Tzompantli

Atzompantli,illustrated in the 16th-centuryAztecmanuscript, theDurán Codex

Atzompantli(Nahuatl pronunciation:[t͡somˈpant͡ɬi]) orskull rackwas a type of wooden rack or palisade documented in severalMesoamericancivilizations, which was used for the public display ofhuman skulls,typically those ofwar captivesor othersacrificial victims.It is a scaffold-like construction of poles on which heads and skulls were placed after holes had been made in them.Many have been documented throughout Mesoamerica, and range from the Epiclassic (c. 600–900 CE) through early Post-Classic (c. 900–1250 CE).In 2015 archeologists announced the discovery of the Huey Tzompantli, with more than 650 skulls, in the archeological zone of theTemplo MayorinMexico City.

Etymology

The name comes from theClassical Nahuatllanguage of theAztecsbut is also commonly applied to similar structures depicted in other civilizations. Its preciseetymologyis uncertain although its general interpretation is 'skull rack', 'wall of skulls', or 'skull banner'.It is most likely a compound of the Nahuatl wordstzontecomatl('skull'; fromtzontliortzom-'hair', 'scalp' andtecomatl('gourd' or 'container'), andpamitl('banner'). That derivation has been ascribed to explain the depictions in several codices that associate these with banners; however, Nahuatl linguistFrances Karttunenhas proposed thatpantlimeans merely 'row' or 'wall'.

Historical distribution

General information

It was most commonly erected as a linearly-arranged series of vertical posts connected by a series of horizontal crossbeams. The skulls were pierced or threaded laterally along these horizontal stakes. An alternate arrangement, more common in the Maya regions, was for the skulls to be impaled on top of one another along the vertical posts.

Tzompantliis known chiefly for their depiction in Late Postclassic (13th to 16th centuries) and post-Conquest (mid-16th to 17th centuries)codices,contemporary accounts of theconquistadores,and several other inscriptions. However, atzompantli-like structure, thought to be the first instance of such structures, has been excavated from the Proto-ClassicZapotec civilizationat theLa Coyotera,Oaxacasite, dating from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd centuryCE.The Zapotecs called this structure ayàgabetoo,and it displayed 61 skulls.

Tzompantliare also noted in other Mesoamericanpre-Columbiancultures, such as theToltecandMixtec.

Toltec

At the Toltec capital ofTulathe first indications in Central Mexico of a real fascination with skulls and skeletons. Tula flourished from the ninth until the thirteenth century. The site includes the decimated remains of atzompantli.Thetzompantliat Tula displayed multiple rows of stone carved skulls adorning the sides of a broad platform upon which the actual skulls of sacrificial victims were exhibited. Thetzompantliappeared during the final phases of civilization at Tula, which was destroyed around 1200.

Maya

Other examples are indicated fromMaya civilizationsites such asUxmaland otherPuucregion sites of theYucatán,dating from around the late 9th-century decline of theMaya Classical Era.A particularly fine and intact inscription example survives at the extensiveChichen Itzasite.

Chichén Itzátzompantli

Human sacrifice on a large scale was introduced to the Maya by the Toltecs from the appearances of thetzompantliin the Chichen Itzaball courts.Six ball court reliefs at Chichen Itza depict the decapitation of a ball player; it seems that the losers would be beheaded and would have their skulls placed on thetzompantli.

Atzompantliis illustrated to the right of a depiction of an Aztec temple dedicated to the deityHuītzilōpōchtli;from Juan de Tovar's 1587 manuscript, also known as theTovar Codex.

Aztec era

The wordtzompantliisNahuatland was used by theAztecsto refer to the skull-racks found in many Aztec cities; The first and most prominent example is theHueyi Tzompantli(Great Skull-rack) located in the Aztec capital ofTenochtitlanand described by the early conquistadors. There were at least five more skull racks in Tenochtitlan but by all accounts they were much smaller.

