Plot twist

Aplot twistis aliterary techniquethat introduces a radical change in the direction or expected outcome of theplotin a work of fiction.^[1]When it happens near the end of a story, it is known as atwist endingorsurprise ending.^[2]It may change the audience's perception of the preceding events, or introduce a new conflict that places it in a different context. A plot twist may beforeshadowed,to prepare the audience to accept it, but it usually comes with some element of surprise. There are various methods used to execute a plot twist, such as withholding information from the audience, or misleading them with ambiguous or false information. Not every plot has a twist, but some have multiple lesser ones, and some are defined by a single major twist.

Since the effectiveness of a plot twist usually relies on the audience's not having expected it, revealing a plot twist to readers or viewers in advance is commonly regarded as aspoiler.Even revealing the fact that a work contains plot twists – especially at the ending – can also be controversial, as it changes the audience's expectations. However, at least one study suggests that this does not affect the enjoyment of a work.^[3]

Early examples

An early example of the romance genre^[4]with multiple twists^[5]was theArabian Nightstale "The Three Apples".It begins with a fisherman discovering a locked chest. The first twist occurs when the chest is broken open and a corpse is found inside. The initial search for the murderer fails, and a twist occurs when two men appear, separately claiming to be the murderer. A complex chain of events finally reveals the murderer to be the investigator's own slave.

Mechanics

Literary analysts have identified several common categories of plot twists, based on how they are executed.

Anagnorisis

Anagnorisis,or discovery, is the protagonist's sudden recognition of his or her own or another character's true identity or nature.^[6]Through this technique, previously unforeseen character information is revealed. A notable example of anagnorisis occurs inOedipus Rex:Oedipus kills his fatherandmarries his motherin ignorance, learning the truth only toward the climax of the play.^[7]The earliest use of this device as a twist ending in amurder mysterywas in "The Three Apples",a medievalArabian Nightstale, where the protagonistJa'far ibn Yahyadiscovers by chance a key item towards the end of the story that reveals the culprit behind the murder to have been his own slave all along.^[8]^[9]

Flashback

Flashback,or analepsis, a sudden, vivid reversion to a past event,^[10]surprises the reader with previously unknown information that solves a mystery, places a character in a different light, or reveals the reason for a previously inexplicable action. TheAlfred HitchcockfilmMarnieemployed this type of surprise ending. Sometimes this is combined with the above category, as the flashback may reveal the true identity of one of the characters, or that the protagonist is related to one of the villain's past victims, asSergio Leonedid withCharles Bronson's character inOnce Upon a Time in the WestorFrederick Forsyth'sThe Odessa File.

Cliffhanger

Acliffhangeror cliffhanger ending, is a plot device in fiction which features a main character in a precarious or difficult dilemma or confronted with a shocking revelation at the end of an episode of serialized fiction. A cliffhanger is hoped to incentivize the audience to return to see how the characters resolve the dilemma. A notable example is in the 1980Star WarsfilmThe Empire Strikes Backwhere protagonistLuke Skywalkerwho initially believed that the antagonistDarth Vaderhad killed his father, Anakin afterObi-Wan Kenobitold it to him inA New Hopeis shocked and horrified when the latter tells him that he himself is his father Anakin, with the revelation eventually being fully dealt with and resolved inReturn of the Jedi(1983).

