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The Holocaust in Hungary

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The Holocaust in Hungary
photograph
Europe in 1942
LocationHungary
Date
  • April 1944 – 13 February 1945
  • (mainly 15 May – 9 July 1944)
PerpetratorsKingdom of Hungary,Nazi Germany,Adolf Eichmann,László Ferenczy,Arrow Cross Party
CampAuschwitz concentration camp
GhettoBudapest ghetto
Victims
  • 564,000 dead (1941–1945)
  • incl. over 434,000 (15 May–9 July 1944)
MemorialsShoes on the Danube Bank

The Holocaust in Hungarywas the dispossession, deportation, and systematic murder of more than half of theHungarian Jews,primarily after theGerman occupation of Hungaryin March 1944.

At the time of the German invasion, Hungary had a Jewish population of 825,000,[1]the largest remaining in Europe,[2]further swollen by Jews escaping from elsewhere to the relative safety of that country. TheHungarian Prime MinisterMiklós Kállayhad been reluctant to deport them.[3]Fearing Hungary was trying to pursue peace with the Allies (which the diplomatLászló Veresssecretly did in the September of1943[4]),Adolf Hitlerordered the invasion.[5]New restrictions against Jews were imposed soon after Germany occupied Hungary on 19 March 1944. The invading troops included aSonderkommandowhich was led bySSofficerAdolf Eichmann,who arrived inBudapestin order to supervise the deportation of the country's Jews to theAuschwitz concentration campinoccupied Poland.Between 15 May and 9 July 1944, over 434,000 Jews were deported on 147 trains,[6]most of them to Auschwitz, where about 80 percent were gassed on arrival.[7]The quick progress of the deportations was enabled by close cooperation between the Hungarian and German authorities.[8]

Diplomatic pressure and the Alliedbombing of BudapestpersuadedMiklós Horthy,theRegent of Hungary,to order a halt to the deportations on 6 July.[9]By the time they had stopped three days later, almost the entire community of Jews in the Hungarian countryside had gone.[a]

The mass deportation of Hungarian Jews was the largest Holocaust killing after 1942.[11]It took place asWorld War IIappeared to be drawing to a close — and world leaders had known for some time that Jews were being murdered in gas chambers.[12]The expropriation of Jewish property was useful to achieve Hungarian economic goals and sending the Jews as forced laborers avoided the need to send non-Jewish Hungarians.[13]Those who survived the selection were forced to provide construction and manufacturing labor as part ofa last-ditch effortto increase the production offighter aircraft.[14]

Jews in Hungary

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In the 1941 census, the population of Hungary was 14,683,323. Of these, 725,005 regarded themselves as Jews (4.94 percent) and another 100,000 were Jewish by descent who identified as Christian. Over 400,000 lived inpost-Trianon Hungaryand another 324,000 lived in territories acquired by Hungary since 1938:Northern TransylvaniafromRomania(164,000), part ofUpper HungaryfromCzechoslovakia(146,000),Carpathian Ruthenia(78,000), andBácskaand other areas that had been part ofYugoslavia(14,000).[1]

Budapest Provinces Total Acquired
territories
Total Source
Jews 184,453 216,528 400,981 324,026 725,007 [15]
JewishChristians 62,350 27,290 89,640 10,360 100,000 [15]
Total 246,803 243,818 490,621 334,386 825,007 [15]

Anti-Jewish laws

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Labor battalions

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German occupation

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Invasion

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Adolf Eichmann

On 18 March 1944,Adolf Hitlersummoned Horthy to a conference in Austria, where he demanded greater acquiescence from Hungary. Horthy resisted, but his efforts were fruitless. While he was at the conference, German tanks rolled into Budapest, and on 23 March the government ofDöme Sztójaywas installed. Among his first moves, Sztójay legalized theArrow Cross Party,which quickly began organizing. During the four days' interregnum following the German occupation, the Ministry of the Interior was placed in the hands ofLászló EndreandLászló Baky,right-wing politicians known for their hostility to Jews. Their boss,Andor Jaross,was another committedantisemite.[citation needed]

