Ukraine
Ukraine Україна(Ukrainian) | |
|---|---|
| Anthem:Державний Гімн України Derzhavnyi Himn Ukrainy "State Anthem of Ukraine" | |
  Territory controlled by Ukraine (dark green) Russian-occupied territories(light green) | |
| Capital and largest city | Kyiv 49°N32°E/ 49°N 32°E |
| Ukrainian[1] |
| Ethnic groups (2001)[2] |
|
| Religion (2018)[3] |
|
| Demonym(s) | Ukrainian |
| Government | Unitarysemi-presidential republic |
| Volodymyr Zelenskyy | |
| Denys Shmyhal | |
| Ruslan Stefanchuk | |
| Legislature | Verkhovna Rada |
| Formation | |
| 882 | |
| 1199 | |
| 18 August 1649 | |
| 20 November 1917 | |
| 10 March 1919 | |
| 24 October 1945 | |
| 24 August 1991 | |
| 28 June 1996 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 603,628[4]km2(233,062 sq mi) (45th) |
• Water (%) | 3.8[5] |
| Population | |
• 2024 estimate |  33,365,000[6](36th) |
• Density | 60.9/km2(157.7/sq mi) (126th) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $515.947 billion[6](49th) |
• Per capita | $15,464[6](102nd) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $188.943 billion[6](58th) |
• Per capita | $5,663[6](111st) |
| Gini(2020) |  25.6[7]low inequality |
| HDI(2022) |  0.734[8]high(100th) |
| Currency | Hryvnia(₴) (UAH) |
| Time zone | UTC+2[9](EET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+3(EEST) |
| Date format | dd.mm.yyyy |
| Drives on | right |
| Calling code | +380 |
| ISO 3166 code | UA |
| Internet TLD | |
Ukraine[a]is a country inEastern Europe.It is thesecond-largest European country[b]afterRussia,whichbordersit to the east and northeast.[c][10]It also bordersBelarusto the north;PolandandSlovakiato the west;Hungary,RomaniaandMoldova[d]to the southwest; with a coastline along theBlack Seaand theSea of Azovto the south and southeast.[e]Kyivis the nation's capital andlargest city,followed byKharkiv,Dnipro,andOdesa.Ukraine'sofficial languageisUkrainian.
During theMiddle Ages,Ukraine was the site ofearly Slavicexpansion and the area later became a key centre ofEast Slavicculture under the state ofKievan Rus',which emerged in the 9th century. The state eventually disintegrated into rival regional powers and was ultimately destroyed by theMongol invasionsof the 13th century. The area was then contested, divided, and ruled by a variety of external powers for the next 600 years, including thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,theAustrian Empire,theOttoman Empire,and theTsardom of Russia.TheCossack Hetmanateemerged incentral Ukrainein the 17th century, but was partitioned between Russia and Poland, and ultimately absorbed by theRussian Empire.Ukrainian nationalismdeveloped and, following theRussian Revolutionin 1917, the short-livedUkrainian People's Republicwas formed. TheBolsheviksconsolidated control over much of the former empire and established theUkrainian Soviet Socialist Republic,which became aconstituent republicof theSoviet Unionwhen it was formed in 1922. In the early 1930s, millions of Ukrainians died in theHolodomor,ahuman-made famine.TheGerman occupationduringWorld War II in Ukrainewas devastating, with 7 million Ukrainian civilians killed, includingmost Ukrainian Jews.
Ukraine gained independence in 1991 as theSoviet Union dissolved,and declared itselfneutral.[11]A newconstitutionwas adopted in 1996. A series of mass demonstrations, known as theEuromaidan,led to the establishment of a new government in 2014 aftera revolution.Russia then unilaterallyannexedUkraine'sCrimean Peninsula,andpro-Russian unrestculminated ina war in the Donbasbetween Russian-backed separatists and government forces in eastern Ukraine. Russia launcheda full-scale invasionof Ukraine in 2022. Since the outbreak ofwar with Russia,Ukraine has continued to seek closerties with the United States,European Union,andNATO.[12][13][14]
Ukraine is aunitary stateand itssystem of governmentis asemi-presidential republic.Adeveloping country,it is thepoorest country in Europeby nominal GDP per capita[15]andcorruptionremains a significant issue.[16]However, due toits extensive fertile land,pre-war Ukraine wasone of the largest grain exporters in the world.[17][18]Ukraine is amiddle powerand the Ukrainian Armed Force is thefifth largest armed force in the world in terms of both active personnel as well as total number of personnelwith theeighth largest defence budgetin the world. TheUkrainian Armed Forcesalso operates one of the largest and most diverse drone fleet in the world.[19]It is a founding member of theUnited Nations,as well as a member of theCouncil of Europe,theWorld Trade Organization,and theOSCE.It is in the process ofjoining the European Unionand has applied to join NATO.[20]
Etymology and orthography
Thename of Ukraineis frequently interpreted as coming from theold Slavicterm for 'borderland' as is the wordkrajina.[21] Another interpretation is that the name of Ukraine means "region" or "country."