Unreliable narrator

Anunreliable narratortwists the ending by revealing, almost always at the end of the narrative, that the narrator has manipulated or fabricated the preceding story, thus forcing the reader to question his or her prior assumptions about the text.^[11]Thismotifis often used withinnoir fictionandfilms,notably in the filmThe Usual Suspects.An unreliable narrator motif was employed by Agatha Christie inThe Murder of Roger Ackroyd,a novel that generated much controversy due to critics' contention that it was unfair to trick the reader in such a manipulative manner.^[12]Another example of unreliable narration is a character who has been revealed to be insane and thus causes the audience to question the previous narrative; notable examples of this are in theTerry GilliamfilmBrazil,Chuck Palahniuk'sFight Club(andDavid Fincher'sfilm adaptation),Gene Wolfe's novelBook of the New Sun,the second episode ofAlfred Hitchcock Presents,Premonition,the 1920 German silent horror filmThe Cabinet of Dr. Caligari,Iain Pears'sAn Instance of the Fingerpost,Shutter IslandandKim Newman'sLife's Lottery.The term "unreliable narrator" is sometimes applied to films (such as the aforementionedBrazilandShutter Island) which do not feature anyvoice-over narrationin a conventional sense, but whose protagonists are still considered "narrators" in the sense that the film is presented from their perspective and the audience mainly encounters the narrative anddiegesisthrough that character's point of view.^[13]

Peripeteia

Peripeteiais a sudden reversal of the protagonist's fortune, whether for good or ill, that emerges naturally from the character's circumstances.^[14]Unlike thedeus ex machinadevice, peripeteia must be logical within the frame of the story. An example of a reversal for ill would beAgamemnon's sudden murder at the hands of his wifeClytemnestrainAeschylus'The Oresteiaor the inescapable situationKate Hudson's character finds herself in at the end ofThe Skeleton Key.This type of ending was a common twist ending utilised byThe Twilight Zone,most effectively in the episode "Time Enough at Last"whereBurgess Meredith's character is robbed of all his hope by a simple but devastating accident with his eyeglasses. A positive reversal of fortune would be Nicholas Van Orton's suicide attempt after mistakenly believing himself to have accidentally killed his brother, only to land safely in the midst of his own birthday party, in the filmThe Game.

Deus ex machina

Deus ex machinais a Latin term meaning "god from the machine." It refers to an unexpected, artificial or improbable character, device or event introduced suddenly in a work of fiction to resolve a situation or untangle a plot.^[15]InAncient Greek theater,the "deus ex machina" ('ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός') was the character of a Greek god literally brought onto the stage via a crane (μηχανῆς—mechanes), after which a seemingly insoluble problem is brought to a satisfactory resolution by the god's will. The term is now used pejoratively for any improbable or unexpected contrivance by which an author resolves the complications of the plot in a play or novel, and which has not been convincingly prepared for in the preceding action; the discovery of a lost will was a favorite resort of Victorian novelists.^[16]

Red herring

Ared herringis a false clue intended to lead investigators toward an incorrect solution.^[17]This device usually appears indetective novelsandmystery fiction.The red herring is a type ofmisdirection,a device intended to distract theprotagonist,and by extension the reader, away from the correct answer or from the site of pertinent clues or action. The Indian murder mystery filmGupt: The Hidden Truthcast many veteran actors who had usually played villainous roles in previous Indian films as red herrings in this film to deceive the audience into suspecting them.

In the bestselling novelThe Da Vinci Code,the misdeeds of a key character named "Bishop Aringarosa" draw attention away from the true master villain ( "Aringarosa" literally translates as "pink herring" ). In theWilliam DiehlnovelPrimal Fear(also adapted into afilm), a defendant namedAaron Stampleris accused of brutally murdering the Archbishop of Chicago. He is revealed to have adissociative identity disorder,and is not executed on plea of insanity. Near the end, Aaron's lawyer discovers that he feigned his insanity to avoid the death penalty. Agatha Christie's classicAnd Then There Were Noneis another famous example and includes the term as well in a murder ploy where the intended victims are made to guess that one of them will be killed through an act of treachery.

The complete second timeline of the sixth season of the television seriesLostis a red herring: initially, this second timeline seems to be analternate timelinein whichOceanic 815never crashes (the main timeline revolves around the crashing of such plane onan island). However, one of the last scenes reveals that this timeline is "a place" where the characters of the series meet after they have died, similar to theBardoorLimboconcept. A red herring can also be used as a form of falseforeshadowing.

