarch or other members of the royal family.It has been said that Aboriginal people in Canada appreciate their ability to do this witnessed by both national and international cameras.

KingCharles III,when Prince of Wales, made ChiefPerry Bellegardean advisor on the development of Charles' Sustainable Markets Initiative, which Bellegarde stated in 2023, "has shown that he is prepared to listen to and learn from Indigenous peoples" and that the King had incorporated Indigenous knowledge systems and rights into his efforts to partner industry, technology, and government together to combatclimate change.

History

French and British crowns

Explorers commissioned byFrenchandEnglishmonarchs made contact with Indigenous peoples in North America in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. These interactions were generally peaceful—the agents of each sovereign seeking alliances with Indigenous leaders in wresting territories away from the other monarch—and the partnerships were typically secured through treaties. The Iroquois were among the first to do so, forming theTwo Row Wampum Treatywith theDutch Crownin 1613, which, after the English tookNew Netherlandin 1674, formed the basis of theCovenant Chainof agreements with the English Crown,begun in 1676.

However, the English also used friendly gestures as a vehicle for establishing Crown dealings with Indigenous peoples, while simultaneously expanding theircolonialdomain: asfur tradersand outposts of theHudson's Bay Company(HBC), acrown corporationfounded in 1670, spread westward across the continent, they introduced the concept of a just, paternal monarch to "guide and animate their exertions", to inspire loyalty, and promote peaceful relations.During the fur trade, before the British Crown was considering permanent settlement, marital alliances between traders and Indigenous women were a form of alliance between Indigenous peoples and the Crown. When a land settlement was being planned by the Crown, treaties become the more official and permanent form of relations.They also brought with them images of the English monarch, such as the medal that bore theeffigyofKing Charles II(founder of the HBC) and which was presented to native chiefs as a mark of distinction; these medallions were passed down through the generations of the chiefs' descendants and those who wore them received particular honour and recognition at HBC posts.

Portraits of theFour Mohawk Kings,painted in 1710, during their visit withQueen Anne

TheGreat Peace of Montrealwas in 1701 signed by theGovernor of New France,representingKing Louis XIV,and the chiefs of 39 First Nations. Then, in 1710, Indigenous leaders were visiting personally with the British monarch; in that year,Queen Anneheld an audience atSt. James' Palacewith three Mohawk—Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Towof the Bear Clan (calledPeter Brant,King of Maguas),Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Rowof the Wolf Clan (called King John of Canojaharie), andTee Yee Ho Ga Row,or "Double Life", of the Wolf Clan (calledKing HendrickPeters)—and oneMahicanChief—Etow Oh Koamof the Turtle Clan (called Emperor of the Six Nations). The four, dubbed theFour Mohawk Kings,were received inLondonas diplomats, being transported through the streets in royal carriages and visiting theTower of LondonandSt. Paul's Cathedral.But, their business was to request military aid for defence against the French, as well as missionaries for spiritual guidance.The latter request was passed by Anne to theArchbishop of Canterbury,Thomas Tenison,and a chapel was eventually built in 1711 at Fort Hunter, near present-dayJohnstown, New York,along with the gift of a reed organ and a set of silverchalicesin 1712.

Map of theNorth AmericanEastern Seaboardas divided by theRoyal Proclamation of 1763.Treaty of Parisgains in pink, and Spanish territorial gains after theTreaty of Fontainebleauin yellow. (Note: The above graphic mistakenly shows King George III's "Indian Reserve" as only south of the Ohio River after the expansion of Quebec in 1774. In fact, the reserve territory north of the Ohio remained part of the reserve, but under the administration and legal regime of Quebec.)

Both British and French monarchs viewed their lands in North America as being held by them in totality, including those occupied by First Nations. Typically, the treaties established delineations between territory reserved for colonial settlement and that distinctly for use by Indigenous peoples. The French kings, though they did not admit claims by Indigenous peoples to lands in New France, granted the natives reserves for their exclusive use; for instance, from 1716 onwards, land north and west of themanorialson theSaint Lawrence Riverwere designated as thepays d'enhaut(upper country), or "Indian country", and were forbidden to settlement and clearing of land without the expressed authorisation of the King.The same was done by the kings of Great Britain; for example, the Friendship Treaty of 1725, which endedDummer's War,established a relationship between King George III and the "Maeganumbe... tribes Inhabiting His Majesty's Territories" in exchange for the guarantee that the indigenous people "not be molested in their persons... by His Majesty's subjects".The British contended that the Treaty gave them title toNova ScotiaandAcadia,whileAcadiansand theMi'kmaqopposed further British settlement in the territory. The Mi'kmaq would later make peace with the British at the signing of theHalifax Treaties.

