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Tithonian

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Tithonian
149.2 ± 0.7 – ~145.0Ma
↓
Chronology
Etymology
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Celestial bodyEarth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitAge
Stratigraphic unitStage
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionNot formally defined
Lower boundary definition candidates
Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s)
Upper boundary definitionNot formally defined
Upper boundary definition candidates
Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s)None

In thegeological timescale,theTithonianis the latestageof theLate JurassicEpoch and the uppermoststageof theUpper JurassicSeries. It spans the time between 149.2 ±0.7Maand 145.0 ± 4 Ma (million years ago). It is preceded by theKimmeridgianand followed by theBerriasian(part of theCretaceous).[2]

Stratigraphic definitions

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The Tithonian was introduced in scientific literature by German stratigrapherAlbert Oppelin 1865. The name Tithonian is unusual in geological stage names because it is derived fromGreek mythology.Tithonuswas the son ofLaomedonofTroyand fell in love withEos,the Greek goddess ofdawn.His name was chosen by Albert Oppel for thisstratigraphicalstage because the Tithonian finds itself hand in hand with the dawn of the Cretaceous.[3]

The base of the Tithonian stage is at the base of theammonitebiozoneofHybonoticeras hybonotum.A global reference profile (aGSSP or golden spike) for the base of the Tithonian had in 2009 not yet been established.

The top of the Tithonian stage (the base of the Berriasian Stage and the CretaceousSystem) is marked by the first appearance of small globular calpionellids of the speciesCalpionella alpina,at the base of the Alpina Subzone.

Subdivision

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The Tithonian is often subdivided into Lower/Early, Middle and Upper/Late substages or subages. The Late Tithonian is coeval with thePortlandianAge of British stratigraphy.

The Tithonian stage contains seven ammonite biozones in theTethys domain,from top to base:

Sedimentary environments

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Sedimentary rocks that formed in the Tethys Ocean during the Tithonian include limestones, which preserve fossilized remains of, for example,cephalopods.TheSolnhofen limestoneof southern Germany, which is known for its fossils (especiallyArchaeopteryx), is of Tithonian age.

Tithonian extinction

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The later part of the Tithonian stage experienced anextinction event.[4][5]It has been referred to as theTithonian extinction,[6][7][8]Jurassic-Cretaceous (J–K) extinction,[4][5][9]orend-Jurassic extinction.[10][11]This event was fairly minor and selective, by most metrics outside the top 10 largest extinctions since theCambrian.Nevertheless, it was still one of the largest extinctions of the Jurassic Period, alongside theToarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event(TOAE) in theEarly Jurassic.[7][12]

Potential causes

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Cooling and sea level fall

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The Tithonian extinction has not been studied in great detail, but it is usually attributed tohabitat lossvia a majormarine regression(sea level fall).[6]There is good evidence for a marine regression in Europe across the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary, which may explain the localized nature of the extinction.[13][8][11]On the other hand, there is no clear consensus on a correlation between sea level and terrestrial diversity during the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Some authors support a fundamental correlation (the so-called "common cause hypothesis" ),[11]while others strongly voice doubts.[14]Sea level fall was likely related to the Tithonian climate, which was substantially colder and drier than the preceding Kimmeridgian stage. Northern coral reef ecosystems, such as those of the European Tethys, would have been particularly vulnerable to global cooling during this time.[5]

Volcanism or asteroid impacts

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Shatsky Rise
Shatsky Rise
TheShatsky Riselabelled on a map of North Pacific volcanic features

Few Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary sections are precisely associated with carbon isotope anomalies.[12][15]SeveralArcticoutcrops show a moderate (up to 5‰) negative organicδ13Cexcursion in the middle part of the Tithonian. This excursion, sometimes called the Volgian Isotopic Carbon Excursion (VOICE), may be a consequence of volcanic activity.[16]The Tithonian stage saw the emplacement of theShatsky Rise,a massivevolcanic plateauin theNorth Pacific.During the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, numerous volcanic deposits can be found along the margin of Gondwana, which was beginning to fragment into smaller continents.[5]

Artistic representation of abrachiosaurid,with theMorokweng impactorin the background, moments before impact