In theEnglish-speaking worldduring most of the 20th century, Ukraine (whether independent or not) was referred to as "the Ukraine".[22]This is because the wordukrainameans 'borderland'[23]so thedefinite articlewould be natural in the English language; this is similar toNederlanden,which means 'low lands' and is rendered in English as "theNetherlands".[24]However, since Ukraine'sdeclaration of independencein 1991, this usage has become politicised and is now rarer, andstyle guidesadvise against its use.[25][26]US ambassadorWilliam Taylorsaid that using "the Ukraine" implies disregard for Ukrainian sovereignty.[27]The official Ukrainian position is that "the Ukraine" is both grammatically and politically incorrect.[28][29]
History
Early history
1.4 million year old stone tools fromKorolevo,western Ukraine, are the earliest securely dated hominin presence in Europe.[31]Settlement bymodern humansin Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BC, with evidence of theGravettian culturein theCrimean Mountains.[32][33]By 4,500 BC, theNeolithicCucuteni–Trypillia culturewas flourishing in wide areas of modern Ukraine, includingTrypilliaand the entireDnieper-Dniesterregion. Ukraine is considered to be the likely location of the firstdomestication of the horse.[34][35][36][37]TheKurgan hypothesisplaces the Volga-Dnieper region of Ukraine and southern Russia as thelinguistic homelandof theProto-Indo-Europeans.[38]EarlyIndo-European migrationsfrom the Pontic steppes in the 3rd millennium BC spreadYamnayaSteppe pastoralistancestry andIndo-European languagesacross large parts of Europe.[39]During theIron Age,the land was inhabited byIranian-speakingCimmerians,Scythians,andSarmatians.[40]Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of theScythiankingdom.[41]
From the 6th century BC,Greek,Roman,andByzantinecolonies were established on the north-eastern shore of theBlack Sea,such as atTyras,Olbia,andChersonesus.These thrived into the 6th century AD. TheGothsstayed in the area, but came under the sway of theHunsfrom the 370s. In the 7th century, the territory that is now eastern Ukraine was the centre ofOld Great Bulgaria.At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and theKhazarstook over much of the land.[42]
In the 5th and 6th centuries, theAntes,anearly Slavicpeople, lived in Ukraine. Migrations from the territories of present-day Ukraine throughout theBalkansestablished manySouth Slavicnations. Northern migrations, reaching almost toLake Ilmen,led to the emergence of theIlmen SlavsandKrivichs.Following anAvarraid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second millennium.[43][need quotation to verify]
Golden Age of Kyiv
The establishment of the state ofKievan Rus'remains obscure and uncertain.[44]The state included much of present-day Ukraine, Belarus and the western part ofEuropean Russia.[45]According to thePrimary Chronicle,theRus' peopleinitially consisted ofVarangiansfromScandinavia.[46]In 882, the paganPrince Oleg(Oleh) conqueredKyivfromAskold and Dirand proclaimed it as the new capital of the Rus'.[47]Anti-Normanisthistorians however argue that the East Slavic tribes along the southern parts of theDnieper Riverwere already in the process of forming a state independently.[48]The Varangian elite, including the rulingRurik dynasty,later assimilated into the Slavic population.[45]Kievan Rus' was composed of severalprincipalitiesruled by the interrelated Rurikidkniazes( "princes" ), who often fought each other for possession of Kyiv.[49]
During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became the largest and most powerful state in Europe, a period known as its Golden Age.[50]It began with the reign ofVladimir the Great(980–1015), whointroduced Christianity.During the reign of his son,Yaroslav the Wise(1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[45]The state soon fragmented as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule ofVladimir II Monomakh(1113–1125) and his sonMstislav(1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death, though ownership of Kyiv would still carry great prestige for decades.[51]In the 11th and 12th centuries, the nomadic confederacy of theTurkic-speakingCumansandKipchakswas the dominant force in thePontic steppenorth of the Black Sea.[52]
TheMongol invasionsin the mid-13th century devastated Kievan Rus'; following theSiege of Kyiv in 1240,the city was destroyed by the Mongols.[53]In the western territories, the principalities ofHalychandVolhyniahad arisen earlier, and were merged to form thePrincipality of Galicia–Volhynia.[54]Daniel of Galicia,son ofRoman the Great,re-united much of south-western Rus', includingVolhynia,Galicia,as well as Kyiv. He was subsequently crowned by apapalenvoy as the firstking of Galicia–Volhynia(also known as the Kingdom ofRuthenia) in 1253.[55]
Foreign domination
Crown of the Kingdom of Poland
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Prussia,Polishfief
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia,Commonwealth fief
In 1349, in the aftermath of theGalicia–Volhynia Wars,the region was partitioned between theKingdom of Polandand theGrand Duchy of Lithuania.[56]From the mid-13th century to the late 1400s, theRepublic of Genoafounded numerouscolonieson the northern coast of the Black Sea and transformed these into large commercial centers headed by the consul, a representative of the Republic.[57]In 1430, the region ofPodoliawas incorporated into Poland, and the lands of modern-day Ukraine became increasingly settled byPoles.[58]In 1441,GenghisidprinceHaci I Girayfounded theCrimean Khanateon theCrimean Peninsulaand the surrounding steppes;[59]the Khanate orchestratedTatarslave raids.Over the next three centuries, theCrimean slave tradewould enslave an estimated two million in the region.[60][61]
In 1569, theUnion of Lublinestablished thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,and most of the Ukrainian lands were transferred from Lithuania to theCrown of the Kingdom of Poland,becomingde jurePolish territory. Under the pressures ofPolonisation,many landed gentry ofRutheniaconverted toCatholicismand joined the circles of thePolish nobility;others joined the newly createdRuthenian Uniate Church.[62]
Cossack Hetmanate
Deprived of native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, the peasants and townspeople began turning for protection to the emergingZaporozhian Cossacks.In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, theZaporozhian Host,was formed byDnieper Cossacksand Ruthenian peasants.[63]Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be useful against theTurksandTatars,[64]and at times the two were allies inmilitary campaigns.[65]However, the continued harshenserfmentof Ruthenian peasantry by Polishszlachta(many of whom were PolonizedRuthenian nobles) and the suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.[64]The latter did not shy from taking up arms against those they perceived as enemies and occupiers, including the Catholic Church with its local representatives.[66]
In 1648,Bohdan Khmelnytskyled thelargest of the Cossack uprisingsagainst the Commonwealth and thePolish king,which enjoyed wide support from the local population.[67]Khmelnytsky founded theCossack Hetmanate,which existed until 1764 (some sources claim until 1782).[68]After Khmelnytsky suffered a crushing defeat at theBattle of Berestechkoin 1651, he turned to theRussian tsarfor help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky was subject to thePereiaslav Agreement,forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Russian monarch.