History of colonization

Thecolonizationof land, people, culture and bodies was a result of settler colonial actions in the process of resource extraction and the settlement of the land.An example of this colonization is the imposing of European femininity onto Indigenous women. As Indigenous women adopted Christianity, mostly voluntarily, the social status of Indigenous women changed.Colonialism was an arm of the crown and its history still influences the Canadian government's policies regarding Indigenous peoples in the country. TheIndian Act's exclusion of women from maintaining their own status for example, was a government-enforced policy that was amended in 1985 with Bill C31.

KingGeorge III

King Louis XV

The sovereigns also sought alliances with the First Nations; theIroquoissiding with Georges II and III and theAlgonquinwith Louis XIV and XV. These arrangements left questions about the treatment of Aboriginals in the French territories once the latter were ceded in 1760 to George III. Article 40 of the Capitulation ofMontreal,signed on 8 September 1760, inferred that First Nations peoples who had been subjects ofKing Louis XVwould then become the same of King George: "The Savages or Indian allies of his most Christian Majesty, shall be maintained in the Lands they inhabit; if they chose to remain there; they shall not be molested on any pretence whatsoever, for having carried arms, and served his most Christian Majesty; they shall have, as well as the French, liberty of religion, and shall keep their missionaries".Yet, two days before, the Algonquin, along with the Hurons of Lorette and eight other tribes, had already ratified a treaty atFort Lévis,making them allied with, and subjects of, the British king, who instructed Generalthe Lord Amherstto treat the First Nations "upon the same principals of humanity and proper indulgence" as the French, and to "cultivate the best possible harmony and Friendship with the Chiefs of the Indian Tribes".The retention ofcivil codein Quebec, though, caused the relations between the Crown and First Nations in that jurisdiction to be viewed as dissimilar to those that existed in the other Canadian colonies.

In 1763, George III issueda royal proclamationthat acknowledged the First Nations as autonomous political units and affirmed their title to their lands; it became the main document governing the parameters of the relationship between the sovereign and Indigenous subjects in North America. The King thereafter orderedSir William Johnsonto make the proclamation known to Indigenous nations under the King's sovereignty and, by 1766, its provisions were already put into practical use.In the prelude to the American Revolution, native leaderJoseph Branttook the King up on this offer of protection and voyaged to London between 1775 and 1776 to meet with George III in person and discuss the aggressive expansionist policies of the American colonists.

However, even as theTreaty of Niagarawas being negotiated, the King's powers were being constrained by the development ofconstitutional monarchyandresponsible government;whatWalter Bagehotcalled the "dignified crown" (the monarch him- or herself) and the "efficient crown" (theministers of the Crown,usually drawn from and accountable to the elected chamber of parliament, using the sovereign's powers). This constitutional evolution continued through the reigns ofGeorge IV,William IV,andVictoria,but without consultation with, or obtaining the consent of, the First Nations bound in treaty with the Crown.

After the American Revolution

Frederick Haldimand,Governor of Quebec,who issued theHaldimand Proclamationin 1784

During the course of the American Revolution, First Nations assisted King George III's North American forces, who ultimately lost the conflict. As a result of theTreaty of Paris,signed in 1783 between King George and the AmericanCongress of the Confederation,British North America was divided into the sovereignUnited States(US) and the still BritishCanadas,creating a new international border through some of those lands that had been set apart by the Crown for First Nations and completely immersing others within the new republic.As a result, some Indigenous nations felt betrayed by the King and their service to the monarch was detailed in oratories that called on the Crown to keep its promises,especially after nations that had allied themselves with the British sovereign were driven from their lands by Americans.New treaties were drafted and those Indigenous nations that had lost their territories in the United States, or simply wished to not live under the US government, were granted new land in Canada by the King.

TheMohawk Nationwas one such group, which abandoned itsMohawk Valleyterritory, in present dayNew York State,after Americans destroyed the natives' settlement, including the chapel donated by Queen Anne following the visit to London of the Four Mohawk Kings. As compensation, George III promised land in Canada to theSix Nationsand, in 1784, some Mohawks settled in what is now theBay of Quinteand theGrand River Valley,where two of North America's only threechapels royal—Christ Church Royal Chapel of the MohawksandHer Majesty's Chapel of the Mohawks—were built to symbolise the connection between the Mohawk people and the Crown.Thereafter, the treaties with Indigenous peoples across southern Ontario were dubbed theCovenant Chainand ensured the preservation of First Nations' rights not provided elsewhere in the Americas.This treatment encouraged the loyalty of the Indigenouos peoples to the sovereign and, as allies of the King, they aided in defending his North American territories, especially during theWar of 1812;during which theSix NationsandSeven Nationsfought to safeguard their territory and "win the Crown's support for long-term Indigenous interests—which included Indigenous sovereignty".(Though, the Indigenous allies were not permitted to send representatives to the negotiations for theTreaty of Ghentand, while the British tried to bargain for the creation of an Iroquoian state south of the Great Lakes, the American delegates refused to agree.)

