Jump to content

Tick

This is a good article. Click here for more information.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused withtic.
This article is about parasitic arachnids. For the symbol, seeCheck mark.For other uses, seeTick (disambiguation).

Tick
Temporal range:Albiantopresent
Ixodes ricinus, a hard tick
Ixodes ricinus,a hard tick
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Superorder: Parasitiformes
Order: Ixodida
Superfamily: Ixodoidea
Leach,1815
Families
Diversity
18 genera, about 900 species

Ticksare parasiticarachnidsof the orderIxodida.They are part of themitesuperorderParasitiformes.Adult ticks are approximately 3 to 5 mm in length depending on age, sex, species, and "fullness". Ticks are externalparasites,living byfeeding on the bloodof mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians. The timing of the origin of ticks is uncertain, though the oldest known tick fossils are from theCretaceousperiod, around 100 million years old. Ticks are widely distributed around the world, especially in warm, humid climates.

Ticks belong to two major families, theIxodidaeor hard ticks, and theArgasidae,or soft ticks.Nuttalliella,a genus of tick from southern Africa, is the only member of the family Nuttalliellidae, and represents the most primitive living lineage of ticks. Adults have ovoid/pear-shaped bodies (idiosomas) which become engorged with blood when they feed, and eight legs. Theircephalothoraxand abdomen are completely fused. In addition to having a hard shield on their dorsal surfaces, known as the scutum, hard ticks have a beak-like structure at the front containing the mouthparts, whereas soft ticks have their mouthparts on the underside of their bodies. Ticks locate potential hosts by sensing odor, body heat, moisture, and/or vibrations in the environment.[1]

Ticks have four stages to their life cycle, namely egg,larva,nymph,and adult. Ticks belonging to theIxodidaefamily undergo either a one-host, two-host, or three-hostlife cycle.[2]Argasid ticks have up to seven nymphal stages (instars), each one requiring blood ingestion, and as such, Argasid ticks undergo a multihost life cycle. Because of their hematophagous (blood-ingesting) diets, ticks act asvectorsof many serious diseases that affect humans and other animals.

Biology

[edit]

Taxonomy and phylogeny

[edit]
Fossilized tick in Dominicanamber

Ticks belong to theParasitiformes,a distinctive group of mites that are separate from the main group of mites, theAcariformes.Whether the two groups are more closely related to each other than to other arachnids is uncertain, and studies often recover them as not closely related.[3]Within the Parasitiformes, ticks are most closely related to theHolothyrida,a small group of free living scavengers with 32 described species confined to the landmasses that formed the supercontinentGondwana.[4]

Relationships among members of the Parasitiformes, after Klompen, 2010:[5]

Parasitiformes

Fossilized ticks have been discovered from the end of the Early Cretaceous onwards, most commonly in amber. The oldest discovered tick fossils are an argasid bird tick from Late Cretaceous (Turonian~94-90 million years ago) agedNew Jersey amber,[6]and various ticks found inBurmese amber,includingKhimairaandDeinocroton,which do not belong to any living family of tick, and members of the living ixodid generaAmblyomma,Ixodes,Haemaphysalis,BothriocrotonandArchaeocrotondating the earliestCenomanianstage of the Late Cretaceous, around99million years ago.[7][4][8][9]An undescribed juvenile tick is known from lateAlbianamber,dating to 105 million years ago.[7]The youngerBalticandDominican ambershave also yielded examples that can be placed in living genera.[10]A phylogenetic analysis suggests that the last common ancestor of all living ticks likely lived around 195 million years ago in the Southern Hemisphere, in what was then Gondwana.[4]

Ticks belong to three different families. The majority of tick species belong to the two families: Ixodidae (hard ticks) and Argasidae (soft ticks). The third living family isNuttalliellidae,named for the bacteriologistGeorge Nuttall.It comprises a single species,Nuttalliella namaqua,[11][12]and as such is amonotypic taxon.Nuttalliella namaquais found in southern Africa ranging fromTanzaniatoNamibiaandSouth Africa.[11][13]

Relationships of living and extinct tick families, after Chitimia-Dobler et al. 2022:[14]

Ixodida

The Ixodidae contain over 700 species of hard ticks with ascutumor hard shield, which the Argasidae lack. The Argasidae contain about 200 species; the genera accepted as of 2010areAntricola,Argas,Nothoaspis,Ornithodoros,andOtobius.[11]They have no scutum, and thecapitulum(mouth and feeding parts) is concealed beneath the body.[15]Thephylogenyof the Ixodida within the Acari is shown in the cladogram, based on a 2014maximum parsimonystudy ofamino acidsequences of 12mitochondrialproteins. The Argasidae appearmonophyleticin this study.[16]

Anatomy and physiology

[edit]
A hard-bodied tick of the family Ixodidae,the lone star tick

Ticks, likemites,belong to the subclass Acari that lack their primary somatic segmentation of theabdomen(oropisthosoma), rather these parasiticarachnidspresent a subsequent fusion of the abdomen with thecephalothorax(orprosoma).[17]Thetagmatatypical of otherCheliceratahave developed into thegnathosoma(head), which is retractable and contains the mouthparts, and idiosoma (body), which contains the legs, digestive tract, and reproductive organs.[18]The gnathosoma is a feeding structure with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood; it is the front of the head and contains neither the brain nor the eyes.[17]Features of the gnathosoma include twopalps,twochelicerae,andhypostome.The hypostome acts as stabilizer and helps to anchor the tick's mouthparts to the host.[19]The chelicerae are specialized appendages used for cutting and piercing into the host's skin while palps are leglike appendages that are sensory in function.