After his death, the Hetmanate went through a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, theCrimean Khanate,theOttoman Empire,andCossacks,known as "The Ruin"(1657–1686), for control of the Cossack Hetmanate. TheTreaty of Perpetual Peacebetween Russia and Poland in 1686 divided the lands of the Cossack Hetmanate between them, reducing the portion over which Poland had claimed sovereignty to Ukraine west of theDnieperriver. In 1686, theMetropolitanate of Kyivwasannexed by the Moscow Patriarchatethrough a synodal letter of theEcumenical Patriarch of ConstantinopleDionysius IV,thus placing theMetropolitanate of Kyivunder the authority ofMoscow.An attempt to reverse the decline was undertaken by Cossack HetmanIvan Mazepa(1639–1709), who ultimately defected to theSwedesin theGreat Northern War(1700–1721) in a bid to get rid of Russian dependence,[69]but they were crushed in theBattle of Poltava(1709).[69]
The Hetmanate's autonomy was severely restricted since Poltava. In the years 1764–1781,Catherine the Greatincorporated much ofCentral Ukraineinto theRussian Empire,abolishing theCossack Hetmanateand theZaporozhian Sich,and was one of the people responsible for the suppression of the last major Cossack uprising, theKoliivshchyna.[70]After theannexation of Crimea by Russiain 1783, the newly acquired lands, now calledNovorossiya,were opened up to settlement by Russians.[71]Thetsarist autocracyestablished a policy ofRussification,suppressing the use of theUkrainian languageand curtailing the Ukrainian national identity.[72]The western part of present-day Ukraine was subsequently split between Russia andHabsburg-ruledAustriaafter thefallof thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthin 1795.
19th and early 20th century
The 19th century saw the rise of Ukrainian nationalism. With growing urbanization and modernization and a cultural trend towardromantic nationalism,a Ukrainianintelligentsiacommitted to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poetTaras Shevchenko(1814–1861) and political theoristMykhailo Drahomanov(1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.[73][74]While conditions for its development in AustrianGaliciaunder theHabsburgswere relatively lenient,[75]the Russian part (historically known as "Little Russia"or" South Russia ")[76]faced severe restrictions, going as far asbanning virtually all books from being published in Ukrainianin 1876.
Ukraine, like the rest of the Russian Empire, joined theIndustrial Revolutionlaterthan most of Western Europe[77][failed verification]due to the maintenance ofserfdomuntil 1861.[citation needed]Other than near the newly discovered coal fields of theDonbas,and in some larger cities such asOdesaand Kyiv, Ukraine largely remained an agricultural and resource extraction economy.[78]The Austrian part of Ukrainewas particularly destitute,which forced hundreds of thousands of peasants into emigration, who created the backbone of an extensiveUkrainian diasporain countries such asCanada,theUnited StatesandBrazil.[79]Some of the Ukrainians settled in the Far East, too. According to the1897 census,there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians inSiberiaand 102,000 inCentral Asia.[80]An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of theTrans-Siberian Railwayin 1906.[81]Far Easternareas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known asGreen Ukraine.[82]
Ukraine plunged into turmoil with the beginning ofWorld War I,and fighting on Ukrainian soil persisted until late 1921. Initially, the Ukrainians were split between Austria-Hungary, fighting for theCentral Powers,though the vast majority served in theImperial Russian Army,which was part of theTriple Entente,under Russia.[83]As the Russian Empire collapsed, the conflict evolved into theUkrainian War of Independence,with Ukrainians fighting alongside, or against, theRed,White,BlackandGreen armies,with the Poles, Hungarians (inTranscarpathia), and Germans also intervening at various times.