Adolf Eichmann

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SS-ObersturmbannführerAdolf Eichmann,sent to Hungary to supervise the deportations, set up his staff in the Majestic Hotel in Budapest. TheYellow Starand ghettoization laws, and the deportations, were accomplished in less than eight weeks, with the enthusiastic help of the Hungarian authorities, particularly thegendarmerie(csendőrség). The plan was to use 45 cattle cars per train, four trains a day, to deport 12,000 Jews from the countryside every day, starting in mid-May; this was to be followed by the deportation of Jews from Budapest from about 15 July.[citation needed]Rudolf Höss,the first commandant of Auschwitz, returned to the camp between 8 May and 29 July 1944 as the local SS garrison commander to oversee the Hungarian Jews' arrival and gassing.[16]As a result, the Germans called the murdersAktion Höss( "Operation Höss" ).[17]

1944 special work ID issued by the SD to a Jewish woman in occupied Budapest.

Deportation to Auschwitz

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First transports

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The first train left Budapest on 29 April 1944 carrying 1,800 men and women aged 16–50 who were deemed fit to work. A second train leftTopolyaon 30 April carrying 2,000. The transports went through "selection"; 616 women (serial numbers 76385–76459 and 80000–80540) and 486 men (serial numbers 186645–187130) were chosen to work, and 2,698 were gassed.[18]

Mass transports

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Jews arriving at Auschwitz from Hungary

The mass transports, the first organized by theReichssicherheitshauptamt(Reich Security Head Office or RSHA),[19]began leaving Hungary for Poland on 14 May 1944. The Hungarian government was in charge of them up to the northern border. The commander of theKassarailroad station kept a record of the trains. The first freight train passed through Kassa on 14 May. On a typical day, there were three or four, each carrying 3,000–4,000 people. There were 109 trains for 33 days, until 16 June. On several days, there were six trains. From 25–29 June, there were 10, then 18 on 5–9 July. Another 10 trains were sent to Auschwitz via other routes.[citation needed]

The first three trains, each consisting of 40–50 cars, arrived at Auschwitz on 16 May. After unloading their belongings, the deportees were organized into rows of five, then led to the crematoria. According toDanuta Czech,it was from this night onward that smoke became visible from the crematoria chimneys.[19]The camp resistance referred to the deportations in a report covering 5–25 May 1944:

László Ferenczy,Hungarian Royal Gendarmerie

Auschwitz: Operation Höss. Since the middle of May, numerous transports of Hungarian Jews. Every night, eight trains arrive; every day five. The trains consist of 48 to 50 cars each, and in each car are 100 people. "Settlers" arrive with these transports. Each train of "settlers" also has two freight cars of lumber, which the "settlers" unload on the "death ramp", bring to another site and stack in piles... that are intended for them. In order to simplify the work, the people arrive already separated, for example, children in separate cars. The closed trains wait for several hours on the special track to be unloaded. They stand in the nearby small forest.[20]

From 3 June, the electric fence was kept switched on during the day, instead of only at night (as there were guards during the day), because of attempts by Hungarian Jews to escape from the crematoria.[21]The camp resistance reported on 15 July that there had been a pause of several days in the transports after 13 June, and that between 16 May and 13 June, over 300,000 Jews from Hungary had arrived at the camp in 113 trains.[22]According to Höss during his trial, the facilities at Auschwitz could not cope with the numbers, and he had to travel to Budapest to re-organize the transports, so that two or three trains would run on alternate days. Altogether, 111 trains were to be used. According to Höss,Heinrich Himmler,head of the SS, wanted the deportations to speed up.[19]

By 9 July 1944, 434,351 Jews in 147 trains had been deported, according toLászló Ferenczyof theHungarian Royal Gendarmerie.According toEdmund Veesenmayer,the Reich plenipotentiary in Hungary, the figure was 437,402.[b][c]About 80 percent of deportees were gassed on arrival.[7]Because the crematoria were unable to cope with the number of corpses, pits were dug where bodies were burned. Photographs taken at Auschwitz (theAuschwitz Album) were found after the war showing the arrival of the Hungarian Jews at the camp.[25]

Selection

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Jews in Budapest being rounded up by police in 1944

The 20 percent of new arrivals from Hungary selected as prisoners were used as slave labourers or in medical experiments. On 22 May and again on 29 May 2,000 were selected for admission.[26]On 28 May, 963 were transferred fromAuschwitz Ito theMauthausen concentration campin Austria;[27]and on 5 June 2,000 were sent to theBuchenwald concentration campin Germany. The following day, Hungarian inmates with A-series serial numbers were transferred toAuschwitz III,a labour camp forIG Farben,[28]and another 2,000 were sent to Mauthausen that day and on 13 June.[29]