The ventral side of the idiosoma bearssclerites,and the gonopore is located between the fourth pair of legs. In the absence of segmentation, the positioning of the eyes, limbs, andgonoporeon the idiosoma provide the only locational guidance.[17]

Larval ticks hatch with six legs, acquiring the other two after a blood meal andmoltinginto the nymph stage.[20]In the nymphal and adult stages, ticks have eight legs, each of which has seven segments and is tipped with a pair of claws. The legs are sometimes ornamented and usually bear sensory or tactile hairs.[21]In addition to being used forlocomotion,thetarsusof leg I contains a unique sensory structure,Haller's organ,which can detect odors and chemicals emanating from the host, as well as sensing changes in temperature and air currents.[22][23][24]Ticks can also use Haller's organs to perceiveinfraredlight emanating from a host.[25]When stationary, their legs remain tightly folded against the body.[22][23]

Ticks are extremely resilient animals. They can survive in a near vacuum for as long as half an hour.[26]Their slow metabolism during theirdormant periodsenables them to go prolonged durations between meals.[27]Even after 18 weeks of starvation, they can endure repeated two-day bouts of dehydration followed by rehydration, but their survivability against dehydration drops rapidly after 36 weeks of starvation.[28]To keep from dehydrating, ticks hide in humid spots on the forest floor[29]or absorb water from subsaturated air by secretinghygroscopicfluid produced by thesalivary glandsonto the external mouthparts and then reingesting the water-enriched fluid.[30]

Ticks can withstand temperatures just above −18 °C (0 °F) for more than two hours and can survive temperatures between −7 and −2 °C (20 and 29 °F) for at least two weeks. Ticks have even been found in Antarctica, where they feed on penguins.[31]

Most ticks are plain brown or reddish brown. However, the scuta of some species are decorated with white patterns.[32]

Ixodidae

[edit]

Innymphsand adults, thecapitulumis prominent and projects forwards from the body. The eyes are close to the sides of the scutum and the largespiraclesare located just behind thecoxaeof the fourth pair of legs.[15]The hard protectivescutellum,a characteristic of this family, covers nearly the whole dorsal surface in males, but is restricted to a small, shield-like structure behind the capitulum in females and nymphs.[33]When an ixodid attaches to a host the bite is typically painless and generally goes unnoticed. They remain in place until they engorge and are ready tomolt;this process may take days or weeks. Some species drop off the host to molt in a safe place, whereas others remain on the same host and only drop off once they are ready to lay their eggs.[34]

A soft-bodied tick of the family Argasidae, beside eggs it has just laid

Argasidae

[edit]

The body of a soft tick is pear-shaped or oval with a rounded anterior portion. The mouthparts cannot be seen from above, as they are on the ventral surface. A centrally positioned dorsal plate with ridges projecting slightly above the surrounding surface, but with no decoration are often present. Soft ticks possess a leatherycuticleas well. A pattern of small, circular depressions expose where muscles are attached to the interior of theintegument.The eyes are on the sides of the body, the spiracles open between legs 3 and 4, and males and females only differ in the structure of the genital pore.[35]

Nuttalliellidae

[edit]

Nuttalliellidae can be distinguished from both ixodid and argasid ticks by a combination of a projecting gnathosoma and a soft leathery skin. Other distinguishing characteristics include the position of thestigmata,the lack of setae, the strongly corrugated integument, and the form of the fenestrated plates.[36][37]

Diet and feeding

[edit]
A questing tick, fingers for scale

Ticks areectoparasitesand consumebloodto satisfy all of their nutritional requirements. They are obligatehematophages,and require blood to survive and move from one stage of life to another. Ticks can fast for long periods of time, but eventually die if unable to find a host.[38]Hematophagy evolved independently at least six times in arthropods living during the lateCretaceous;in ticks it is thought to have evolved 120 million years ago through adaptation to blood-feeding.[6][39]This behavior evolved independently within the separate tick families as well, with differing host-tick interactions driving the evolutionary change.[6]

Some ticks attach to their host rapidly, while others wander around searching for thinner skin, such as that in the ears of mammals. Depending on the species and life stage, preparing to feed can take from ten minutes to two hours. On locating a suitable feeding spot, the tick grasps the host's skin and cuts into the surface.[38]It extracts blood by cutting a hole in the host'sepidermis,into which it inserts itshypostomeand prevents the blood from clotting by excreting ananticoagulantorplatelet aggregationinhibitor.[40][39]

Ticks find their hosts by detecting an animals' breath and body odors, sensing body heat, moisture, or vibrations.[41]A common misconception about ticks is they jump onto their host; however, they are incapable of jumping, althoughstatic electricityfrom their hosts has been shown to be capable of pulling the tick over distances several times their own body length.[42]Many tick species, particularly Ixodidae, lie in wait in a position known as "questing". While questing, ticks cling to leaves and grasses by their third and fourth pairs of legs. They hold the first pair of legs outstretched, waiting to grasp and climb on to any passing host. Tick questing heights tend to be correlated with the size of the desired host; nymphs and small species tend to quest close to the ground, where they may encounter small mammalian or bird hosts; adults climb higher into the vegetation, where larger hosts may be encountered. Some species are hunters and lurk near places where hosts may rest. Upon receiving anolfactorystimulus or other environmental indication, they crawl or run across the intervening surface.[41]

Other ticks, mainly the Argasidae, arenidicolous,finding hosts in their nests, burrows, or caves. They use the same stimuli as non-nidicolous species to identify hosts, with body heat and odors often being the main factors.[41]Many of them feed primarily onbirds,though someOrnithodorosspecies, for example, feed on smallmammals.Both groups of soft tick feed rapidly, typically biting painfully and drinking their fill within minutes. Unlike the Ixodidae that have no fixed dwelling place except on the host, they live in sand, in crevices near animal dens or nests, or in human dwellings, where they come out nightly to attack roosting birds or emerge when they detectcarbon dioxidein the breath of their hosts.[43]