The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate Treaties 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, bearing the effigy ofQueen Victoria

In 1860, during one of the first trueroyal tours of Canada,First Nations put on displays, expressed their loyalty toQueen Victoria,and presented concerns about misconduct on the part of the Indian Department to the Queen's son,Prince Albert Edward, Prince of Wales,when he was inCanada West.In that same year,Nahnebahwequayof theOjibwasecured an audience with the Queen.When Governor GeneralJohn Campbell, Marquess of Lorne,and his wife,Princess Louise,a daughter of Queen Victoria, visitedBritish Columbiain 1882, they were greeted upon arrival inNew Westminsterby a flotilla of local Indigenous peoples in canoes who sang songs of welcome before the royal couple landed and proceeded through a ceremonial arch built by Indigenous people, which was hung with a banner reading "Clahowya Queenastenass",Chinook Jargonfor "Welcome Queen's Child". The following day, the Marquess and Marchioness gave their presence to an event attended by thousands of First Nations people and at least 40 chiefs. One presented the Princess with baskets, a bracelet, and a ring of Aboriginal make and Louise said in response that, when she returned to the United Kingdom, she would show these items to the Queen.

Prince Edward, Prince of Wales,with twoOjibweguides canoe on theNipigon River,inOntario

In 1870, Britain transferred what remained ofRupert's Landfrom the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada and colonial settlement expanded westward. More treaties were signed between 1871 and 1921, wherein the Crown brokered land exchanges that granted the Indigenous societies reserves and other compensation, such as livestock, ammunition, education, health care, and certain rights to hunt and fish.The treaties did not ensure peace: as evidenced by theNorth-West Rebellionof 1885, sparked byMétis people'sconcerns over their survival and discontent on the part ofCreepeople over unfairness in the treaties signed with Queen Victoria.

Independent Canada

KingGeorge VIandQueen Elizabethmeet withNakodachieftains, who display an image of the King's great-grandmother,Queen Victoria,inCalgary,1939.

Following Canada's legislative independence from the United Kingdom (codified by theStatute of Westminster, 1931) relations—both statutory and ceremonial—between sovereign and First Nations continued unaffected as the British Crown in Canada morphed into a distinctly Canadian monarchy. Indeed, during the 1939 tour of Canada by KingGeorge VIandQueen Elizabeth—an event intended to express the new independence of Canada and its monarchy—First Nations journeyed to city centres likeRegina, Saskatchewan,andCalgary,Alberta,to meet with the King and present gifts and other displays of loyalty. In the course of theSecond World Warthat followed soon after George's tour, more than 3,000 First Nations and Métis Canadians fought for the Canadian Crown and country,some receiving personal recognition from the King, such asTommy Prince,who was presented with theMilitary Medaland, on behalf of thePresident of the United States,theSilver Starby the King at Buckingham Palace.

QueenElizabeth IIobserving basket weaving by First Nations women

Examples of wampum

King George's daughter, Elizabeth, acceded to the throne in 1952.Squamish NationChief Joe Mathias was amongst the Canadian dignitaries who were invited to attendher coronationin London the following year.In 1959, the Queen toured Canada and, inLabrador,she was greeted by the Chief of theMontagnaisand given a pair of beaded moose-hide jackets; atGaspé, Quebec,she and her husband,the Duke of Edinburgh,were presented with deerskin coats by two local Indigenous people; and, in Ottawa, a man from theKahnawake Mohawk Territorypassed to officials a 200-year-oldwampumas a gift for Elizabeth. It was during that journey that the Queen became the first member of the royal family to meet with Inuit representatives, doing so inStratford, Ontario,and the royal train stopped inBrantford, Ontario,so that the Queen could sign the Six Nations Queen Anne Bible in the presence ofSix Nationsleaders. Acrossthe prairies,First Nations were present on the welcoming platforms in numerous cities and towns, and at theCalgary Stampede,more than 300Blackfoot,Tsuu T'ina,andNakodaperformed awar danceand erected approximately 30teepees,amongst which the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh walked, meeting with various chiefs. InNanaimo,British Columbia, a longer meeting took place between Elizabeth and theSalish,wherein the latter conferred on the former the title ofMother of all Peopleand, following a dance of welcome, the Queen and her consort spent 45 minutes (20 more than allotted) touring a replica First Nations village and chatting with some 200 people.