An attempt to create an independent state, the left-leaningUkrainian People's Republic(UNR), was first announced byMykhailo Hrushevsky,but the period was plagued by an extremely unstable political and military environment. It was first deposed in acoup d'étatled byPavlo Skoropadskyi,which yielded theUkrainian Stateunder the German protectorate, and the attempt to restore the UNR under theDirectorateultimately failed as the Ukrainian army was regularly overrun by other forces. The short-livedWest Ukrainian People's RepublicandHutsul Republicalso failed to join the rest of Ukraine.[84]
The result of the conflict was a partial victory for theSecond Polish Republic,which annexed the Western Ukrainian provinces, as well as a larger-scale victory for the pro-Soviet forces, which succeeded in dislodging the remaining factions and eventually established theUkrainian Soviet Socialist Republic(Soviet Ukraine). Meanwhile, modern-dayBukovinawas occupied byRomaniaandCarpathian Rutheniawas admitted toCzechoslovakiaas an autonomous region.[85]
The conflict over Ukraine, a part of the broaderRussian Civil War,devastated the whole of the formerRussian Empire,including eastern and central Ukraine. The fighting left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former Russian Empire's territory. The eastern provinces were additionally impacted by afamine in 1921.[86][87]
Inter-war period
During the inter-war period, inPoland,MarshalJózef Piłsudskisought Ukrainian support by offering local autonomy as a way to minimise Soviet influence in Poland's easternKresyregion.[88][89]However, this approach was abandoned after Piłsudski's death in 1935, due to continued unrest among the Ukrainian population, including assassinations of Polish government officials by theOrganisation of Ukrainian Nationalists(OUN); with the Polish government responding by restricting rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality.[90][91]In consequence, the undergroundUkrainian nationalistand militant movement, which arose in the 1920s gained wider support.
Meanwhile, the recently constituted Soviet Ukraine became one of the founding republics of theSoviet Union.During the 1920s,[92]under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership ofMykola Skrypnyk,Soviet leadership at first encouraged a national renaissance inUkrainian cultureandlanguage.Ukrainisationwas part of the Soviet-wide policy ofKorenisation(literallyindigenisation), which was intended to promote the advancement of native peoples, their language and culture into the governance of their respective republics.
Around the same time, Soviet leaderVladimir Lenininstituted theNew Economic Policy(NEP), which introduced a form ofmarket socialism,allowing some private ownership of small and medium-sized productive enterprises, hoping to reconstruct the post-war Soviet Union that had been devastated by both WWI and later the civil war. The NEP was successful at restoring the formerly war-torn nation to pre-WWI levels of production and agricultural output by the mid-1920s, much of the latter based in Ukraine.[93]These policies attracted many prominent former UNR figures, including former UNR leader Hrushevsky, to return to Soviet Ukraine, where they were accepted, and participated in the advancement of Ukrainian science and culture.[94]
This period was cut short whenJoseph Stalinbecame the leader of the USSR following Lenin's death. Stalin did away with the NEP in what became known as theGreat Break.Starting from the late 1920s and now with acentrally planned economy,Soviet Ukraine took part in anindustrialisation schemewhich quadrupled its industrial output during the 1930s.
However, as a consequence of Stalin's new policy, the Ukrainian peasantry suffered from theprogramme of collectivizationof agricultural crops. Collectivization was part of thefirst five-year planand was enforced by regular troops and the secret police known asCheka.Those who resisted werearrested and deportedtogulagsand work camps. As members of the collective farms were sometimes not allowed to receive any grain until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved to death in afamineknown as theHolodomoror the "Great Famine", which was recognized by some countries as an act ofgenocideperpetrated byJoseph Stalinand other Soviet notables.[95]
Following on the Russian Civil War and collectivisation, theGreat Purge,while killing Stalin's perceived political enemies, resulted in a profound loss of a new generation of Ukrainianintelligentsia,known today as theExecuted Renaissance.[96]
World War II
Following theInvasion of Polandin September 1939,GermanandSoviettroops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, EasternGaliciaandVolhyniawith their Ukrainian population became part of Ukraine. For the first time in history, the nation was united.[97][98]Further territorial gains were secured in 1940, when the Ukrainian SSR incorporated the northern and southern districts ofBessarabia,Northern Bukovina,and theHertsa regionfrom the territories the USSRforced Romania to cede,though it handed over the western part of theMoldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republicto the newly createdMoldavian SSR.These territorial gains of the USSR were internationally recognized by theParis peace treaties of 1947.[99]
German armiesinvaded the Soviet Unionon 22 June 1941, initiating nearly four years oftotal war.TheAxisinitially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of theRed Army.In thebattle of Kyiv,the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City",because of its fierceresistance.More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of theSoviet Western Front) were killed or taken captive there, with many sufferingsevere mistreatment.[100][101]After its conquest, most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within theReichskommissariat Ukraine,with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the Germans as liberators, but that did not last long as the Nazis made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction with Stalinist policies.[102]Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, carried outgenocidal policiesagainstJews,deported millions of people to work in Germany,and began a depopulation program to prepare for German colonisation.[102]They blockaded the transport of food on the Dnieper River.[103]
Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army andSoviet resistance,[104]in Western Ukraine an independentUkrainian Insurgent Armymovement arose (UPA, 1942). It was created as the armed forces of the undergroundOrganization of Ukrainian Nationalists(OUN).[105][106]Both organizations, the OUN and the UPA, supported the goal of anindependent Ukrainian stateon the territory with a Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times theMelnykwing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. From mid-1943 until the end of the war, the UPA carried outmassacres of ethnic Polesin theVolhyniaandEastern Galiciaregions, killing around 100,000 Polish civilians, which brought reprisals.[107][108]These organized massacres were an attempt by the OUN to create a homogeneous Ukrainian state without a Polish minority living within its borders, and to prevent the post-war Polish state from asserting its sovereignty over areas that had been part of pre-war Poland.[109]After the war, the UPA continued to fight the USSR until the 1950s.[110][111]At the same time, theUkrainian Liberation Army,another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.[112]
In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[104]to 7 million;[113][f]half of thePro-Soviet partisanguerrilla resistance units, which counted up to 500,000 troops in 1944, were also Ukrainian.[114]Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.[115][116]
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on theEastern Front.[117]Thetotal lossesinflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated at 6 million,[118][119]including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by theEinsatzgruppen,[120]sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses,[121][122][123]1.4 million were ethnicUkrainians.[121][123][f][g]TheVictory Dayis celebrated as one of eleven Ukrainian national holidays.[124]
Post–war Soviet Ukraine
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[125]The situation was worsened by afaminein 1946–1947, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure, killing at least tens of thousands of people.[119]In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of theUnited Nations(UN),[126]part of a special agreement at theYalta Conference,and, alongside Belarus, had voting rights in the UN even though they were not independent.[127][128]Moreover, Ukraine once more expanded its borders as it annexedZakarpattia,and the population became much more homogenized due to post-warpopulation transfers,most of which, as in the case ofGermansandCrimean Tatars,were forced. As of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees",comprising 20% of the total.[129]
Following the death of Stalin in 1953,Nikita Khrushchevbecame the new leader of the USSR, who began the policies ofDe-Stalinizationand theKhrushchev Thaw.During his term as head of the Soviet Union,Crimeawastransferredfrom theRussian SFSRto theUkrainian SSR,formally as a friendship gift to Ukraine and for economic reasons.[130]This represented the final extension of Ukrainian territory and formed the basis for the internationally recognized borders of Ukraine to this day. Ukraine was one of the most important republics of the Soviet Union, which resulted in many top positions in the Soviet Union being occupied by Ukrainians, including notablyLeonid Brezhnev,General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unionfrom 1964 to 1982. However, it was he and hisappointee in Ukraine,Volodymyr Shcherbytsky,who presided over the extensiveRussificationof Ukraine and who were instrumental in repressing a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals known as theSixtiers.[131]
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[132]Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production[133]and an important centre of the Sovietarms industryand high-tech research, though heavy industry still had an outsided influence.[134]The Soviet government invested in hydroelectric and nuclear power projects to cater to the energy demand that the development carried. On 26 April 1986, however, a reactor in theChernobyl Nuclear Power Plantexploded, resulting in theChernobyl disaster,the worstnuclear reactoraccident in history.[135]
Independence
Mikhail Gorbachevpursued a policy of limited liberalization of public life, known asperestroika,and attempted to reform astagnating economy.The latter failed, but the democratization of the Soviet Union fuelled nationalist and separatist tendencies among the ethnic minorities, including Ukrainians.[136]As part of the so-calledparade of sovereignties,on 16 July 1990, the newly electedSupreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republicadopted theDeclaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.[137]After afailed coupby some Communist leaders in Moscow at deposing Gorbachov, outright independence wasproclaimedon 24 August 1991.[138]It was approved by 92% of the Ukrainian electorate in areferendumon 1 December.[139]Ukraine's newPresident,Leonid Kravchuk, went on to sign theBelavezha Accordsand made Ukraine a founding member of the much looserCommonwealth of Independent States(CIS),[140]though Ukraine never became a full member of the latter as it did not ratify the agreement founding CIS.[141]These documents sealed the fate of the Soviet Union, which formally voted itself out of existence on 26 December.[142]
Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union,[143]though it was one of the poorer Soviet republics by the time of the dissolution.[144]However, during its transition to the market economy, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than almost all of the otherformer Soviet Republics.During the recession, between 1991 and 1999, Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP[145][146]and suffered fromhyperinflationthat peaked at 10,000% in 1993.[147]The situation only stabilized well after the new currency, thehryvnia,fell sharply in late 1998 partially as a fallout from theRussian debt defaultearlier that year.[148]The legacy of the economic policies of the nineties was the mass privatization of state property that created a class of extremely powerful and rich individuals known as theoligarchs.[144]The country then fell into a series of sharp recessions as a result of the2008 global financial crisis,[144]the start of theRusso-Ukrainian Warin 2014,[149]and finally, thefull-scale invasionby Russia in starting from 24 February 2022.[150]Ukraine's economy in general underperformed since the time independence came due to pervasivecorruptionand mismanagement,[151]which, particularly in the 1990s, led to protests and organized strikes.[152]The war with Russia impeded meaningful economic recovery in the 2010s,[153]while efforts to combat theCOVID-19 pandemic,which arrived in 2020, were made much harder bylow vaccination rates[154]and, later in the pandemic, by the ongoing invasion.[155]
From the political perspective, one of the defining features of thepolitics of Ukraineis that for most of the time, it has been divided along two issues: the relation between Ukraine, theWestand Russia, and the classicalleft-rightdivide.[156]The first two presidents, Kravchuk andLeonid Kuchma,tended to balance the competing visions of Ukraine,[157]thoughYushchenkoandYanukovychwere generally pro-Western and pro-Russian, respectively. There were two major protests against Yanukovych: theOrange Revolutionin 2004, when tens of thousands of people went in protest ofelection riggingin his favour (Yushchenko was eventually elected president), and another one in the winter of 2013/2014, when more gathered on theEuromaidanto oppose Yanukovych's refusal to sign theEuropean Union–Ukraine Association Agreement.By the end of the protests on 21 February 2014, he fled from Ukraine and was removed by the parliament in what is termed theRevolution of Dignity,but Russia refused to recognize the interim pro-Western government, calling it ajuntaand denouncing the events as acoup d'étatsponsored by the United States.[158][159][160]
Even though Russia had signed theBudapest memorandumin 1994 that said that Ukraine was to hand overnuclear weaponsin exchange of security guarantees and those of territorial integrity, it reacted violently to these developments and started awar against its western neighbour.In late February and early March 2014, itannexed Crimeausing itsNavyinSevastopolas well as the so- calledlittle green men;after this succeeded, it then launched aproxy war in the Donbasvia the breakawayDonetsk People's RepublicandLuhansk People's Republic.[161]The first months of the conflict with the Russian-backed separatists were fluid, but Russian forces then started an open invasion in Donbas on 24 August 2014. Together they pushed back Ukrainian troops to the frontline established in February 2015, i.e. after Ukrainian troopswithdrew from Debaltseve.[162]The conflict remained in a sort offrozen stateuntil the early hours of 24 February 2022,[163]when Russia proceeded with anongoing invasionof Ukraine.[164]Russian troops control about 17% of Ukraine's internationally recognized territory, which constitutes 94% ofLuhansk Oblast,73% ofKherson Oblast,72% ofZaporizhzhia Oblast,54% ofDonetsk Oblastand all of Crimea,[165]though Russia failed with its initial plan, with Ukrainian troops recapturing some territory in counteroffensives.[166]
The military conflict with Russia shifted the government's policy towards the West. Shortly after Yanukovych fled Ukraine, the country signed the EU association agreement in June 2014, and its citizens were granted visa-free travel to the European Union three years later. In January 2019, theOrthodox Church of Ukrainewas recognized as independent of Moscow, which reversed the1686 decisionof the patriarch of Constantinople and dealt a further blow to Moscow's influence in Ukraine.[167]Finally, amid a full-scale war with Russia, Ukraine was grantedcandidate statusto the European Union on 23 June 2022.[168]A broad anti-corruption drive began in early 2023 with the resignations of several deputy ministers and regional heads during a reshuffle of the government.[169]
Geography
Ukraine is thesecond-largest European country,after Russia, and the largest country entirely in Europe. Lying between latitudes44°and53° N,and longitudes22°and41° E., it is mostly in theEast European Plain.Ukraine covers an area of 603,550 square kilometres (233,030 sq mi), with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).[50]
The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertilesteppes(plains with few trees) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as theDnieper(Dnipro),Seversky Donets,Dniesterand theSouthern Bugas they flow south into theBlack Seaand the smallerSea of Azov.To the southwest, theDanube Deltaforms the border with Romania. Ukraine's regions have diverse geographic features, ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are theCarpathian Mountainsin the west, of which the highest isHoverlaat 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and theCrimean Mountains,in the extreme south along the coast.[170]
Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as theVolyn-Podillia Upland(in the west) and the Near-Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of the Dnieper). To the east there are the south-western spurs of theCentral Russian Uplandover which runs the border with Russia. Near theSea of Azovare the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. Thesnow meltfrom the mountains feeds the rivers and theirwaterfalls.