False protagonist

Afalse protagonistis a character presented at the start of the story as the main character, but then disposed of, usually killed to emphasize that they will not return. An example isPsycho's Marion Crane (portrayed byJanet Leigh), who is brutally murdered about halfway through the film. Another instance is the filmExecutive Decision,in which thespecial-forcesteam leader, played by highly-billed action starSteven Seagal,is killed shortly after the mission begins. The character ofCasey Becker(played by then A-list actressDrew Barrymore) inScreamis killed in the first fifteen minutes. An example in literature and television isNed Starkin theGame of Thrones franchise,who is killed before the end of the first book/season, despite receiving the most focus of the ensemble of characters.

Non-linear narrative

Anon-linear narrativeworks by revealing plot and character in non-chronological order.^[18]This technique requires the reader to attempt to piece together the timeline in order to fully understand the story. A twist ending can occur as the result of information that is held until the climax and which places characters or events in a different perspective. Some of the earliest known uses of non-linear story telling occur inThe Odyssey,a work that is largely told in flashback via the narratorOdysseus.The Aeneid,anotherepic poem,uses a similar approach; it begins with the main protagonist,Aeneas,telling stories about the end of theTrojan Warand the first half of his journey toDido,queen ofCarthage.The nonlinear approach has been used in works such as the filmsMulholland Drive,Sin City,Saw IV,Premonition,Arrival,Pulp Fiction,Memento,Babel,the television showsLost,How to Get Away with Murder,How I Met Your Mother(especially in many episodes in the later seasons),Heroes,Westworld,the bookCatch-22,andWandaVision.^[19]^[20]

Reverse chronology

Reverse chronologyworks by revealing the plot in reverse order, i.e., from final event to initial event.^[21]Unlike chronological storylines, which progress through causes before reaching a final effect, reverse chronological storylines reveal the final effect before tracing the causes leading up to it; therefore, the initial cause represents a "twist ending". Examples employing this technique include the filmsIrréversible,Memento,Happy Endand5x2,the playBetrayalbyHarold Pinter,andMartin Amis'Time's Arrow.Stephen SondheimandGeorge Furth'sMerrily We Roll Alongand the1934 Kaufman and Hart playthat inspired it both tell the story of the main characters in reverse order.

References

^Ralph Stuart Singleton; James A. Conrad; Janna Wong Healy (1 August 2000).Filmmaker's dictionary.Lone Eagle Pub. Co. p. 229.ISBN 978-1-58065-022-9.Retrieved27 July2013.
^Judith Kay; Rosemary Gelshenen (26 February 2001).Discovering Fiction Student's Book 2: A Reader of American Short Stories.Cambridge University Press. p. 65.ISBN 978-0-521-00351-3.Retrieved27 July2013.
^Jonah Lehrer,Spoilers Don't Spoil Anything.Wired Science Blogs.
^Marzolph, Ulrich (2006).The Arabian Nights Reader.Wayne State University Press.pp. 240–2.ISBN 0-8143-3259-5.
^Pinault, David (1992).Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights.Brill Publishers.pp. 93, 95, 97.ISBN 90-04-09530-6.
^Chris Baldick (2008).The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms.Oxford University Press. p. 12.ISBN 978-0-19-920827-2.Retrieved23 July2013.
^John MacFarlane, "Aristotle's Definition of Anagnorisis."American Journal of Philology- Volume 121, Number 3 (Whole Number 483), Fall 2000, pp. 367-383.
^Pinault, David (1992).Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights.Brill Publishers.pp. 95–6.ISBN 90-04-09530-6.
^Marzolph, Ulrich (2006).The Arabian Nights Reader.Wayne State University Press.pp. 241–2.ISBN 0-8143-3259-5.
^Chris Baldick (2008).The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms.Oxford University Press. p. 13.ISBN 978-0-19-920827-2.Retrieved23 July2013.
^Chris Baldick (2008).The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms.Oxford University Press. p. 347.ISBN 978-0-19-920827-2.Retrieved23 July2013.
^"The ubiquitous unreliable narrator".My.en.com. 1996-03-26. Archived fromthe originalon 2001-12-24.Retrieved2012-12-10.
^Maier, Emar (2022)."Unreliability and Point of View in Filmic Narration".Epistemology & Philosophy of Science.59(2): 23–37.doi:10.5840/eps202259217.S2CID 237579037.RetrievedSeptember 19,2023.
^Michael Payne; Jessica Rae Barbera (31 March 2010).A Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory.John Wiley & Sons. p. 689.ISBN 978-1-4443-2346-7.Retrieved23 July2013.
^Joseph Twadell Shipley (1964).Dictionary of World Literature: Criticism, Forms, Techniques.Taylor & Francis. p. 156. GGKEY:GL0NUL09LL7.Retrieved23 July2013.
^Baldick, Chris (2004),The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms,Oxford:Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0-19-860883-7
^Linus Asong (2012).Detective Fiction and the African Scene: From the Whodunit? to the Whydunit?.African Books Collective. p. 31.ISBN 978-9956-727-02-5.Retrieved23 July2013.
^Josef Steiff (2011).Sherlock Holmes and Philosophy: The Footprints of a Gigantic Mind.Open Court. p. 96.ISBN 978-0-8126-9731-5.Retrieved23 July2013.
^Adrienne Redd,Nonlinear films and the anticausality of Mulholland Dr.,Prose Toad Literary Blog
^"Plots Inc. Productions".Plotsinc.com. Archived fromthe originalon 2017-10-12.Retrieved2012-12-10.
^John Edward Philips (2006).Writing African History.University Rochester Press. p. 507.ISBN 978-1-58046-256-3.Retrieved23 July2013.