Ixodidae remain in place until they are completely engorged. Their weight may increase by 200 to 600 times compared to their prefeeding weight. To accommodate this expansion, cell division takes place to facilitate enlargement of the cuticle.[44]In the Argasidae, the tick's cuticle stretches to accommodate the fluid ingested, but does not grow new cells, with the weight of the tick increasing five- to tenfold over the unfed state. The tick then drops off the host and typically remains in the nest or burrow until its host returns to provide its next meal.[35]

Tick saliva contains about 1,500 to 3,000 proteins, depending on the tick species. The proteins with anti-inflammatory properties, calledevasins,allow ticks to feed for eight to ten days without being perceived by the host animal. Researchers are studying these evasins with the goal of developing drugs to neutralise the chemokines that causemyocarditis,heart attack, and stroke.[45]

Mature oocysts of the seabird soft tickOrnithodoros maritimusand theirCoxiellaendosymbionts (labelled in yellow).

Ticks do not use any other food source than vertebrate blood and therefore ingest high levels of protein, iron and salt, but few carbohydrates, lipids or vitamins.[46]Ticks’ genomes have evolved large repertoires of genes related to this nutritional challenge, but they themselves cannot synthesize the essential vitamins that are lacking in blood meal. To overcome these nutritional deficiencies, ticks have evolved obligate interactions with nutritionalendosymbionts.[46]The first appearance of ticks and their later diversification were largely conditioned by this nutritional endosymbiosis lasting for millions of years. The most common of these nutritional endosymbionts belong to theCoxiellaandFrancisellabacterial genera.[47][48]These intracellular symbiotic microorganisms are specifically associated with ticks and usetransovarial transmissionto ensure their persistence.[49][50][51]AlthoughCoxiellaandFrancisellaendosymbionts are distantly related bacteria, they have converged towards an analogous B vitamin-based nutritional mutualism with ticks.[46]Their experimental elimination typically results in decreased tick survival, molting, fecundity and egg viability, as well as in physical abnormalities, which all are fully restored with an oral supplement of B vitamins.[50][52][53]The genome sequencing ofCoxiellaandFrancisellaendosymbionts confirmed that they consistently produce three B vitamin types, biotin (vitamin B7), riboflavin (B2) and folate (B9).[50][52][54]As they are required for tick life cycle, these obligate endosymbionts are present in all individuals of the tick species they infect, at least at early stages of development since they may be secondarily lost in males during nymphal development.[48][50][51]SinceCoxiellaandFrancisellaendosymbionts are closely related to pathogens, there is a substantial risk of misidentification between endosymbionts and pathogens, leading to an overestimation of infection risks associated with ticks.[55][56]

Range and habitat

[edit]

Tick species are widely distributed around the world.[57]They tend to flourish more in warm, humid climates, because they require a certain amount of moisture in the air to undergometamorphosis,and low temperatures inhibit their development of eggs to larvae.[58] The occurrence of ticks and tick-borne illnesses in humans is increasing.[59]Tick populations are spreading into new areas, due in part to the warming temperatures ofclimate change.[60][61]

Tick parasitism is widely distributed among host taxa, including marsupial and placental mammals, birds, reptiles (snakes, iguanas, and lizards), and amphibians.[62]Ticks of domestic animalscause considerable harm to livestock through pathogenic transmission, causing anemia through blood loss, and damaging wool and hides.[63]TheTropical Bont tickwreaks havoc on livestock and wildlife in Africa, the Caribbean, and several other countries through the spread of disease, specificallyheartwaterdisease.[64]Thespinose ear tickhas a worldwide distribution, the young feed inside the ears of cattle and various wildlife.[65]

A habitat preferred by ticks is the interface where a lawn meets the forest,[66]or more generally, theecotone,which is unmaintained transitional edge habitat between woodlands and open areas. Therefore, one tick management strategy is to remove leaf litter, brush, and weeds at the edge of the woods.[67]Ticks like shady, moist leaf litter with an overstory of trees or shrubs and, in the spring, they deposit their eggs into such places allowing larvae to emerge in the fall and crawl into low-lying vegetation. The 3 meter boundary closest to the lawn's edge are a tick migration zone, where 82% of tick nymphs in lawns are found.[68]

Ecology

[edit]

In general, ticks are found wherever their host species occur. Migrating birds carry ticks with them on through their migrations; a study of migratory birds passing through Egypt discovered more than half the bird species examined were carrying ticks. It was also observed the tick species varied depending on the season of migration, in this study it is spring and autumn migrations, this is thought to occur due to the seasonal periodicities of the different species.[69]

For an ecosystem to support ticks, it must satisfy two requirements; the population density of host species in the area must be great enough and it must be humid enough for ticks to remain hydrated.[18]Due to their role in transmittingLyme disease,Ixodid ticks, particularly the North AmericanI. scapularis,have been studied usinggeographic information systemsto develop predictive models for ideal tick habitats. According to these studies, certain features of a given microclimate – such as sandy soil, hardwood trees, rivers, and the presence of deer – were determined to be good predictors of dense tick populations.[43]

Mites and nematodes feed on ticks, which are also a minor nutritional resource for birds. More importantly, ticks act as a disease vector and behave as the primary hosts of many differentpathogenssuch asspirochaetes.Ticks carry various debilitating diseases therefore, ticks may assist in controlling animal populations and preventing overgrazing.[70]

Ticks can transmit an array of infectious diseases that affect humans and other animals.[71]Ticks that carryzoonoticpathogens often tend to have a wide host range. The infective agents can be present not only in the adult tick, but also in the eggs produced plentifully by the females. Many tick species have extended their ranges as a result of the movements of people, domesticated pets, andlivestock.With increasing participation in outdoor activities such aswilderness hikes,more people and their dogs may find themselves exposed to ticks.[72]

Life cycle

[edit]

All three tick families ticks have four life cycle stages: egg,larva,nymph,and adult.[73]

Ixodidae

[edit]
Main article:Ixodidae

Ixodidae ticks have three different life cycles. Depending on the species, Ixodids can either possess a one-host life cycle, two-host life cycle, or three-host life cycle.