According toBernal Díaz del Castillo's eye-witness account, theHistoria verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España,written several decades after the event, afterHernán Cortés's expedition was forced to make their initial retreat from Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs erected a makeshifttzompantlito display the severed heads of men andhorsesthey had captured from the invaders. Thistzompantliis depicted in the twelfth book of theFlorentine Codex.This taunting is also depicted in an Aztec codex which relates the story, and the subsequent battles which led to the eventual capture of the city by the Spanish forces and their allies.

During the stay of Cortes's expedition in the Aztec capitalTenochtitlan(initially as guest-captives of the EmperorMoctezuma II,before the battle which would lead to the conquest), they reported a woodentzompantlialtar adorned with the skulls from recent sacrifices.Within the complex of theTemplo Mayoritself, a relief instuccodepicted these sacrifices; the remains of this relief have survived and may now be seen in the ruins in theZócaloof present-dayMexico City.

Preparation oftzompantli

Excavations atTemplo Mayorin the Aztec capitalTenochtitlanhave revealed many skulls belonging to women and children, in addition to those of men, a demonstration of the diversity of thehuman sacrifices in Aztec culture.While the severed heads were put on display, many scholars have determined that the limbs of Aztec victims werecannibalized.Fray Diego Durán confirms this, stating that skulls were delivered to temples after "the flesh had been eaten".

Durán notes that thetzompantliwere periodically renovated. Regarding this, Durán states: "When [the skulls] become old and deteriorated, they fell in pieces. When the palisade become old, however, it was renovated, and on its removal many [skulls] broke. Others were removed to make room for more, so that there would be a place for those were to be killed later."

Archeologist Eduardo Contreras believes that the tissue attached to skulls was removed prior to atzompantlipole being inserted through the side of the skulls. He bases these assumptions off of excavations of the Plaza de las Tres Culturas atTlatelolco,Mexico City, between 1960 and 1965.

Hueyi Tzompantli

TheHueyi Tzompantliwas the centraltzompantlifound in Tenochtitlan. The skull rack here served as a reminder of the Aztec's ongoingFlowery Wars.An important aspect ofAztec warfarewas the capture of enemy warriors to serve as sacrificial victims, which is evident from the number of warriors found sacrificed around Aztec structures.One conquistador,Andrés de Tapia,was given the task of counting the skulls on thetzompantliat Tenochtitlan and estimated that there were 136,000 skulls on it.However, based on numbers given by Taipa and FrayDiego Durán,Bernard Ortiz de Montellanohas calculated that there were at most 60,000 skulls on theHueyi Tzompantliof Tenochtitlan. TheHueyi Tzompantliconsisted of a massive masonry platform composed of “thirty long steps” measuring fully 60 meters in length by 30 meters wide at its summit. Atop of the aforementioned platform was erected an equally formidable wooden palisade and scaffolding consisting of between 60 and 70 massive uprights or timbers woven together with an impressive constellation of horizontal cross beams upon which were suspended the tens of thousands of decapitated human heads once impaled thereon.Regarding this, Bernal Díaz de Castillo states:

I remember that they had in a plaza, where there were some shrines, so many places of dead skulls, which could be counted, according to the concert as they were set, that when they appeared they would be more than one hundred thousand; and I say again about one hundred thousand. And in another part of the square were as many rowers of bones without meat, bones of dead, that could not be counted; and they had in many beams many heads hanging from one part to another. And keeping those bones and skulls were three priests, who, as we understood, were in charge of them. Of which we had to look more after we entered the land well: in all the villages they were that way, and also in Tascala.

Various scholarly interpretations of the cosmological importance ofHueyi Tzompantli's placement have emerged.Eduardo Matos Moctezumaclaims that a centraltzompantliwas placed north of the Templo Mayor. Moctezuma notes that no corresponding shrine was found south. Moctezuma also notes that Mexica views of the universe, which divide the universe into a horizontal and vertical plane, claim that the northern sector of the horizontal plane corresponds to Mictlampa, or the land of the dead.On the other hand, Rubén G. Mendoza contends that theHueyi Tzompantliwas placed on an east–west axis between the Templo Mayor and a principal ball court. The Hueyi Tzompantli would have been aligned with the marker within the Templo Mayor dividing one half for Tlāloc and the other half forHuītzilōpōchtli.Mendoza argues that as the sun traveled through the sky, it would have ascended into the "vault of the heavens", represented by theHueyi Tzompantli.