In 1970, Elizabeth II's presence atThe Pas, Manitoba,provided an opportunity for theOpaskwayak Cree Nationto publicly express their perceptions of injustice meted out by the government.Then, during a royal tour by the Queen in 1973,Harold Cardinaldelivered a politically charged speech to the monarch and the Queen responded, stating that "her government recognized the importance of full compliance with the spirit and intent of treaties";the whole exchange had been pre-arranged between the two.The British High Commissioner to Canada at the time stated a Canadian official, likelyJean Chrétien,had said to him, "the monarchy and the fact that, on occasions, the Queen can talk directly to the native peoples, has helped to prevent in Canada anything like a direct confrontation similar toWounded Knee".Still, during the same tour, Indigenous people were not always granted the personal time with the Queen that they desired; the meetings with First Nations and Inuit tended to be purely ceremonial affairs wherein treaty issues were not officially discussed. For instance, when Queen Elizabeth arrived inStoney Creek, Ontario,five chiefs in fullfeathered headdressand a cortege of 20bravesand their consorts came to present to her a letter outlining their grievances, but were prevented by officials from meeting with the sovereign.In 1976, the Queen did receive First Nations delegations at Buckingham Palace, such as the group of Alberta Aboriginal Chiefs who, along withLieutenant Governor of Albertaand Cree chiefRalph Steinhauer,held audience with the monarch there.

After constitutional patriation

In the prelude to thepatriationof theCanadian constitutionin 1982, some First Nations leaders campaigned for and some against the proposed move,many asserting that the federalministers of the Crownhad no right to advise the Queen that she sever, without consent from the First Nations, the treaty rights she and her ancestors had long granted to Indigenous Canadians.Worrying to them was the fact that their relationship with the monarch had, over the preceding century, come to be interpreted by Indian Affairs officials as one of subordination to the government—a misreading on the part of non-Aboriginals of the termsGreat White Motherand herIndian Children.Indeed, First Nations representatives were locked out of constitutional conferences in the late 1970s, leading theNational Indian Brotherhood(NIB) to make plans to petition the Queen directly. TheLiberalCabinet at the time, not wishing to be embarrassed by having the monarch intervene, extended to the NIB an invitation to talks at the ministerial level, though not the first ministers' meetings. But the invitation came just beforethe election in May 1979,which put theProgressive Conservative Partyinto Cabinet and the new ministers of the Crown decided to advise the Queen not to meet with the NIB delegation, while telling the NIB that the Queen had no power.

Pierre Trudeauat theQueen Elizabeth HotelinMontréal,Québec, 1980

After anotherelection on 18 February 1980,theLiberal Partywon the plurality of seats in theHouse of Commons,leading Governor GeneralEdward Schreyerto appointPierre Trudeauas prime minister, who advised the viceroy to appointother Liberal Members of Parliament to Cabinet.On 2 October that year, Trudeau announced on national television his intention to proceed with unilateral patriation in what he termed the "people's package".However, theUnion of British Columbia Indian Chiefs,led by PresidentGeorge Manuel,opposed the action due to the continued exclusion of Indigenous voices from consultations and forums of debate.To protest the lack of consultation and their concerns that the act would strip them of their rights and titles, the UBCIC organised the Indian Constitutional Express by chartering two trains that left Vancouver on 24 November 1980 for Ottawa.Upon arrival on 5 December, the "Constitution Express" was carrying approximately 1,000 people of all ages.Although Trudeau announced that he would extend the timetable for the Special Joint Committee on the Constitution to hear from Indigenous representatives, the leaders of the protest presented a petition and a bill of particulars directly to Schreyer.Unsatisfied with the response from the federal government, 41 people immediately continued on to theUnited Nationsheadquarters inNew York Cityto gain international attention.Finally, they embarked for theNetherlands,Germany,France,andBelgiumin 1981 to present the concerns and experiences of indigenous Canadians to an international audience.In November, they arrived inLondon,England, and petitioned theBritish parliament,eventually gaining audience with theHouse of Lords.