One-host ticks
[edit]

In one-host ticks the tick remains on the host through the larval, nymphal, and adult stages, only to leave the host to lay eggs. Eggs laid in the environment hatch into larvae, which immediately seek out a host in which to attach and feed. Fed larvae molt into unfed nymphs that remain on the host. After engorging on the host's blood, the nymphs molt into sexually mature adults that remain on the host in order to feed and mate. Once a female is both fed and ready to lay eggs, only then does she leave the host in search of a suitable area to deposit her eggs. Ticks that follow this life cycle are called one-host ticks. The winter tickDermacentor albipictusand the cattle tickBoophilus microplusare examples of one-host ticks.[74]

Two-host ticks
[edit]

The life cycle of a two-host tick often spans two years.[2]During fall the pregnant female tick will drop off her second host and lay her eggs. The eggs hatch during winter, the following spring the larvae emerge and attach to their first host. Newly hatched larvae attach to a host in order to obtain a blood meal. They remain on the host then develop into nymphs. Once engorged, they drop off the host and find a safe area in the natural environment in which to molt into adults, this typically occurs during the winter. Both male and female adults seek out a host on which to attach, which may be the same body that served as host during their early development but is often a larger mammal. Once attached, they feed and mate.Gravidfemales drop from the host toovipositin the environment. Ticks that complete their life cycle in this manner are called two-host ticks, likeHyalomma anatolicum excavatum.[74]

Three-host ticks
[edit]

Most ixodid ticks require three hosts, and their life cycles typically span three years. The female tick drops off its host, often in the fall, and lays thousands of eggs.[2]The larvae hatch in the winter and emerge in the spring. When the larvae emerge, they attach and feed primarily on small mammals and birds. During the summer the larvae become engorged and drop off the first host to molt and become nymphs, this often occurs during the fall. The following spring the nymphs emerge and seek out another host, often a small rodent. The nymphs become engorged and drop off the host in the fall to molt and become adults. The following spring the adult ticks emerge and seek out a larger host, often a large mammal such as cattle or even humans. Females will mate on their third host. Female adults then engorge on blood and prepare to drop off to lay her eggs on the ground, while males feed very little and remain on the host in order to continue mating with other females.[43][74]

Argasidae

[edit]
Main article:Argasidae

Argasid ticks, unlike ixodid ticks, may go through up to seven nymphal stages (instars), requiring a meal of blood each time.[75]Often, egg laying and mating occurs detached from the host in a safe environment.[2]The eggs hatch and the larvae feed on a nearby host for anywhere from a few hours to several days, this depends on the species of tick. After they feed the larvae drop and molt into their first nymphal instars, then the nymph seeks out and feeds on its second host, often this is the same as the first host, within an hour. This process occurs repeatedly and until the last nymphal instar occurs, thus allowing the tick to molt into an adult. Once an adult these ticks feed rapidly and periodically their entire life cycle. In some species an adult female may lay eggs after each feeding. Their life cycles range from months to years. The adult female argasid tick can lay a few hundred to over a thousand eggs over the course of her lifetime. Both male and female adults feed on blood, and they mate off the host. During feeding, any excess fluid is excreted by the coxal glands, a process that is unique to argasid ticks.[43]

Nuttalliellidae

[edit]
Main article:Nuttalliella

Nuttalliellidae is an elusive monotypic family of tick, that is, possesses a single species,Nuttalliella namaqua.There is little to nothing known about the life cycle and feeding habits ofN. namaquabut it is speculated this species of tick has multiple different hosts.[76]

Relationship with humans

[edit]

Tick-borne disease

[edit]
Main article:Tick-borne disease
A sign in a Lithuanian forest warning of high risk oftick-borne encephalitisinfection

Ticks can transmit many kinds ofpathogens,such asbacteria,viruses,andprotozoa,thatinfectticks’ hosts.[77]A tick can harbor more than one type of pathogen, making diagnosis more difficult.[60]Species of the bacterial genusRickettsiaare responsible fortyphus,rickettsialpox,boutonneuse fever,African tick bite fever,Rocky Mountain spotted fever,Flinders Island spotted fever,andQueensland tick typhus(Australian tick typhus).[78]Other tick-borne diseases includeLyme diseaseandQ fever,[79]Colorado tick fever,Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever,tularemia,tick-bornerelapsing fever,babesiosis,ehrlichiosis,Bourbon virus,andtick-borne meningoencephalitis,as well as bovineanaplasmosisand theHeartland virus.[80]In the United States, Lyme disease is the most commonly reported vector-borne disease in the country.[81]

Some species, notably theAustralian paralysis tick,are also intrinsicallyvenomousand can causetick paralysis.Eggs can become infected with pathogens inside a female tick'sovaries,in which case the larval ticks are infectious immediately at hatching, before feeding on their first host.[75]Tropical bont tickstransmit theheartwater,which can be particularly devastating in cattle.[65]The ticks carried by migratory birds act as reservoirs and vectors of foreign infectious diseases. In the Egyptian migratory bird study, over 20 strains of pathogenic viruses were detected within the tick sample from autumn.[69]