Three largeimpact cratershave been tentatively dated to the Tithonian: theMorokweng Impact Structure(South Africa, 80+ km diameter),Mjølnir crater(Barents Sea,40 km diameter), andGosses Bluff crater(Australia, 22 km diameter). These impacts would have caused local devastation, but likely had minimal impact on global ecosystems. Most volcanic events or extraterrestrial impacts in the Late Jurassic were concentrated around Gondwana, in contrast to the extinction event, which was centered onLaurasianecosystems.[5]

Sampling bias

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It has been suggested that the putative extinction is a consequence ofsampling biases.The Late Jurassic is packed with marinelagerstätten,exceptionally diverse and well-preserved fossil beds. A lack of earliest Cretaceous marine lagerstätten may appear as a loss of diversity, simply looking at the raw data alone.[17][18]Sampling bias may also explain apparent extinctions in terrestrial environments, which have a similar disconnect in fossil abundance. This is most obvious in sauropod-bearing deposits, which are abundant in the Late Jurassic and rare in the earliest Cretaceous.[18]Most studies relevant to the Tithonian extinction attempt to counteract sampling biases when estimating diversity loss or extinction rates.[14][5]Depending on the sampling method or the taxonomic group, the Tithonian extinction may still be apparent even once sampling biases are accounted for.[5][19]

Impact on life

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In 1986,Jack Sepkoskiargued that the Late Tithonian extinction was the largest extinction event between the end of the Triassic and the end of the Cretaceous. He estimated that a staggering 37% of genera died out during the Tithonian stage.[20]Benton(1995) found a lower estimate, with the extinction of 5.6 to 13.3% of genera in the Tithonian. Proportional extinction was higher for continental genera (5.8–17.6%) than marine genera (5.1–6.1%).[21]Sepkoski (1996) estimated that about 18% of multiple-interval marine genera (those originating prior to the Tithonian) died out in the Tithonian.[7]Based on an updated version of Sepkoski's genera compendium, Bambach (2006) found a similar estimate of 20% of genera going extinct in the Late Tithonian.[22]

Invertebrates

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Europeanbivalvediversity is severely depleted across the J–K boundary.[23][6][24][5]However, bivalve fossils from theAndesandSiberiashow little ecological turnover, so bivalve extinctions may have localized to theTethys Sea.Only a fraction of Jurassicammonitespecies survive to the Cretaceous, though extinction rates were actually lower in the late Tithonian relative to adjacent time intervals.[6][8]Moderate diversity declines have been estimated or observed ingastropods,brachiopods,radiolarians,crustaceans,andscleractiniancorals.This may have been related to the replacement of Jurassic-stylecoral reefsby Cretaceous-stylerudistreefs.[5]Reef decline was likely a gradual process, stretched out between the Oxfordian stage and theValanginianstage.[25]

Marine vertebrates

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The Jurassic-Cretaceous transition saw the extinction of thalassochelydian turtles, such asPlesiochelys

Marineactinopterygians(ray-finned fishes) show elevated extinction rates across the Tithonian-Berriasian boundary. Most losses were quickly offset by substantial diversification in the Early Cretaceous. Sharks, rays, and freshwater fishes were nearly unaffected by the extinction.[26]

Marine reptileswere strongly affected by the Tithonian extinction.[27][4]Thalassochelydians,the most prominent Jurassiccladeof marineturtles,were pushed to the brink of extinction.[5]Only a single thalassochelydian fossil (an indeterminate skull from thePurbeck Groupof England) is known from the Cretaceous.[28]Amongplesiosaurs,only a few species ofPliosauridaeandCryptoclididaepersisted, and they too would die out in the Early Cretaceous. Conversely, the Tithonian extinction acted as a trigger for a Cretaceous diversification event for plesiosaurs in the cladeXenopsaria,namelyelasmosauridsandleptocleidians.[4]This turnover of marine reptile faunas may be a consequence of the turnover of reefs and marine fishes, which would have benefited generalized predators more than specialists.[5]

It has long been suggested thatichthyosaursand marineteleosauroidcrocodyliformsdeclined across the J–K boundary, with the latter group even going extinct.[27][29][30]More recent finds suggest that ichthyosaurs diversity remained stable or even increased in the Early Cretaceous.[10][4][5]Early Cretaceous ichthyosaur fossils are rare enough that this hypothesis is still a matter of debate.[11]European teleosauroids did indeed suffer total extinction,[31]but teleosauroids as a whole survived into the Early Cretaceous in other parts of the world.[32][33][34]Metriorhynchoids,the other major group of marine crocodyliforms, were not strongly affected by the Tithonian extinction.[31]