[SingletonConrad2000-1] Ralph Stuart Singleton; James A. Conrad; Janna Wong Healy (1 August 2000).Filmmaker's dictionary.Lone Eagle Pub. Co. p. 229.ISBN 978-1-58065-022-9.Retrieved27 July2013.

[KayGelshenen2001-2] Judith Kay; Rosemary Gelshenen (26 February 2001).Discovering Fiction Student's Book 2: A Reader of American Short Stories.Cambridge University Press. p. 65.ISBN 978-0-521-00351-3.Retrieved27 July2013.

[3] Jonah Lehrer,Spoilers Don't Spoil Anything.Wired Science Blogs.

[4] Marzolph, Ulrich (2006).The Arabian Nights Reader.Wayne State University Press.pp. 240–2.ISBN 0-8143-3259-5.

[5] Pinault, David (1992).Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights.Brill Publishers.pp. 93, 95, 97.ISBN 90-04-09530-6.

[Baldick2008-6] Chris Baldick (2008).The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms.Oxford University Press. p. 12.ISBN 978-0-19-920827-2.Retrieved23 July2013.

[7] John MacFarlane, "Aristotle's Definition of Anagnorisis."American Journal of Philology- Volume 121, Number 3 (Whole Number 483), Fall 2000, pp. 367-383.

[Pinault-8] Pinault, David (1992).Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights.Brill Publishers.pp. 95–6.ISBN 90-04-09530-6.

[Marzolph-9] Marzolph, Ulrich (2006).The Arabian Nights Reader.Wayne State University Press.pp. 241–2.ISBN 0-8143-3259-5.

[10] Chris Baldick (2008).The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms.Oxford University Press. p. 13.ISBN 978-0-19-920827-2.Retrieved23 July2013.

[11] Chris Baldick (2008).The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms.Oxford University Press. p. 347.ISBN 978-0-19-920827-2.Retrieved23 July2013.

[12] "The ubiquitous unreliable narrator".My.en.com. 1996-03-26. Archived fromthe originalon 2001-12-24.Retrieved2012-12-10.

[13] Maier, Emar (2022)."Unreliability and Point of View in Filmic Narration".Epistemology & Philosophy of Science.59(2): 23–37.doi:10.5840/eps202259217.S2CID 237579037.RetrievedSeptember 19,2023.

[PayneBarbera2010-14] Michael Payne; Jessica Rae Barbera (31 March 2010).A Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory.John Wiley & Sons. p. 689.ISBN 978-1-4443-2346-7.Retrieved23 July2013.