Not all ticks in an infective area are infected with transmittable pathogens, and both attachment of the tick and a long feeding session are necessary for diseases to be transmitted.[72]Consequently, tick bites often do not lead to infection, especially if the ticks are removed within 36 hours.[82]Adult ticks can be removed with fine-tipped tweezers or proprietary tick removal tools, before then disinfecting the wound.[83][84]In Australia and New Zealand, where tick-borne infections are less common than tick reactions, theAustralasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergyrecommends seeking medical assistance or killing ticksin-situby freezing and then leaving them to fall out to prevent allergic/anaphylactic reactions.[85][86]ProfessorSheryl van Nunen,whose research in 2007 identified tick-induced mammalian meat allergy, famously said "tweezers are tick squeezers",[87][88]referring to the tick toxins squeezed into people attempting to remove ticks with tweezers. Ticks can be disposed of by flushing them down the toilet, placing them in a container of soapy water or alcohol, or sticking them to tape that can then be folded over and thrown away.[20][83]

Bifenthrinandpermethrin,bothpyrethroids,are sometimes used as tick-control measures, although they have the disadvantage of beingcarcinogenicand able to attack the nervous systems of other species besides ticks. Those who walk through tick-infested areas can make it harder for ticks to latch onto them by tucking their trousers into boots made of smooth rubber, which ticks have trouble climbing.[89][90]

Research since 2008 has documented red-meat allergies (mammalian meat allergy andAlpha-gal allergy) in the U.S. due tolone star tickbites. The range of the problem has been expanding with the range of the tick.[60]Other species of ticks are known for being responsible for meat allergies in other countries, including Sweden, Germany, and Australia.[91]

Many tick-transmitted viruses, such asCrimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus,Kyasanur Forest disease virus,Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus,andOmsk hemorrhagic fever virus,are classified as dangerous enough to requirebiosafety level 4precautions in laboratory environments. This includes five levels of containment, viz., storage vials within humidifieddesiccators,withinenvironmental chambers,within a tick suite, within a BSL4 laboratory. Precautions such asglove boxes,sticky pads, Vaseline barriers, safety suits, gloves, sticky tape, siliconevacuum grease,sticky trap paste, and micro mesh are used to safely contain ticks and prevent them from escaping.[92]

Population control measures

[edit]
Researcher collecting ticks using the "tick dragging"method

With the possible exception of widespreadDDTuse in theSoviet Union,attempts to limit the population or distribution of disease-causing ticks have been quite unsuccessful.[93] The parasitoidencyrtid waspIxodiphagus hookerihas been investigated for its potential to control tick populations. It lays its eggs into ticks;[94][a]the hatching wasps kill their hosts.[95]

Predators and competitors of tick hosts can indirectly reduce the density of infected nymphs, thereby lowering tick-borne disease risk by lowering the density and/or tick burden of reservoir-competent hosts. A study in the Netherlands found that the number of larval ticks on bank voles and wood mice was lower at sites with significant red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and stone marten (Martes foina) activity.[96]

This supports the results of a study from thenortheastern United States,in which the incidence of Lyme borreliosis was negatively correlated with the density of red fox, possibly because foxes decrease the density ofwhite-footed mice(Peromyscus leucopus), the most important reservoir-competent host forBorrelia burgdorferi.[96][97]

Another natural form of control for ticks is thehelmeted guineafowl,a bird species that consumes mass quantities of ticks.[98]Opossumsgroom themselves, swallowing many ticks; they are net destroyers of ticks, killing around ninety percent of the ticks that attempt to feed on them.[99]More generally, highanimal diversityhas a strongly protective effect against tick-borne disease.[68]

Topical tick medicines may be toxic to animals and humans. Thesynthetic pyrethroidinsecticidephenothrinin combination with the hormone analoguemethoprenewas a popular topical flea and tick therapy for felines. Phenothrin kills adult ticks, while methoprene kills eggs. Some products were withdrawn,[100]and others are known to cause adverse reactions.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Micrographs of the wasp laying eggs into a tick, and the hole by which the young wasps emerge from the tick's dead body, are available in Plantard et al 2012.[94]