Terrestrial vertebrates

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Some studies have argued that sauropods, likeApatosaurus louisae,were strongly impacted by the Tithonian extinction

On land,sauropoddinosaur diversity was significantly reduced according to many[35][36][11][5][19](but not all)[18][37]estimates.Diplodocids,basalmacronarians,andmamenchisauridstook the brunt of the extinction,[5]though a few species of each group survived to the Early Cretaceous.[38][39][40]Conversely,rebbachisauridsandsomphospondylssaw the opportunity to diversify in the Cretaceous.[5]Turiasaursalso survived the extinction and even expanded into North America during the Early Cretaceous.[9]Theropoddiversity declined through the entire Late Jurassic, with medium-sized predators such asmegalosauridsbeing the hardest hit.[11][5]Ornithischian(particularlystegosaur) diversity saw a small drop across the J–K boundary. Theropod and ornithischian extinctions were notably less pronounced than in sauropods.[36][11]

Most non-pterodactyloidpterosaursperished by the end of the Jurassic.[11]Practically no earliest Cretaceous sites are known to preserve pterosaur fossils, so the precise timing of non-pterodactyloidextinctions is very uncertain.[17]Coastal and freshwater crocodyliforms experienced high extinction rates across the J–K boundary, preceding a significant diversification of more terrestrially-adaptedmetasuchiansin the Cretaceous.[29][30][5]Coastal and freshwater turtle diversity also declined, at least in Europe.[11][30]Many tetrapod groups saw strong (albeit gradual) ecological turnover through the J-K boundary. These groups includelissamphibians,lepidosaurs,choristoderes,andmammaliaforms.[11]