While no meeting with the Queen took place, the position of Indigenous Canadians was confirmed byMaster of the Rollsthe Lord Denning,who ruled that the relationship was indeed one between sovereign and First Nations directly, clarifying further that, since theStatute of Westminsterwas passed in 1931, theCanadian Crownhad come to be distinct from theBritish Crown,though the two were still held by the same monarch, leaving the treaties sound.Upon their return to Canada, the NIB was granted access to first ministers' meetings and the ability to address the premiers.After extensive negotiations with Indigenous leaders, Trudeau agreed to their demands in late January 1982 and, therefore, introducedSection 35 of theConstitution Act,which officially reaffirmed Aboriginal rights.

Some 15 years later, theGovernor General-in-Council,per theInquiry Act,and on the advice of Prime MinisterBrian Mulroney,established theRoyal Commission on Aboriginal Peoplesto address a number of concerns surrounding the relationship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in Canada. After 178 days of public hearings, visits by 96 communities, and numerous reviews and reports, the central conclusion reached was that "the main policy direction, pursued for more than 150 years, first by colonial, then by Canadian governments, has been wrong", focusing on the previous attempts atcultural assimilation.It was recommended that the nation-to-nation relationship of mutual respect be re-established between the Crown and First Nations,specifically calling for the monarch to "announce the establishment of a new era of respect for the treaties" and renew the treaty process through the issuance of a new royal proclamation as supplement to theRoyal Proclamation of 1763.It was argued by Tony Hall, a professor of Native American studies at theUniversity of Lethbridge,that the friendly relations between monarch and Indigenous Canadians must continue as a means to exerciseCanadian sovereignty.

In 1994, while the Queen and her then-prime minister,Jean Chrétien,were inYellowknifefor the monarch to open theNorthwest Territories Legislative Building,Bill Erasmus,the leader of theDenecommunity, used the opportunity to, in front of the nation's and world's cameras, present Elizabeth with a list of grievances over stalled land claim negotiations. Erasmus stated the Dene's relationship with the Crown was "tarnished and sullied" because the treaties had not been honoured. Though Chrétien gave a political reply,the Queen provided a more diplomatic response, acknowledging the controversies and stating,"you have your differences; linguistic, cultural, or geographical. May these differences long remain. But, may they never be cause for intolerance or give rise to acrimony."

Similarly, the Queen and Chrétien visited in 1997 the community ofSheshatshiu,inNewfoundland and Labrador,where theInnupeople of Quebec andLabradorpresented to the sovereign a letter of grievance over stagnant land claim talks. On both occasions, instead of giving the documents to the Prime Minister, as he was not party to the treaty agreements, they were handed by the chiefs to the Queen, who, after speaking with the First Nations representatives, then passed the list and letter to Chrétien for him and the other ministers of the Crown to address andadviseher or herviceroyon how to proceed.

21st century

Presentation of Membertou Portrait by Alan Syliboy, to Queen Elizabeth II, 28 June 2010

During the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Alberta and Saskatchewan in 2005, First Nations stated that they felt relegated to a merely ceremonial role, having been denied by federal and provincial ministers any access to the Queen in private audience.First Nations leaders have also raised concerns about what they see as a crumbling relationship between their people and the Crown, fueled by the failure of the federal and provincial cabinets to resolve land claim disputes, as well as a perceived intervention of the Crown into Indigenous affairs.Formal relations have also not yet been founded between the monarchy and a number of First Nations around Canada; such as those inBritish Columbiawho are still engaged in theprocess of treaty making.

Portraits of the Four Mohawk Kings that had been commissioned while the leaders were in London had then hung atKensington Palacefor nearly 270 years, until Queen Elizabeth II in 1977 donated them to the Canadian Collection at theNational Archives of Canada,unveiling them personally in Ottawa. That same year, the Queen's son,Prince Charles, Prince of Wales,visited Alberta to attend celebrations marking the 100th anniversary of the signing ofTreaty 7,when he was made aKainaichieftain,and, as a bicentennial gift in 1984, Elizabeth II gave to theChrist Church Royal Chapelof the Mohawks a silver chalice to replace that which was lost from the 1712 Queen Anne set during theAmerican Revolution.

TheReginacampus of theFirst Nations University of Canada,opened byPrince Edward, Earl of Wessex,and which contains a stone plaque donated by QueenElizabeth II

In 2003, Elizabeth's other son,Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex,opened theRegina, Saskatchewan,campus of theFirst Nations University of Canada,where the Queen made her first stop during her 2005 tour of Saskatchewan and Alberta and presented the university with a commemorative granite plaque.

A similar scene took place atBritish Columbia's Government House,when, in 2009,Shawn Atleo,the National Chief of theAssembly of First Nations,presented PrinceCharles, Prince of Wales,with a letter of complaint about the Crown's fulfillment of its treaty duties and requested a meeting with the Queen.Prince Charles then added another dimension to the relationship between the Crown and First Nations when, in a speech inVancouver,he drew a connection between his own personal interests and concerns inenvironmentalismand the cultural practices and traditions of Canada's First Nations.