On 29 May,Miklós Nyiszli,a doctor who later worked for the camp's doctor,Josef Mengele,was admitted with his wife and daughter, although they were sent to different parts of the camp.[27]Any twins within the transports were selected; Mengele was notorious for his medical experiments on twins. On 17 May, any boys on the Hungarian transports born as a twin were admitted as prisoners (so-called "depot prisoners" ) and given serial numbers A-1419–A-1437. On 18 May, 20 females who were twin sisters were selected and given serial numbers A-3622–A-3641.[30]Twins were picked out repeatedly, including on 19, 20 and 21 May.[31]

Vrba–Wetzler report

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Just before the deportations of Jews from Budapest began, the Vrba–Wetzler report reached the Allies. The report provided a detailed description of the gas chambers, and what was happening inside the camp; it had been dictated in April 1944 to theSlovakian Jewish Councilby two Auschwitz escapees,Rudolf VrbaandAlfred Wetzler.Horthy's son and daughter-in-law both received copies of the report in early May, before mass deportations began.[32]Information from the report about the murder of Czech Jews in Auschwitz was broadcast in Germany by theBBC World Serviceon its women's program at noon on 16 June 1944, with a warning that the Germans would be held responsible after the war.[d]It was also published by theNew York Timeson 20 June.[34]

The Western Allieslanded in Normandyon 6 June 1944. On 15 June, theMayor of Budapestdesignated 2,000 "starred" houses to which every Jew had to move; the idea was that the Allies would not bomb Budapest with starred houses scattered around the town.[citation needed]On the basis of the Vrba–Wetzler report, world leaders, includingPope Pius XIIon 25 June, PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt,on 26 June, and KingGustaf V of Swedenon 30 June, appealed to Horthy to stop the deportations. Roosevelt threatened military retaliation, and on 7 July, Horthy ordered an end to them.[35]

Rescue efforts

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Aid and Rescue Committee

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Carl Lutz

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Carl Lutzwas a Swiss diplomat. He served as the Swiss Vice-Consul inBudapest,Hungary,from 1942 until the end ofWorld War II.He is credited with saving tens of thousands of Jews during the Second World War, marking the largest diplomatic rescue mission of the Holocaust.

Due to his actions, half of the Jewish population of Budapest survived and was not deported toNaziextermination campsduringthe Holocaust.He was awarded the title ofRighteous Among the NationsbyYad Vashem.

Joel Brand

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Joel Brand,a leading member of the BudapestAid and Rescue Committee,became known for his efforts to negotiate with Eichmann to stop the deportations. In a meeting with Brand in Budapest on 25 April 1944, Eichmann offered to exchange one million Jews for 10,000 trucks from the Allies, to be used exclusively on the Eastern Front.[36]Eichmann called the proposal "blood for goods".[37]Using German travel documents, Brand travelled toTurkeyto transmit the offer to the Jewish Agency, but the British government put an end to the talks by arresting Brand[38]and leaking details to the media.[39]On 20 JulyThe Timescalled the proposal by the Germans "one of the most loathsome" stories of the war and that Germany had reached a "new level of fantasy and self-deception."[e]

Rudolf Kastner

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Another member of the Aid and Rescue Committee,Rudolf Kastner,was involved with Brand in negotiating the "blood for goods" deal with Eichmann and a separate — successful — deal with SS officerKurt Becherto allow 1,685 Jews to leave Hungary for Switzerland, in exchange for money and other goods. This became known as the "Kastner train". After the war, Kastner testified in favour of Becher and other Nazis at the Nuremberg tribunal.[41]

Kastner later emigrated to Israel, where he became involved withMapaiand worked as a press officer for the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.[42]In 1954, he became the subject of a libel case brought by the Israeli government on his behalf againstMalchiel Gruenwald,who alleged that Kastner had collaborated with the Nazis. It was the first big Holocaust trial in Israel.[43]Gruenwald had alleged in a self-published pamphlet that Kastner had known Jews were being gassed at Auschwitz as early as April 1944, after being given a copy of theVrba–Wetzler report,but he had done nothing to warn the wider Jewish community in Hungary. Through his inaction, Gruenwald alleged, Kastner had helped the SS avoid the spread of panic, which would have slowed down the transports.[44]