References

[edit]
  1. ^"How ticks spread disease".Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.21 September 2020.Retrieved29 November2020.
  2. ^abcd"Ticks".CDC - DPDx.23 January 2019.Retrieved29 November2020.
  3. ^Giribet G (March 2018)."Current views on chelicerate phylogeny—A tribute to Peter Weygoldt".Zoologischer Anzeiger.273:7–13.doi:10.1016/j.jcz.2018.01.004.S2CID90344977.
  4. ^abcBeati L, Klompen H (7 January 2019)."Phylogeography of Ticks (Acari: Ixodida)".Annual Review of Entomology.64(1): 379–397.doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043027.ISSN0066-4170.PMID30354695.S2CID53023797.
  5. ^Klompen H (30 June 2010)."Holothyrids and ticks: new insights from larval morphology and DNA sequencing, with the description of a new species of Diplothyrus (Parasitiformes: Neothyridae)".Acarologia.50(2): 269–285.doi:10.1051/acarologia/20101970.ISSN0044-586X.S2CID55284869.
  6. ^abcKlompen H, Grimaldi D (2001)."First Mesozoic Record of a Parasitiform Mite: a Larval Argasid Tick in Cretaceous Amber (Acari: Ixodida: Argasidae)"(PDF).Annals of the Entomological Society of America.94(1): 10–15.doi:10.1603/0013-8746(2001)094[0010:FMROAP]2.0.CO;2.
  7. ^abPeñalver E, Arillo A, Delclòs X, Peris D, Grimaldi DA, Anderson SR, et al. (December 2017)."Ticks parasitised feathered dinosaurs as revealed by Cretaceous amber assemblages".Nature Communications.8(1): 1924.Bibcode:2017NatCo...8.1924P.doi:10.1038/s41467-017-01550-z.PMC5727220.PMID29233973.
  8. ^Chitimia-Dobler L, Mans BJ, Handschuh S, Dunlop JA (n.d.)."A remarkable assemblage of ticks from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber".Parasitology.149(6): 820–830.doi:10.1017/S0031182022000269.ISSN0031-1820.PMC10090602.PMID35241194.S2CID247227499.
  9. ^Chitimia-Dobler L, Dunlop JA, Pfeffer T, Würzinger F, Handschuh S, Mans BJ (February 2023)."Hard ticks in Burmese amber with Australasian affinities".Parasitology.150(2): 157–171.doi:10.1017/S0031182022001585.ISSN0031-1820.PMC10090639.PMID36341553.
  10. ^Dunlop JA, Apanaskevich DA, Lehmann J, Hoffmann R, Fusseis F, Ehlke M, et al. (October 2016)."Microtomography of the Baltic amber tick Ixodes succineus reveals affinities with the modern Asian disease vector Ixodes ovatus".BMC Evolutionary Biology.16(1): 203.Bibcode:2016BMCEE..16..203D.doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0777-y.PMC5057450.PMID27724841.
  11. ^abcGuglielmoneet al.(2010)
  12. ^Goddard (2008):p. 80
  13. ^Keiranset al.(1976)
  14. ^Chitimia-Dobler L, Mans BJ, Handschuh S, Dunlop JA (May 2022)."A remarkable assemblage of ticks from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber".Parasitology.149(6): 820–830.doi:10.1017/S0031182022000269.ISSN0031-1820.PMC10090602.PMID35241194.
  15. ^abMolyneux (1993)p. 6
  16. ^Gu XB, Liu GH, Song HQ, Liu TY, Yang GY, Zhu XQ (July 2014)."The complete mitochondrial genome of the scab mite Psoroptes cuniculi (Arthropoda: Arachnida) provides insights into Acari phylogeny".Parasites & Vectors.7:340.doi:10.1186/1756-3305-7-340.PMC4223567.PMID25052180.
  17. ^abcRuppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD (2004).Invertebrate Zoology(7th ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 590–595.ISBN978-81-315-0104-7.
  18. ^abWall & Shearer (2001):p. 55
  19. ^Richter D, Matuschka FR, Spielman A, Mahadevan L (December 2013)."How ticks get under your skin: insertion mechanics of the feeding apparatus of Ixodes ricinus ticks".Proceedings. Biological Sciences.280(1773): 20131758.doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.1758.ISSN0962-8452.PMC3826218.PMID24174106.
  20. ^ab"Common Ticks".Illinois Department of Public Health.Retrieved11 April2014.
  21. ^"Soft ticks".CVBD: Companion Vector-Borne Diseases.Retrieved6 December2016.
  22. ^abSonenshine (2005):p. 14[permanent dead link]
  23. ^abNicholsonet al.(2009):p. 486
  24. ^For Haller's organ, see also:Mehlhorn (2008):p. 582.
  25. ^Mitchell RD, Zhu J, Carr AL, Dhammi A, Cave G, Sonenshine DE, et al. (August 2017)."Infrared light detection by the haller's organ of adult american dog ticks, Dermacentor variabilis (Ixodida: Ixodidae)".Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases.8(5): 764–771.doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2017.06.001.PMC5588665.PMID28647127.
  26. ^Yonge (15 March 2012)."Stuffed in a vacuum and bombarded by electrons, a tick waves hello".Discover. Archived fromthe originalon 1 May 2019.Retrieved1 May2019.
  27. ^Miller M (20 November 2018)."UC study: Hungry ticks work harder to find you".UC Cincinnati.
  28. ^Rosendale AJ, Dunlevy ME, Fieler AM, Farrow DW, Davies B, Benoit JB (August 2017)."Dehydration and starvation yield energetic consequences that affect survival of the American dog tick".Journal of Insect Physiology.101:39–46.doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.06.012.PMID28648807.
  29. ^Zimmer C (30 April 2013)."The Rise of the Tick".Outside.
  30. ^Gray JS, Kahl O, Lane RS, Levin ML, Tsao JI (July 2016)."Diapause in ticks of the medically important Ixodes ricinus species complex".Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases.7(5): 992–1003.doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.05.006.PMC5659180.PMID27263092.
  31. ^"Ticks are even tougher and nastier than you thought".Science Daily.25 September 2017.
  32. ^Sirois M (2015).Laboratory Procedures for Veterinary Technicians.St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.ISBN978-0-323-16930-1.
  33. ^Walker JB, Keirans JE, Horak IG (2005).The GenusRhipicephalus(Acari, Ixodidae): A Guide to the Brown Ticks of the World.Cambridge University Press. p. 39.ISBN978-1-316-58374-6.