In 2010, theChrist Church Royal Chapelwas presented sets ofhandbellsfrom Queen Elizabeth II to symbolise the councils and treaties between theIroquois Confederacyand the Crown.

Queen Elizabeth II gifted sets ofhandbellsto bothHer Majesty's Royal Chapel of the MohawksandChrist Church Royal Chapelon 4 July 2010, to symbolise the councils and treaties between the Iroquois Confederacy and the Crown.The date was also symbolic, as 4 July isIndependence Dayin the United States, from where the Mohawk had been expelled by the Americans following their revolution against the Crown, which granted the Mohawk the territories in Canada on which the two chapels royal are built.

On the occasion of a tour of Canada by Prince Charles in 2012, theCanadian Broadcasting Corporationheld a round-table discussion between Atleo;John Borrows,a constitutional scholar at theUniversity of Minnesotaand an Anishinabe from Ontario;Pamela Palmater,a lawyer and professor atRyerson Universityand a Mi'kmaq from New Brunswick; andTaiaiake Alfred,a Mohawk from Kahnawake and a professor at theUniversity of Victoria,asking them to reflect on the relationship between the Crown and First Nations. Alfred stated the Crown's promises to First Nations were binding on the Canadian state, but, Canada had broken all of the promises. Burrows opined that the honour of theHouse of Windsorshould demand that Charles guarantee that the treaties be upheld. Palmater, speaking of Prince Charles, said, "heisthe Crown [sic] and, given that it was the Crown who signed treaties and made promises and established the relationship with indigenous nations, he ought to assume some responsibility for making sure Canada carries out those obligations, which the [British] Crown unilaterally devolved to Canada without input from First Nations. "

Protests and reconciliation

Idle No Moreprotesters atMetropolis at Metrotown,Burnaby,British Columbia, 22 December 2013

During theIdle No Moreprotest movement through 2012 and 2013, ChiefTheresa Spenceof theAttawapiskat First Nationmounted a liquids-onlyhunger strikeand demanded a meeting with Governor GeneralDavid Johnston,Prime MinisterStephen Harper,Atleo, and thechiefsof various regional andtribal councils.She, as well as several of her supporters and sympathizers, wrote to the Queen, asking Elizabeth II to instruct the Governor General to attend,but, the Queen declined to do so, indicating that she was bound to follow the advice of her ministers in the federal Cabinet.Spence then indicated that she would boycott a conference involving other First Nations leaders and the Prime Minister because the Governor General, as a non-partisan figure, declined attendance at a policy meeting.The Globe and Mailsupported the idea of the Governor General playing a role by listening to grievances from Aboriginal leaders, as "listener-in-chief", but, called it "wrong" to insist that the Governor General attend policy discussions and the idea that First Nations people could relate to the Crown and the government "as if they were two separate entities [...] a fantasy". ThePrivy Council Officeinsisted the meeting not include the Gvernor General, to avoid giving any impression that the viceroy had the constitutional authority to change government policy.Spence and several other chiefs held a "ceremonial" meeting with the Governor General on 11 January 2013,while the separate working meeting between Harper and other chiefs took place the same day.

The report issued at the close of theTruth and Reconciliation Commissionin 2015 contained 94 calls to action. Among them were requests for students, lawyers, journalists, employees of private businesses, and public servants to be provided education on Aboriginal–Crown relations and for the federal Crown-in-Council "to jointly develop with Aboriginal peoples a royal proclamation of reconciliation to be issued by the Crown [which] would build on theRoyal Proclamation of 1763[...] and reaffirm the nation-to-nation relationship between Aboriginal peoples and the Crown ". It was desired the proclamation would, in part," reconcile Aboriginal and Crown constitutional and legal orders to ensure that Aboriginal peoples are full partners in Confederation ".

AtMassey College,part of theUniversity of Toronto,a gethering—also called acouncil—of the Queen's representatives, territorial commissioners, Assembly of First Nations National ChiefPerry Bellegarde,andMississaugas of the Credit First NationChief R. Stacey Laforme took place on 12 June 2019 to pay tribute to the "enduring relationship between the Crown and First Nations people". This began with the lighting of the sacred fire at sunrise, a song by Elder Gary Sault, tobacco offerings, and a circle dance and was regarded as an important act of reconciliation. A commemorative plaque was installedSt. Catherine's Chapel,the chapel royal in Massey College, and unveiled by theOntario Heritage Trust.The plaque reads, in English, French, andOjibwe,"a Council at the Chapel Royal: Honouring the kinship kindled by the treaty relationships between First Peoples and the Crown, Indigenous leaders gathered here on June 11, 2019, with the Governor General, Lieutenant Governors, and territorial Commissioners of Canada to hear an address by the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations. A sacred fire burned to mark this unprecedented council."