[Shipley1964-15] Joseph Twadell Shipley (1964).Dictionary of World Literature: Criticism, Forms, Techniques.Taylor & Francis. p. 156. GGKEY:GL0NUL09LL7.Retrieved23 July2013.

[16] Baldick, Chris (2004),The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms,Oxford:Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0-19-860883-7

[Asong2012-17] Linus Asong (2012).Detective Fiction and the African Scene: From the Whodunit? to the Whydunit?.African Books Collective. p. 31.ISBN 978-9956-727-02-5.Retrieved23 July2013.

[Steiff2011-18] Josef Steiff (2011).Sherlock Holmes and Philosophy: The Footprints of a Gigantic Mind.Open Court. p. 96.ISBN 978-0-8126-9731-5.Retrieved23 July2013.

[19] Adrienne Redd,Nonlinear films and the anticausality of Mulholland Dr.,Prose Toad Literary Blog

[20] "Plots Inc. Productions".Plotsinc.com. Archived fromthe originalon 2017-10-12.Retrieved2012-12-10.

[Philips2006-21] John Edward Philips (2006).Writing African History.University Rochester Press. p. 507.ISBN 978-1-58046-256-3.Retrieved23 July2013.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

v t e Narrative
Character	Antagonist Archenemy Character arc Character flaw Characterization Confidant Deuteragonist False protagonist Focal character Foil Gothic double Hamartia Hero Anti Byronic Tragic Narrator Protagonist Stock character Straight man Supporting character Title character Tritagonist Villain
Plot	Ab ovo Action Backstory Origin story Chekhov's gun Cliché Cliffhanger Conflict Deus ex machina Dialogue Dramatic structure Eucatastrophe Foreshadowing Flashback Flashforward Frame story In medias res Kishōtenketsu MacGuffin Pace Plot device Plot twist Poetic justice Red herring Reveal Self-insertion Shaggy dog story Stereotype Story arc Story within a story Subplot Suspense Trope
Setting	Alternate history Backstory Crossover Dreamworld Dystopia Fictional location city country universe parallel Utopia Worldbuilding
Theme	Irony Leitmotif Metaphor Moral Moral development Motif Deal with the Devil Conflict between good and evil Self-fulfilling prophecy Time travel
Style	Allegory Bathos Comic relief Diction Figure of speech Imagery Mode Mood Narration Narrative techniques Hook Show, don't tell Stylistic device Suspension of disbelief Symbolism Tone
Structure	Act Act structure Three-act structure Freytag's Pyramid Exposition/Protasis Rising action/Epitasis Climax/Peripeteia Falling action/Catastasis Denouement/Catastrophe Linear narrative Nonlinear narrative films television series Premise Types of fiction with multiple endings
Form	Drama Fabliau Flash fiction Folklore Fable Fairy tale Legend Myth Tall tale Gamebook Narrative art Narrative poetry Epic poetry Novel Novella Parable Short story Vignette
Genre (List)	Autobiography Biography Fiction Action fiction Adventure Comic Crime Docu Epistolary Ergodic Erotic Historical Mystery Nautical Paranoid Philosophical Picaresque Political Pop culture Psychological Religious Rogue Romance Chivalric Prose Saga Satire Speculative fiction Fantasy Gothic Southern Horror Magic realism Science Hard Utopian and dystopian Underwater Superhero Theological Thriller Urban Western Nonfiction Novel Creative
Narration	Diegesis First-person Second-person Third-person Third-person omniscient narrative Subjectivity Unreliable narrator Multiple narrators Stream of consciousness Stream of unconsciousness
Tense	Past Present Future
Related	Dominant narrative Fiction writing Continuity Canon Reboot Retcon Parallel novel Prequel/Sequel Genre List Literary science Literary theory Narrative identity Narrative paradigm Narrative therapy Narratology Metafiction Political narrative Rhetoric Glossary Screenwriting Storytelling Tellability Verisimilitude