  34. ^Salman MD, Tarrés-Call J, Estrada-Peña A (2013).Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases: Geographical Distribution and Control Strategies in the Euro-Asia Region.CABI. pp. 6–12.ISBN978-1-84593-853-6.
  35. ^ab"Soft ticks".CVBD: Companion Vector-Borne Diseases.Retrieved6 December2016.
  36. ^Roshdyet al.(1983)
  37. ^Brouwers L (30 August 2011)."Long Lost Relative of Ticks Pops Up Again".Scientific American.Retrieved4 December2016.
  38. ^ab"Life cycle of Hard Ticks that Spread Disease".Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Retrieved22 June2013.
  39. ^abMans BJ, Louw AI, Neitz AW (October 2002)."Evolution of hematophagy in ticks: common origins for blood coagulation and platelet aggregation inhibitors from soft ticks of the genus Ornithodoros".Molecular Biology and Evolution.19(10): 1695–705.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003992.ISSN1537-1719.PMID12270896.
  40. ^Goddard (2008):p. 82
  41. ^abc"Host seeking".CVBD: Companion Vector-Borne Diseases.Retrieved8 December2016.
  42. ^Static electricity passively attracts ticks onto hosts
  43. ^abcdAllan (2001)
  44. ^"Hard ticks".CVBD: Companion Vector-Borne Diseases.Retrieved6 December2016.
  45. ^University of Oxford (27 June 2017)."From bug to drug—tick saliva could be key to treating heart disease".Phys.org.
  46. ^abcDuron O, Gottlieb Y (October 2020)."Convergence of Nutritional Symbioses in Obligate Blood Feeders"(PDF).Trends in Parasitology.36(10): 816–825.doi:10.1016/j.pt.2020.07.007.PMID32811753.S2CID221181791.
  47. ^Binetruy F, Buysse M, Lejarre Q, Barosi R, Villa M, Rahola N, et al. (March 2020)."Microbial community structure reveals instability of nutritional symbiosis during the evolutionary radiation of Amblyomma ticks"(PDF).Molecular Ecology.29(5): 1016–1029.Bibcode:2020MolEc..29.1016B.doi:10.1111/mec.15373.PMID32034827.S2CID211065648.
  48. ^abDuron O, Binetruy F, Noël V, Cremaschi J, McCoy KD, Arnathau C, et al. (June 2017)."Evolutionary changes in symbiont community structure in ticks"(PDF).Molecular Ecology.26(11): 2905–2921.Bibcode:2017MolEc..26.2905D.doi:10.1111/mec.14094.hdl:10067/1422810151162165141.PMID28281305.S2CID40962020.
  49. ^Buysse M, Plantard O, McCoy KD, Duron O, Menard C (June 2019)."Tissue localization of Coxiella-like endosymbionts in three European tick species through fluorescence in situ hybridization"(PDF).Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases.10(4): 798–804.doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.03.014.PMID30922601.
  50. ^abcdDuron O, Morel O, Noël V, Buysse M, Binetruy F, Lancelot R, et al. (June 2018)."Tick-Bacteria Mutualism Depends on B Vitamin Synthesis Pathways".Current Biology.28(12): 1896–1902.e5.Bibcode:2018CBio...28E1896D.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.038.PMID29861133.S2CID44095809.
  51. ^abLalzar I, Friedmann Y, Gottlieb Y (December 2014). "Tissue tropism and vertical transmission of Coxiella in Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Rhipicephalus turanicus ticks".Environmental Microbiology.16(12): 3657–68.Bibcode:2014EnvMi..16.3657L.doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12455.ISSN1462-2920.PMID24650112.
  52. ^abGuizzo MG, Parizi LF, Nunes RD, Schama R, Albano RM, Tirloni L, et al. (December 2017)."A Coxiella mutualist symbiont is essential to the development of Rhipicephalus microplus".Scientific Reports.7(1): 17554.Bibcode:2017NatSR...717554G.doi:10.1038/s41598-017-17309-x.ISSN2045-2322.PMC5730597.PMID29242567.
  53. ^Ben-Yosef M, Rot A, Mahagna M, Kapri E, Behar A, Gottlieb Y (22 April 2020)."Rhipicephalus sanguineus Is Required for Physiological Processes During Ontogeny".Frontiers in Microbiology.11:493.doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.00493.ISSN1664-302X.PMC7188774.PMID32390951.
  54. ^Smith TA, Driscoll T, Gillespie JJ, Raghavan R (January 2015)."A Coxiella-like endosymbiont is a potential vitamin source for the Lone Star tick".Genome Biology and Evolution.7(3): 831–8.doi:10.1093/gbe/evv016.PMC4994718.PMID25618142.
  55. ^Duron O, Sidi-Boumedine K, Rousset E, Moutailler S, Jourdain E (November 2015)."The Importance of Ticks in Q Fever Transmission: What Has (and Has Not) Been Demonstrated?"(PDF).Trends in Parasitology.31(11): 536–552.doi:10.1016/j.pt.2015.06.014.ISSN1471-4922.PMID26458781.S2CID25636125.
  56. ^Duron O (September 2015)."The IS1111 insertion sequence used for detection of Coxiella burnetii is widespread in Coxiella-like endosymbionts of ticks".FEMS Microbiology Letters.362(17): fnv132.doi:10.1093/femsle/fnv132.ISSN0378-1097.PMID26269380.
  57. ^Magnarelli (2009)
  58. ^Nuttall (1905)
  59. ^"Lyme and Other Tickborne Diseases Increasing".Centers for Disease Control.21 October 2021.Retrieved4 March2022.
  60. ^abcChrobak U (3 February 2022)."Lyme and other tick-borne diseases are on the rise. But why?".Knowable Magazine.doi:10.1146/knowable-020222-1.Retrieved4 March2022.
  61. ^Gilbert L (7 January 2021)."The Impacts of Climate Change on Ticks and Tick-Borne Disease Risk".Annual Review of Entomology.66(1): 373–388.doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-052720-094533.ISSN0066-4170.PMID33417823.S2CID231300522.
  62. ^Dantas-Torres F, Oliveira-Filho EF, Soares FA, Souza BO, Valença RB, Sá FB (2008)."Ticks infesting amphibians and reptiles in Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil".Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinaria.17(4): 218–21.doi:10.1590/S1984-29612008000400009.PMID19265581.
  63. ^"Ticks of Livestock".Ectoparasites of Livestock.Butox. Archived fromthe originalon 16 January 2017.Retrieved14 January2017.
  64. ^"tropical bont tick - Amblyomma variegatum".entnemdept.ufl.edu.Retrieved29 November2020.