On Canada's firstNational Day for Truth and Reconciliation,30 September 2021, the Queen said she "joins with all Canadians [...] to reflect on the painful history that Indigenous peoples endured in residential schools in Canada and on the work that remains to heal and to continue to build an inclusive society".

I have greatly appreciated the opportunity to discuss with the Governor General the vital process of reconciliation in this country—not a one-off act, of course, but an ongoing commitment to healing, respect and understanding. I know that our visit here this week comes at an important moment—with indigenous and non-indigenous peoples across Canada committing to reflect honestly and openly on the past and to forge a new relationship for the future.

PrinceCharles, Prince of Wales,2022

The following year, indigenous matters were a theme throughoutthe royal tourof Prince Charles and his wife,Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall,to celebrate the70th anniversary of the accession of Elizabeth IIto theCanadian throne.Royal correspondent Sarah Campbell noted, "on this brief tour, there has been no shying away from acknowledging and highlighting the scandalous way many indigenous peoples have been treated in Canada".Prince Charles' efforts to learn about Canada and its indigenous peoples have been commended; he has made a point of listening, learning, and reflecting, finding that First Nations' understanding of land and sustainability are in line with his own aims regarding the natural environment,something he acknowledged when in Vancouver in 2009.

Upon the royal couple's arrival atSt John's, Newfoundland and Labrador,prayers were held inInuktitut,followed byMiꞌkmaqmusic. In his first speech of the tour, the Prince said that it was an "important moment" with "indigenous and non-indigenous peoples across Canada committing to reflect honestly and openly on the past, and to forge a new relationship for the future".The Prince and the Duchess participated in moments of reflection and prayer, first withLieutenant GovernorJudy Footeand indigenous leaders at Heart Garden—which had been unveiled on the grounds of the provincialGovernment Housein 2019, in memory of former residential school students—and, two days later, at the Ceremonial Circle in theDenecommunity ofDettah,Northwest Territories,where they also participated in an opening prayer, a drumming circle, and a feeding the fire ceremony.Elisabeth Penashue, an elder of the Sheshatshiu Innu First Nation in Labrador, said it was "really important they hear our stories".

Charles met with various indigenous leaders. In Dene, the Prince, with Elder Bernadette Martin, Chief Edward Sangris, and Chief Fred Sangris, participated in a round-table discussion with Dene leadership. At thePrince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre,the Prince participated in a discussion onTreaty 11,its history, and its legacy in the Northwest Territories,At a reception hosted by the Governor General at Rideau Hall, in Ottawa,RoseAnne Archibald,National Chief of theAssembly of First Nations,appealed directly to the Prince for an apology from the Queen in her capacity as monarch and head of theChurch of Englandfor the wrongful acts committed in the past by the Crown and the church in relation to indigenous peoples. She said that the Prince "acknowledged" failures by Canadian governments in handling the relationship between the Crown and indigenous people, which she said "really meant something".

Indigenous culture was another component of the tour: The royal couple observed a demonstration of traditional Inuit sports in Dene,where the Duchess visited Kaw Tay Whee School to learn about the school's efforts to preserve their language,and the Prince met members of theCanadian Rangersto mark their 75th anniversary;he was shown different animal furs, drums, and weapons.

Reign of Charles III

In May 2023, just days before thecoronation of King Charles III,Governor General Mary Simon organised an audience between the King and Indigenous leaders at Buckingham Palace. The three leaders—Assembly of First Nations National Chief RoseAnne Archibald, President of Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Natan Obed, and President of the Métis National Council Cassidy Caron—were also in attendance at the coronation ceremony on 6 May. The following day, Bellegarde addressed the royal household at the first post-coronation morning service at theChapel Royalat St James' Palace.

A delegation from theMississauga Nationspoke with the King two months later and presented to him a wampum belt, similar to that given at the signing of the 1764Treaty of Niagara.Among topics discussed during the 15 minute conversation at a garden party attended by 8,000 guests were the effects ofthat year's wildfireson indigenous communities. Chadwick Cowie, who was part of the delegation, observed that Charles has a "willingness to listen" to Indigenous people.