Significant natural resources in Ukraine includelithium,[171]natural gas,[172]kaolin,[172]timber[173]and an abundance ofarable land.[174]Ukraine has many environmental issues.[175][176]Some regions lack adequate supplies of potable water.[177]Air and water pollution affects the country, as well as deforestation, and radiation contamination in the northeast from the 1986 accident at theChernobylNuclear Power Plant.[178]The environmental damage caused by theRussian invasion of Ukrainehas been described as anecocide,thedestructionofKakhovka Dam,severe pollution and millions of tonnes of contaminated debris is estimated to cost overUSD50 billion to repair.[179][180][181][182][183][184][excessive citations]
Climate
Ukraine is in the mid-latitudes, and generally has acontinental climate,except for its southern coasts, which havecold semi-aridandhumid subtropical climates.[185]Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.[186]Precipitationis highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[186]Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 120 centimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around 40 centimetres (15.7 in).[186]
Water availability from the major river basins is expected to decreasedue to climate change,especially in summer. This poses risks to the agricultural sector.[187]The negativeimpacts of climate change on agricultureare mostly felt in the south of the country, which has asteppeclimate. In the north, some crops may be able to benefit from a longer growing season.[188]TheWorld Bankhas stated that Ukraine is highlyvulnerable to climate change.[189]
Biodiversity
Ukraine contains six terrestrialecoregions:Central European mixed forests,Crimean Submediterranean forest complex,East European forest steppe,Pannonian mixed forests,Carpathian montane conifer forests,andPontic steppe.[190]There is somewhat moreconiferousthandeciduousforest.[191]The most densely forested area isPolisiain the northwest, with pine, oak, and birch.[191]There are 45,000 species of animals (mostly invertebrates),[192]with approximately 385 endangered species listed in theRed Data Book of Ukraine.[193]Internationally important wetlandscover over 7,000 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi), with theDanube Deltabeing important for conservation.[194][195]
Urban areas
Ukraine has 457 cities, of which 176 are designated as oblast-class, 279 as smallerraion-class cities, and two as special legal status cities. There are also 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.[196]
| Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Kyiv  Kharkiv |
1 | Kyiv | Kyiv (city) | 2,952,301 | 11 | Mariupol | Donetsk | 425,681 |  Odesa  Dnipro |
| 2 | Kharkiv | Kharkiv | 1,421,125 | 12 | Luhansk | Luhansk | 397,677 | ||
| 3 | Odesa | Odesa | 1,010,537 | 13 | Vinnytsia | Vinnytsia | 369,739 | ||
| 4 | Dnipro | Dnipropetrovsk | 968,502 | 14 | Simferopol | Crimea | 340,540 | ||
| 5 | Donetsk | Donetsk | 901,645 | 15 | Makiivka | Donetsk | 338,968 | ||
| 6 | Lviv | Lviv | 717,273 | 16 | Chernihiv | Chernihiv | 282,747 | ||
| 7 | Zaporizhzhia | Zaporizhzhia | 710,052 | 17 | Poltava | Poltava | 279,593 | ||
| 8 | Kryvyi Rih | Dnipropetrovsk | 603,904 | 18 | Kherson | Kherson | 279,131 | ||
| 9 | Sevastopol | Sevastopol (city) | 479,394 | 19 | Khmelnytskyi | Khmelnytskyi | 274,452 | ||
| 10 | Mykolaiv | Mykolaiv | 470,011 | 20 | Cherkasy | Cherkasy | 269,836 | ||
Politics
Ukraine is a republic under asemi-presidential systemwith separatelegislative,executive,andjudicial branches.[198]
Constitution
The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of theVerkhovna Rada,the parliament of Ukraine, on 28 June 1996.[199]The constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible (300 ayes minimum).[199]All other laws and other normative[clarification needed]legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special legislative procedure is vested exclusively in the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is theConstitutional Court of Ukraine.Since 1996, thepublic holidayConstitution Dayis celebrated on 28 June.[200][201]On 7 February 2019, the Verkhovna Rada voted to amend the constitution to state Ukraine's strategic objectives as joining theEuropean UnionandNATO.[202]
Government
Thepresidentis elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formalhead of state.[203] Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seatunicameralparliament, theVerkhovna Rada.[204]The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and theCabinet of Ministers,headed by theprime minister.[205]The president retains the authority to nominate the ministers of foreign affairs and of defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint theprosecutor generaland the head of theSecurity Service.[206]
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of theCrimean parliamentmay be abrogated by theConstitutional Court,should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. TheSupreme Courtis the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the president in accordance with the proposals of the prime minister.[207]
Courts and law enforcement
Martial lawwas declared when Russia invaded in February 2022,[208]and continues.[209][210]The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except for gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. TheWorld Justice Projectranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.[211]
Prosecutorsin Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to theEuropean Commission for Democracy through Law"the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance withCouncil of Europestandards ".[212]Theconviction rateis over 99%,[213]equal to the conviction rate of theSoviet Union,with suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.[214]
In 2010,President Yanukovychformed an expert group to make recommendations on how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization".[214]One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."[214]The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.[215]
Since 2010 court proceedings can be held in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speakUkrainianor Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.[216][217]Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.[215]
Law enforcement agencies are controlled by theMinistry of Internal Affairs.They consist primarily of thenational police forceand various specialised units and agencies such as theState Border Guardand theCoast Guardservices. Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004Orange Revolution.Many thousands of police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed.[218]
Foreign relations
From 1999 to 2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of theUN Security Council.Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union.[219]Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to the conflict in thepost-Soviet stateof Georgia. Ukraine also has made contributions to UNpeacekeepingoperations since 1992.[220]
Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective,[221]but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. TheEuropean Union'sPartnership and Cooperation Agreement(PCA) with Ukraine went into force in 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 inHelsinki,recognizes Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association.[221]
In 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now theOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE)), and also became a member of theNorth Atlantic Cooperation Council.Ukraine–NATO relationsare close and the country has declared interest in eventual membership.[221]
Ukraine is the most active member of thePartnership for Peace(PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union.[222]The Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union was signed in 2014.[223]Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, butRussia–Ukraine relationsrapidly deteriorated in 2014 due to theannexation of Crimea,energy dependence and payment disputes.