  65. ^ab"Ticks".Livestock Veterinary Entomology.Texas A&M AgriLife.Retrieved14 January2017.
  66. ^Beans C (20 July 2016)."Taking The Battle Against Lyme Disease Ticks To The Backyard".NPR.
  67. ^"Integrated Tick Management"(PDF).Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 December 2022.Retrieved2 May2019.
  68. ^abTucker B (11 May 2018)."The tick-resistant yard".Dirt Magazine.
  69. ^abHoogstraal H, Kaiser MN, Traylor MA, Guindy E, Gaber S (1963)."Ticks (Ixodidae) on birds migrating from Europe and Asia to Africa 1959-61".Bulletin of the World Health Organization.28(2): 235–62.PMC2554471.PMID13961632.
  70. ^Ray CC (28 May 2012)."The mighty tick".New York Times.Retrieved15 December2016.
  71. ^Vilcins M, Old J, Deane E (2005)."The impact of ticks and tick-borne diseases on native animal species in Australia".Microbiology Australia.26(2).CSIRO Publishing:76.doi:10.1071/ma05076.ISSN1324-4272.S2CID81977091.
  72. ^ab"Disease transmission".CVBD: Companion Vector-Borne Diseases.Retrieved9 December2016.
  73. ^Dennis & Piesman (2005):p. 5[permanent dead link]
  74. ^abcSonenshine D (1991).Biology of Ticks.New York: Oxford University Press.
  75. ^abAeschlimann & Freyvogel, 1995:p. 182
  76. ^Mans BJ, de Klerk D, Pienaar R, Latif AA (17 August 2011)."Nuttalliella namaqua: a living fossil and closest relative to the ancestral tick lineage: implications for the evolution of blood-feeding in ticks".PLOS ONE.6(8): e23675.Bibcode:2011PLoSO...623675M.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023675.ISSN1932-6203.PMC3157464.PMID21858204.
  77. ^Wenner M (11 June 2021)."Let's Do a Tick Check - These pervasive bloodsuckers can give you more than just Lyme disease. Here's how to protect yourself. (Interactive)".The New York Times.Retrieved19 June2021.
  78. ^Unsworth NB, Stenos J, Graves SR, Faa AG, Cox GE, Dyer JR, et al. (April 2007)."Flinders Island spotted fever rickettsioses caused by" marmionii "strain of Rickettsia honei, Eastern Australia".Emerging Infectious Diseases.13(4): 566–73.doi:10.3201/eid1304.050087.PMC2725950.PMID17553271.
  79. ^"Q fever".Centers for Disease Control.Retrieved7 November2010.
  80. ^"Heartland virus".8 November 2018.
  81. ^Eisen RJ, Kugeler KJ, Eisen L, Beard CB, Paddock CD (December 2017)."Tick-Borne Zoonoses in the United States: Persistent and Emerging Threats to Human Health".ILAR Journal.58(3): 319–335.doi:10.1093/ilar/ilx005.ISSN1084-2020.PMC5610605.PMID28369515.
  82. ^Feldman G, Feldman L, Macnair P (6 March 2014)."All about ticks: why it's so important to remove a tick".Netdoctor.Retrieved8 December2016.
  83. ^ab"Tick removal".Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Retrieved24 October2014.
  84. ^Pace EJ, O'Reilly M (2020)."Tickborne diseases: diagnosis and management".American Family Physician.101(9): 530–540.PMID32352736.Archived(PDF)from the original on 17 July 2023.
  85. ^"New Animation - How to Safely Remove Ticks".www.allergy.org.au.Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA). 13 April 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 27 March 2023.
  86. ^"Tick Allergy"(PDF).Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy.21 May 2019.Retrieved17 July2023.
  87. ^"TIARA - Tick Induced Allergies Research and Awareness".TIARA - Tick Induced Allergies Research and Awareness.Retrieved15 February2020.
  88. ^Salleh A (1 January 2020)."Tweeze vs freeze: Here's the lowdown on how to get rid of a tick".ABC News.Retrieved15 February2020.
  89. ^Atwell T (3 January 2016)."Pesticides may get rid of ticks, but at what cost?".Press Herald.
  90. ^Figura D (4 June 2014)."Outdoors experts: Keep ticks off by spraying repellent on your clothes".Syracuse.com.
  91. ^Aubrey A (25 June 2018)."Red Meat Allergies Caused By Tick Bites Are On The Rise".NPR.Retrieved26 June2018.
  92. ^Thangamani S, Bente D (July 2014)."Establishing protocols for tick containment at Biosafety Level 4".Pathogens and Disease.71(2): 282–5.doi:10.1111/2049-632X.12187.PMC4107070.PMID24838773.
  93. ^Dennis & Piesman, 2005:p. 3[permanent dead link]
  94. ^abPlantard O, Bouju-Albert A, Malard MA, Hermouet A, Capron G, Verheyden H (2012)."Detection of Wolbachia in the tick Ixodes ricinus is due to the presence of the hymenoptera endoparasitoid Ixodiphagus hookeri".PLOS ONE.7(1): e30692.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...730692P.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030692.PMC3266912.PMID22292021.
  95. ^Tijsse-Klasen E, Braks M, Scholte EJ, Sprong H (December 2011)."Parasites of vectors--Ixodiphagus hookeri and its Wolbachia symbionts in ticks in The Netherlands".Parasites & Vectors.4:228.doi:10.1186/1756-3305-4-228.PMC3248373.PMID22152674.
  96. ^abHofmeester TR, Jansen PA, Wijnen HJ, Coipan EC, Fonville M, Prins HH, et al. (July 2017)."Cascading effects of predator activity on tick-borne disease risk".Proceedings. Biological Sciences.284(1859): 20170453.doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.0453.PMC5543215.PMID28724731.Material was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  97. ^Levi T, Kilpatrick AM, Mangel M, Wilmers CC (July 2012)."Deer, predators, and the emergence of Lyme disease".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.109(27): 10942–7.Bibcode:2012PNAS..10910942L.doi:10.1073/pnas.1204536109.PMC3390851.PMID22711825.
  98. ^Duffyet al.(1992)
  99. ^Main D (13 June 2018)."'Destroyers of ticks': How opossums help fight ticks and Lyme Disease ".Boston 25 News.
  100. ^"Hartz flea and tick drops for cats and kittens to be phased out".Environmental Protection Agency.2005. Archived fromthe originalon 11 January 2010.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tick&oldid=1230377078"