In June 1955, the judge,Benjamin Halevi,decided in Gruenwald's favor, ruling that Kastner had "sold his soul to the devil".[45]Kastner and his associates had helped to persuade the Jewish community that they were being resettled, Halevi wrote in his 300-page judgement. In return, the SS had allowed the Kastner train to leave Hungary.[46]Israeli historianTom Segevcalled the ruling "one of the most heartless in the history of Israel, perhaps the most heartless ever".[47]As a result of the verdict and its refusal to prosecute Kastner for collaboration, the Israeli government lost a vote of no confidence and collapsed.[48]

Kastner was assassinated in Tel Aviv in March 1957.[49]Most of the decision was reversed by theIsraeli Supreme Courtin January 1958. The majority opinion, written byShimon Agranat,rejected the allegation of collaboration.[48]Adissenting opinionagreed with the original judgement that the ease with which the Nazis had murdered the Jews was "the direct result of the concealment of the horrifying truth from the victims".[50]

Raoul Wallenberg

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Raoul Wallenberg

With the assistance of Acting Interior MinisterBéla Horváth,who provided the use of his ministry's printing press, Swedish diplomatRaoul Wallenbergand his staff prepared Protective Passports under the authority of the Swedish Legation, thus saving thousands of Jews in Hungary between July and December 1944. At one point, Wallenberg appeared personally at the railway station in Budapest, insisting that Jews on the train be removed and presenting the Arrow Cross guards with Protective Passports (Schutzpass) for many of them. Budapest named Wallenberg as an honorary citizen in 2003; several sites honour him, including Raoul Wallenberg Memorial Park and the building that housed the Swedish Embassy in 1945.Yad Vashemrecognized him asRighteous Among the Nationsin November 1963.[51]

Arrow Cross rule

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Captured Jewish women in Wesselényi Street, Budapest, 20–22 October 1944

Horthy dismissed Prime Minister Sztójay on 29 August 1944, the same day theSlovak National Uprisingagainst the Nazis began.[citation needed]After Prime MinisterFerenc Szálasicame to power in October, tens of thousands of Jews in Budapest were sent on foot to the Austrian border in death marches. Most forced laborers under Hungarian Army command were deported (for instance to theBergen-Belsen concentration campin Germany).[citation needed]

Two ghettos were set up in Budapest. The small "international ghetto" consisted of several "starred" houses under the protection of neutral powers in the Újlipótváros district. Switzerland was allowed to issue 7,800 Schutzpasses (safe passage documents), Sweden 4,500, and the Vatican, Portugal and Spain 3,300 combined.[citation needed]The bigBudapest ghettowalled in the Erzsébetváros part of Budapest on 29 November.Nyilas(Arrow Cross guards) raids and mass executions occurred in both ghettos regularly. In addition, between November 1944 and February 1945, the Nyilas shot 10,000–15,000 Jews on the banks of the Danube. Soviet troops liberated the big Budapest ghetto on 18 January 1945. On the Buda side of the town, the encircled Nyilas continued their murders until the Soviets took Buda on 13 February.[52]

Hungarian gold train

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The Hungarian gold train was a Nazi-operated train that carried stolen goods, mostly the property of Hungarian Jews, from Hungary to Berlin, Germany, in 1945. After seizure of the train by theSeventh United States Army,almost none of the valuables were returned to Hungary or their rightful owners or surviving family members.[53]

Number of survivors

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Around 119,000 Jews were liberated in Budapest (25,000 in the small "international" ghetto, 69,000 in the big ghetto, and 25,000 hiding with false papers), as were 20,000 camp survivors and 5,000 forced labourers.[54]Randolph Brahamestimated that just over 564,000 Hungarian Jews died between 1941 and 1945.[55]From over 800,000 Jews living within Hungary's borders in 1941–1944, about 255,500 are thought to have survived.[54]

Holocaust commemoration

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Holocaust memorialization and commemoration have taken place in Hungary through memorials and museums.