Viceroys and Indigenous peoples

Governor Generalthe Lord Tweedsmuirinnativeheaddress,1937

It seems history has come full circle. More than 200 years ago, the Anishinabe people welcomed the first Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, SirJohn Graves Simcoe,to their territory. And now I, their descendant, am being welcomed by you as the Sovereign's representative...

James K. Bartleman,Lieutenant Governor of Ontario,2001

As the representatives in Canada and the provinces of the reigning monarch, bothgovernors generalandlieutenant governorshave been closely associated with First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. This dates back to the colonial era, when the sovereign did not travel from Europe to Canada and so dealt with Aboriginal societies through his or herviceroy.After the American Revolution, a tradition was initiated in eastern Canada of appealing to the viceregal representatives for redress of grievancesand later, after returning from a cross-country tour in 1901, during which he met with First Nations in theYukon,Governor Generalthe Earl of Mintourged his ministers to redress the wrongs he had witnessed in the north and to preserve native heritage and folklore.

Federal and provincial viceroys also met with First Nations leaders for more ceremonial occasions, such as when in 1867 Canada's first governor general,the Viscount Monck,received a native chief, in full feathers, among some of the first guests atRideau Hall.The Marquess of Lansdownesmoked acalumetwith Aboriginal people in thePrairies,the Marquess of Lornewas there namedGreat Brother-in-Law,andthe Lord Tweedsmuirwas honoured by theKainai Nationthrough being made a chief of the Blood Indians and met withGrey Owlin Saskatchewan.The Earl Alexander of Tuniswas presented with atotem polebyKwakiutlcarverMungo Martin,which Alexander erected on the grounds ofRideau Hall,where it stands today with theinukshukby artist Kananginak Pootoogook that was commissioned in 1997 by Governor GeneralRoméo LeBlancto commemorate the secondNational Aboriginal Day.Governor Generalthe Viscount Byng of Vimyundertook a far-reaching tour of the north in 1925, during which he met with First Nations and heard their grievances atFort ProvidenceandFort Simpson.Later, Governor GeneralEdward Schreyerwas in 1984 made an honorary member of theKainai Chieftainship,as was one of his viceregal successors,Adrienne Clarkson,who was made such on 23 July 2005, along with being adopted into the Blood Tribe with the nameGrandmother of Many Nations.Clarkson was an avid supporter of Canada's north and Inuit culture, employing students fromNunavut Arctic Collegeto assist in designing theClarkson Cupand creating theGovernor General's Northern Medal.

Governor GeneralVincent Massey(left) shares a laugh with anInuitinhabitant ofFrobisher Bay.

Five persons from First Nations have been appointed as the monarch's representative, all in the provincial spheres.Ralph Steinhauerwas the first, having been madeLieutenant Governor of Albertaon 2 July 1974; Steinhauer was from theCreenation.Yvon Dumontwas ofMétisheritage and served asLieutenant Governor of Manitobabetween 1993 and 1999.The firstLieutenant Governor of Ontarioof Aboriginal heritage wasJames Bartleman,who was appointed to the position on 7 March 2002. A member of theMnjikaning First Nation,Bartleman listed the encouragement of indigenous young people as one of his key priorities and, during his time in the Queen's service, launched several initiatives to promote literacy and social bridge building, travelling to remote native communities in northern Ontario, pairing native and non-native schools, and creating the Lieutenant Governor's Book Program, which collected 1.4million books that were flown into the province's north to stock shelves of First Nations community libraries.On 1 October 2007,Steven Point,from theSkowkale First Nation,was installed asLieutenant Governor of British ColumbiaandGraydon Nicholas,born on theTobique Indian Reserve,was madeLieutenant Governor of New Brunswickon 30 September 2009.

On 6 July 2021,Prime Minister Justin Trudeauannounced thatQueen Elizabeth IIhad approved the appointment ofMary Simonas the 30th governor general of Canada.She received a customary audience with the Queen on 22 July, though held virtually (instead of in-person) due to thecoronavirus pandemic.When sworn in on 26 July, Simon became the first indigenous governor general in Canadian history. The Queen met Simon in-person for the first time on 15 March 2022 at Windsor Castle, and hosted afternoon tea for her.

See also

• Elijah Harper
• Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians
• History of Canada
• List of Canadian Aboriginal leaders
• Status of First Nations treaties in British Columbia

Further reading

• Nock, David (2006).With good intentions: Euro-Canadian and Aboriginal relations in colonial Canada.University of British Columbia.ISBN978-0-7748-1138-5.

External links

• Map of historical territory treaties with Aboriginal peoples in Canada
• Interviews with legal experts regarding Metis legal issues in the courts