Modern archeological evidence has found that this large palisade was flanked by two circular towers made out of skulls and mortar.

Historical depictions

Frontispiece of theCodex Mendoza

There are numerous depictions oftzompantliinAztec codices,dating from around the time or shortly after theSpanish conquest of the Aztec Empire,such as theDurán Codex,Ramírez Codex,andCodex Borgia.TheCodex Mendozacontains multiple depictions oftzompantli.The Frontispiece of theCodex Mendozadepicts atzompantliholding single skull next to an eagle perched on a cactus. A similar depiction of atzompantliis used to represent the town of Tzompanco in theCodex Mendoza.Folio 45v of the Codex Borgia depicts a platform adorned with skulls.

Recent excavations

Archaeologists affiliated with theNational Institute of Anthropology and Historyhave taken part in a series of excavations since 2015 that have resulted in the finding oftzompantli.These excavations took place near theMexico City Metropolitan Cathedraland included the finding of onetzompantlitower. These excavations have revealed that women and children were sacrificed, although men made up 75% of the sacrificial victims.

Association and meaning

Apart from their use to display the skulls of ritualistically-executed war captives,tzompantlioften occur in the contexts ofMesoamerican ball courts,which were widespread throughout the region's civilizations and sites. The game was 'played for keeps' ending with the losing team being sacrificed. The captain of the winning team was tasked with taking the head of the losing team's captain to be displayed on atzompantli.In these contexts it appears that thetzompantliwas used to display the losers' heads of this often highly ritualised game. Not all games resulted in this outcome, however, and for those that did it is surmised that these participants were often notable captives. An alternative theory is that it was the captain of the winning team who lost his head, but there is little evidence that this was the case.Still, it is acknowledged that in Mesoamerican culture to be sacrificed was to be honored with feeding the gods.Tula,the formerTolteccapital, has a well-preservedtzompantliinscription on its ball court.

The association with ball courts is also reflected in thePopol Vuh,the famous religious, historical and cultural account of theK'iche' Maya.WhenHun Hunahpu,father of theMaya Hero Twins,was killed by the lords of the Underworld (Xibalba), his head was hung in agourdtree next to a ball court.The gourd tree is a clear representation of atzompantli,and the image of skulls in trees as if they were fruits is also a common indicator of atzompantliand the associations with some of the game's metaphorical interpretations.

Gallery

• 
  Detail oftzompantliatChichen Itza
• 
  Tzompantlifound at Monument Four ofCalixtlahuaca
• 
  The Twelfth Book of theFlorentine Codexshows the heads of captured Spanish soldiers and their horses displayed on atzompantliin front of the Temple ofHuitzilopochtli.
• 
  An excavatedtzompantlifrom theTemplo Mayorin modern-day Mexico City
• 
  Replica of atzompantliin theMuseo Nacional de Historiain Mexico City
• 
  Tzompantliat the Museum of theTemplo Mayor.
• 
  Tzompantlias depicted inCodex Borgia
• 
  TzompantliinCodex Vaticanus3778, a facsimile of theCodex Ríos
• 
  A simplifiedtzompantlirepresents the town of Tzompanco in theCodex Mendoza

Contemporary uses

Tzompantlihave been the subject of multiple artworks created during the twentieth century.Jose Chavez Moradodepictedtzompantliin a 1961 painting.George O. Jackson, as part of hisEssence of Mexicoproject, photographed various representations of skulls, which he refers to ascalaveras(theSpanishword for 'skulls'); Jackson refers to groups of these photos astzompantli.Tzompantliwere also the subject of murals created for the festival Mextonia, which celebrates Mexican culture and occurs in Estonia, by the art collective Nueve Arte Urbano.TheMuseo de Arte de Querétarofeatured an exhibit titledTzompantli,which featured works made by various artists depicting skulls.

See also

• Capela dos Ossos
• Headhunting
• Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini
• Sedlec Ossuary
• Skull Chapel, Czermna
• Skull Tower

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