The House of Fates is a controversial Holocaust museum in Budapest. Construction on the $23 million museum was completed in 2015. However, the museum has not opened due to controversy surrounding its content.[56]One CNN article described the House of Fates as "whitewashing the country's role in the Holocaust" to advance what is feared to be the right-wing government’s effort to promote a revisionist Holocaust history.[57]In 2019, the chair of the International Holocaust Remembrance Association stated that "the IHRA Plenary agreed to appoint a group of IHRA experts to provide input or suggestions to the international advisory boards of the House of Fates museum."[58]The museum remains unopened.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Randolph Braham(2011): "[F]rom May 15 through July 9 [1944], close to 440,000 of the Jews of Hungary were deported to Auschwitz–Birkenau, where most of them were murdered soon after their arrival. By July 9, when Horthy's decision to halt the deportations took effect, all of Hungary (with the notable exception of Budapest) had becomejudenrein."[10]
  2. ^"By July 9, whenHorthy's July order halting the deportations was finally heeded,Ferenczycould report the deportation of 434,351 Jews in 147 trains. Ferenczy's figures were slightly lower than the 437,402 reported byVeesenmayerto the German Foreign Office. "[23]
  3. ^Veesenmayer's telegram to Wilhelmstrasse (German Foreign Ministry) on July 11: "The concentration and transportation of the Jews from Zone V and the Budapest suburbs was concluded with 55,741 Jews on July 9, as planned. The total result from Zones I-V and the Budapest suburbs has been 437,402."[24]
  4. ^"News has reached London that the German authorities in Czechoslovak [sic] have ordered the massacre of 3,000 Czechoslovak Jews in gas chambers at Birkenau on or about June 20th.... 4,000 Czechoslovak Jews who were taken from Theresienstadt to Birkenau in September 1943 were massacred in the gas chambers on March 7th.
    The German authorities in Czechoslovakia and their subordinates should know that full information is received in London about the massacres in Birkenau. All those responsible for such massacres from top downwards will be called to account. "[33]
  5. ^The Times(20 July 1944): "It has long been clear that, faced with the certainty of defeat, the German authorities would intensify all their efforts to blackmail, deceive and split the allies. In their latest effort, made known in London yesterday, they have reached a new level of fantasy and self-deception. They have put forward, or sponsored, an offer to exchange the remaining Hungarian Jews for munitions of war—which, they said, would not be used on the Western front.
    "The whole story is one of the most loathsome of the war. It begins with a process of deliberate extirpation and ends, to date, with attempted blackmail.... The British Government know what value to set on any German or German-sponsored offer... they know, as well as the Germans, what happens when one begins paying blackmail. The blackmailer increases his price. Such considerations provided their own answer to the proposed bargain."[40]

References

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  1. ^abBraham 2016a,p. 88.
  2. ^Bauer, Yehuda(2002).Rethinking the Holocaust.New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 224.ISBN0-300-09300-4.
  3. ^Braham 2016a,pp. 429–430.
  4. ^"Elmaradt lehetőségek 1943 őszén".Rubicon(in Hungarian).Retrieved10 June2024.
  5. ^Braham 2016a,p. 434.
  6. ^Braham, Randolph L.(2016a).The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary.Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 771, 774–775.ISBN978-0880337113.
  7. ^abKadar, Gabor; Vagi, Zoltan (2004).Self-financing Genocide: The Gold Train, the Becher Case and the Wealth of Hungarian Jews.Budapest and New York: Central European University Press. p. 125.ISBN963-9241-53-9.
  8. ^Gerlach 2016,pp. 114, 368.
  9. ^Braham 2016b,pp. 960–961, 967.
  10. ^Braham, Randolph L.(2011). "Hungary: The Controversial Chapter of the Holocaust". In Braham, Randolph L.;Vanden Heuvel, William(eds.).The Auschwitz Reports and the Holocaust in Hungary.New York: Columbia University Press. p. 45 (29–49).ISBN978-0880336888.
  11. ^Gerlach 2016,p. 103.
  12. ^Braham 2016a,pp. xxxiv–xliii

    Also seeBraham, Randolph L.(2016b).The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary.Vol. 2. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 938–990.ISBN978-0880337113.