References

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Notes

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  1. ^"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"(PDF).International Commission on Stratigraphy.
  2. ^See for a detailed version of the geologic timescale Gradsteinet al.(2004)
  3. ^Gradstein FM, Ogg JG, Schmitz MD, Ogg GM, eds. (2012).The Geologic Timescale 2012.Elsevier. p. 746.ISBN978-0-44-459390-0.
  4. ^abcdeBenson, Roger B. J.; Druckenmiller, Patrick S. (2014)."Faunal turnover of marine tetrapods during the Jurassic-Cretaceous transition".Biological Reviews.89(1): 1–23.doi:10.1111/brv.12038.PMID23581455.S2CID19710180.
  5. ^abcdefghijklmnopqTennant, Jonathan P.; Mannion, Philip D.; Upchurch, Paul; Sutton, Mark D.; Price, Gregory D. (2017)."Biotic and environmental dynamics through the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous transition: evidence for protracted faunal and ecological turnover: Jurassic-Cretaceous biotic and abiotic dynamics".Biological Reviews.92(2): 776–814.doi:10.1111/brv.12255.PMC6849608.PMID26888552.
  6. ^abcdHallam, A. (1986)."The Pliensbachian and Tithonian extinction events".Nature.319(6056): 765–768.Bibcode:1986Natur.319..765H.doi:10.1038/319765a0.ISSN0028-0836.S2CID4310433.
  7. ^abcSepkoski JJ (1996)."Patterns of Phanerozoic Extinction: A Perspective from Global Data Bases".In Walliser OH (ed.).Global Events and Event Stratigraphy in the Phanerozoic.Berlin & Heidelberg, DE: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 35–51.doi:10.1007/978-3-642-79634-0_4.ISBN978-3-642-79636-4.Retrieved2022-08-14.
  8. ^abcHallam, Anthony (1996), Walliser, Otto H. (ed.),"Major Bio-Events in the Triassic and Jurassic",Global Events and Event Stratigraphy in the Phanerozoic,Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 265–283,doi:10.1007/978-3-642-79634-0_13,ISBN978-3-642-79636-4,retrieved2023-04-24
  9. ^abRoyo-Torres, Rafael; Upchurch, Paul; Kirkland, James I.; DeBlieux, Donald D.; Foster, John R.; Cobos, Alberto; Alcalá, Luis (2017-10-30)."Descendants of the Jurassic turiasaurs from Iberia found refuge in the Early Cretaceous of western USA".Scientific Reports.7(1): 14311.Bibcode:2017NatSR...714311R.doi:10.1038/s41598-017-14677-2.ISSN2045-2322.PMC5662694.PMID29085006.
  10. ^abFischer, Valentin; Maisch, Michael W.; Naish, Darren; Kosma, Ralf; Liston, Jeff; Joger, Ulrich; Krüger, Fritz J.; Pérez, Judith Pardo; Tainsh, Jessica; Appleby, Robert M. (2012-01-03)."New Ophthalmosaurid Ichthyosaurs from the European Lower Cretaceous Demonstrate Extensive Ichthyosaur Survival across the Jurassic–Cretaceous Boundary".PLOS ONE.7(1): e29234.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...729234F.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029234.ISSN1932-6203.PMC3250416.PMID22235274.
  11. ^abcdefghijTennant, Jonathan P.; Mannion, Philip D.; Upchurch, Paul (2016-09-02)."Sea level regulated tetrapod diversity dynamics through the Jurassic/Cretaceous interval".Nature Communications.7(1): 12737.Bibcode:2016NatCo...712737T.doi:10.1038/ncomms12737.ISSN2041-1723.PMC5025807.PMID27587285.
  12. ^abBambach RK (May 2006). "Phanerozoic Biodiversity Mass Extinctions".Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences.34(1): 127–155.Bibcode:2006AREPS..34..127B.doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122654.ISSN0084-6597.
  13. ^Hallam, A. (1989)."The case for sea-level change as a dominant causal factor in mass extinction of marine invertebrates".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences.325(1228): 437–455.Bibcode:1989RSPTB.325..437H.doi:10.1098/rstb.1989.0098.ISSN0080-4622.
  14. ^abButler, Richard J.; Benson, Roger B. J.; Carrano, Matthew T.; Mannion, Philip D.; Upchurch, Paul (2011-04-22)."Sea level, dinosaur diversity and sampling biases: investigating the 'common cause' hypothesis in the terrestrial realm".Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.278(1709): 1165–1170.doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1754.ISSN0962-8452.PMC3049076.PMID20880889.
  15. ^Price, Gregory D.; Főzy, István; Pálfy, József (2016)."Carbon cycle history through the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary: A new global δ13C stack".Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.451:46–61.Bibcode:2016PPP...451...46P.doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.03.016.hdl:10026.1/4782.
  16. ^Galloway, Jennifer M.; Vickers, Madeleine L.; Price, Gregory D.; Poulton, Terence; Grasby, Stephen E.; Hadlari, Thomas; Beauchamp, Benoit; Sulphur, Kyle (2020)."Finding the VOICE: organic carbon isotope chemostratigraphy of Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous Arctic Canada".Geological Magazine.157(10): 1643–1657.Bibcode:2020GeoM..157.1643G.doi:10.1017/S0016756819001316.hdl:10026.1/15324.ISSN0016-7568.S2CID213590881.
  17. ^abDean, Christopher D.; Mannion, Philip D.; Butler, Richard J. (2016). Benson, Roger (ed.)."Preservational bias controls the fossil record of pterosaurs".Palaeontology.59(2): 225–247.Bibcode:2016Palgy..59..225D.doi:10.1111/pala.12225.PMC4878658.PMID27239072.