  13. ^Gerlach 2016,p. 114.
  14. ^Spoerer 2020,p. 142.
  15. ^abcBraham 2016a,p. 88, citingHungarian Jewry Before and After the Persecutions.Budapest: Hungarian Section of the World Jewish Congress, 1949, p. 2.
  16. ^Lasik, Aleksander(2000). "Organizational Structure of Auschwitz Concentration Camp". In Długoborski, Wacław; Piper, Franciszek (eds.).Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp.Vol. I: The Establishment and Organization of the Camp. Oświęcim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. p. 154 (pp. 145–279).ISBN978-8385047872.OCLC874340863.
  17. ^Lasik, Aleksander(1998) [1994]. "Rudolf Höss: Manager of Crime". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.).Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp.Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. p. 295 (pp. 288–300).ISBN0-253-20884-X.
  18. ^Czech, Danuta(1990).Auschwitz Chronicle 1939–1945.New York: Henry Holt and Company. p. 618.ISBN0-8050-0938-8.
  19. ^abcCzech 1990,p. 627.
  20. ^Czech 1990,pp. 633–634.
  21. ^Czech 1990,p. 640.
  22. ^Czech 1990,p. 666.
  23. ^Braham 2016a,pp. 774–775.
  24. ^Kadar & Vagi 2004,p. xxvi.
  25. ^"The Auschwitz Album".Yad Vashem.Archivedfrom the original on 18 March 2013.
  26. ^Czech 1990,pp. 630, 636.
  27. ^abCzech 1990,p. 636.
  28. ^Czech 1990,p. 641.
  29. ^Czech 1990,pp. 642–643.
  30. ^Czech 1990,p. 628.
  31. ^Czech 1990,pp. 628–630, 640ff.
  32. ^Bauer 2002,p. 157.
  33. ^Fleming, Michael(2014).Auschwitz, the Allies, and Censorship of the Holocaust.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 215, 366, note 190, citing theBBC Written Archives Centre(BBC WAC), C165, 16 June 1944.ISBN978-1-107-06279-5.
  34. ^"Czechs Report Massacre: Claim the Nazis Killed 7,000 in Prison Gas Chambers".New York Times.20 June 1944. p. 5.
  35. ^Szita, Szabolcs (2005).Trading in Lives? Operations of the Jewish Relief and Rescue Committee in Budapest, 1944–1945.Budapest and New York: Central European University Press. pp. 50–54.ISBN963-7326-30-8.
  36. ^Braham 2016b,p. 1254ff.
  37. ^Fischel, Jack R.(2010).Historical Dictionary of the Holocaust.Lanham: Scarecrow Press. p. 31.ISBN978-0-8108-6774-1.
  38. ^Braham 2016b,pp. 1259–1261.
  39. ^Fleming 2014,p. 236.
  40. ^"A Monstrous 'Offer'".The Times.Issue 49913, 20 July 1944, p. 2.
  41. ^Löb, Ladislaus(2008).Dealing with Satan. Rezsõ Kasztner's Daring Rescue Mission.New York: Jonathan Cape, pp. 274–277.ISBN978-0-224-07792-7
  42. ^Segev, Tom(1993).The Seventh Million: The Israelis and the Holocaust.New York: Hill and Wang. p.257.ISBN978-0809085637.
  43. ^Segev 1993,p. 255.
  44. ^Segev 1993,pp. 257–258.
  45. ^Braham 2016b,p. 975.
  46. ^Braham 2016b,p. 1290.
  47. ^Segev 1993,pp. 282–283.
  48. ^abBraham 2016b,p. 1291.
  49. ^Segev 1993,p. 308.
  50. ^Braham 2016b,pp. 975, 1292.
  51. ^"A Swedish Rescuer in Budapest".Yad Vashem.
  52. ^Braham 2016b,p. 1505.
  53. ^"The Mystery of the Hungarian 'Gold Train'".Presidential Advisory Commission on Holocaust Assets in the United States. 7 October 1999.Archivedfrom the original on 8 June 2011.
  54. ^abBraham 2016b,p. 1507.
  55. ^Braham 2016b,p. 1509.
  56. ^"Hungary's New Holocaust Museum Isn't Open Yet, But It's Already Causing Concern".NPR.org.Retrieved14 December2022.
  57. ^"House of Fates: Hungary's controversial Holocaust museum".www.cnn.com.Retrieved14 December2022.
  58. ^"IHRA Chair's Statement on House of Fates, Budapest".IHRA.Retrieved2 July2024.

Further reading

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