  18. ^abcStarrfelt, Jostein; Liow, Lee Hsiang (2016-04-05)."How many dinosaur species were there? Fossil bias and true richness estimated using a Poisson sampling model".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.371(1691): 20150219.doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0219.ISSN0962-8436.PMC4810813.PMID26977060.
  19. ^abTennant, Jonathan P.; Chiarenza, Alfio Alessandro; Baron, Matthew (2018-02-19)."How has our knowledge of dinosaur diversity through geologic time changed through research history?".PeerJ.6:e4417.doi:10.7717/peerj.4417.ISSN2167-8359.PMC5822849.PMID29479504.S2CID3548488.
  20. ^Sepkoski JJ (1986)."Phanerozoic overview of mass extinction".In Raup DM, Jablonski D (eds.).Patterns and Processes in the History of Life.Dahlem Workshop Reports. Berlin & Heidelberg, DE: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 277–295.doi:10.1007/978-3-642-70831-2_15.ISBN978-3-642-70833-6.Retrieved2022-08-14.
  21. ^Benton MJ (April 1995)."Diversification and extinction in the history of life"(PDF).Science.268(5207): 52–58.Bibcode:1995Sci...268...52B.doi:10.1126/science.7701342.PMID7701342.
  22. ^Bambach RK (May 2006). "Phanerozoic Biodiversity Mass Extinctions".Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences.34(1): 127–155.Bibcode:2006AREPS..34..127B.doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122654.ISSN0084-6597.
  23. ^Hallam, A. (1977)."Jurassic bivalve biogeography".Paleobiology.3(1): 58–73.Bibcode:1977Pbio....3...58H.doi:10.1017/S009483730000511X.ISSN0094-8373.S2CID89578740.
  24. ^Liu, Chun-lian (2000)."Extinction Events Among Jurassic Bivalves".Acta Scientiarium Naturalium.39(1).
  25. ^FLÜGEL, ERIK; KIESSLING, WOLFGANG (2002),"Patterns of Phanerozoic Reef Crises",Phanerozoic Reef Patterns,SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), pp. 691–733,doi:10.2110/pec.02.72.0691,ISBN1-56576-081-6,retrieved2023-04-25
  26. ^Guinot, Guillaume; Cavin, Lionel (2016)."'Fish' (Actinopterygii and Elasmobranchii) diversification patterns through deep time: 'Fish' diversification patterns through deep time ".Biological Reviews.91(4): 950–981.doi:10.1111/brv.12203.PMID26105527.S2CID25157060.
  27. ^abBardet, Nathalie (1994)."Extinction events among Mesozoic marine reptiles".Historical Biology.7(4): 313–324.doi:10.1080/10292389409380462.ISSN0891-2963.
  28. ^Anquetin, Jérémy; André, Charlotte (2020)."The last surviving Thalassochelydia—A new turtle cranium from the Early Cretaceous of the Purbeck Group (Dorset, UK)".PaleorXiv(7paf5c).doi:10.31233/osf.io/7pa5c.S2CID226481039.
  29. ^abMannion, Philip D.; Benson, Roger B. J.; Carrano, Matthew T.; Tennant, Jonathan P.; Judd, Jack; Butler, Richard J. (2015-09-24)."Climate constrains the evolutionary history and biodiversity of crocodylians".Nature Communications.6(1): 8438.Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.8438M.doi:10.1038/ncomms9438.ISSN2041-1723.PMC4598718.PMID26399170.
  30. ^abcTennant, Jonathan P.; Mannion, Philip D.; Upchurch, Paul (2016-03-16)."Environmental drivers of crocodyliform extinction across the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition".Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.283(1826): 20152840.doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.2840.ISSN0962-8452.PMC4810856.PMID26962137.
  31. ^abYoung, Mark T.; Brandalise de Andrade, Marco; Cornée, Jean-Jacques; Steel, Lorna; Foffa, Davide (2014)."Re-description of a putative Early Cretaceous" teleosaurid "from France, with implications for the survival of metriorhynchids and teleosaurids across the Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary".Annales de Paléontologie.100(2): 165–174.Bibcode:2014AnPal.100..165Y.doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2014.01.002.
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  35. ^Mannion, Philip D.; Upchurch, Paul; Carrano, Matthew T.; Barrett, Paul M. (2011)."Testing the effect of the rock record on diversity: a multidisciplinary approach to elucidating the generic richness of sauropodomorph dinosaurs through time".Biological Reviews.86(1): 157–181.doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00139.x.PMID20412186.S2CID9831073.
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  37. ^Cashmore, Daniel D.; Mannion, Philip D.; Upchurch, Paul; Butler, Richard J. (2020). Benson, Roger (ed.)."Ten more years of discovery: revisiting the quality of the sauropodomorph dinosaur fossil record".Palaeontology.63(6): 951–978.Bibcode:2020Palgy..63..951C.doi:10.1111/pala.12496.ISSN0031-0239.S2CID219090716.
  38. ^McPhee, Blair W.; Mannion, Philip D.; de Klerk, William J.; Choiniere, Jonah N. (2016)."High diversity in the sauropod dinosaur fauna of the Lower Cretaceous Kirkwood Formation of South Africa: Implications for the Jurassic–Cretaceous transition".Cretaceous Research.59:228–248.Bibcode:2016CrRes..59..228M.doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2015.11.006.hdl:10044/1/27470.
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Literature

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  • Gradstein, F.M.; Ogg, J.G. & Smith, A.G.;(2004): A Geologic Time Scale 2004,Cambridge University Press.
  • Oppel, C.A.;1865:Die Tithonische Etage,Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft, 1865: pp 535–558.(in German)
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tithonian&oldid=1221616550"