TheDeep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area(DCFTA), which entered into force in January 2016 following the ratification of theUkraine–European Union Association Agreement,formally integrates Ukraine into theEuropean Single Marketand theEuropean Economic Area.[224][225]Ukraine receives further support and assistance for itsEU-accessionaspirations from the International Visegrád Fund of theVisegrád Groupthat consists ofCentral EuropeanEU membersthe Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Slovakia.[226]
In 2020, inLublin,Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created theLublin Triangleinitiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthand further Ukraine's integration and accession to theEUandNATO.[227]
In 2021, theAssociation Triowas formed by signing a joint memorandum between theForeign Ministers of Georgia,MoldovaandUkraine.The Association Trio is a tripartite format for enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with theEuropean Unionon issues of common interest related toEuropean integration,enhancing cooperation within the framework of theEastern Partnership,and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.[228]As of 2021, Ukraine was preparing to formally apply forEUmembership in 2024, in order to join the European Union in the 2030s,[229]however, with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy requested that the country be admitted to the EU immediately.[230]Candidate status was granted in June 2022.[168]In recent years, Ukraine has dramatically strengthened its ties with theUnited States.[13][12]
Military
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largestnuclear weapons arsenalin the world.[231][232]In 1992, Ukraine signed theLisbon Protocolin which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join theNuclear Non-Proliferation Treatyas a non-nuclear weapon state. By 1996 the country had become free of nuclear weapons.[231]
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed theTreaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe,which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country planned to convert the currentconscript-based military into a professionalvolunteer military.[233][better source needed]Ukraine's current military consist of 196,600 active personnel and around 900,000 reservists.[234]
Ukraine played an increasing role in peacekeeping operations. In 2014, the Ukrainian frigateHetman Sagaidachniyjoined the European Union's counter piracyOperation Atalantaand was part of the EU Naval Force off the coast ofSomaliafor two months.[235]Ukrainian troops were deployed inKosovoas part of theUkrainian-Polish Battalion.[236]In 2003–2005, a Ukrainian unit was deployed as part of themultinational force in Iraqunder Polish command.[237]Military units of other states participated in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly, includingU.S. militaryforces.[238]
Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.[11]The country had a limited military partnership with Russian Federation and other CIS countries and has had apartnership with NATOsince 1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO, and deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future.[233]DeposedPresidentViktor Yanukovychconsidered the then level of co-operation betweenUkraine and NATOsufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO. During the2008 Bucharest summit,NATO declared that Ukraine would eventually become a member of NATO when it meets the criteria for accession.
As part of modernization after the beginning of theRusso-Ukrainian Warin 2014, junior officers were allowed to take more initiative and aterritorial defense forceof volunteers was established.[239]Various defensive weapons includingdroneswere supplied by many countries, but not fighter jets.[240]During the first few weeks of the2022 Russian invasionthe military found it difficult to defend against shelling, missiles and high level bombing; but light infantry used shoulder-mounted weapons effectively to destroy tanks, armoured vehicles and low-flying aircraft.[241]In August 2023, the U.S. officials estimated that up to 70,000 Ukrainian soldiers were killed and 100,000 to 120,000 wounded during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[242]
Administrative divisions
The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as aunitary state(as stated in the country's constitution) with unified legal andadministrativeregimes for each unit.
IncludingSevastopoland theAutonomous Republic of Crimeathat were annexed by the Russian Federation in 2014, Ukraine consists of 27 regions: twenty-fouroblasts(provinces), oneautonomous republic(Autonomous Republic of Crimea), and two cities of special status—Kyiv,the capital, andSevastopol.The 24 oblasts and Crimea are subdivided into 136[243]raions(districts) and city municipalities of regional significance, or second-level administrative units.
Populated places in Ukraineare split into two categories: urban and rural. Urban populated places are split further into cities andurban-type settlements(a Soviet administrative invention), while rural populated places consist of villages and settlements (a generally used term). All cities have a certain degree of self-rule depending on their significance such as national significance (as in the case of Kyiv and Sevastopol), regional significance (within each oblast or autonomous republic) or district significance (all the rest of cities). A city's significance depends on several factors such as its population, socio-economic and historical importance and infrastructure.
| Oblasts | |
|---|---|
| Autonomous republic | Cities with special status |
Economy
In 2021, agriculture was the biggest sector of the economy. Ukraine is one of the world'slargest wheat exporters.It remains among thepoorest countries in Europewith the lowestnominal GDP per capita.[244]Despite improvements, as in Moldovacorruption in Ukraineremains an obstacle tojoining the EU;the country was rated 104th out of 180 in theCorruption Perceptions Indexfor 2023.[245]In 2021, Ukraine'sGDPper capita bypurchasing power paritywas just over $14,000.[246]Despite supplyingemergency financial support,theIMFexpected the economy to shrink considerably by 35% in 2022 due toRussia's invasion.[247]One 2022 estimate was that post-war reconstruction costs might reach half a trillion dollars.[248]
In 2021, the average salary in Ukraine reached its highest level at almost₴14,300 (US$525) per month.[249]About 1% of Ukrainians livedbelow the national poverty linein 2019.[250]Unemployment in Ukraine was 4.5% in 2019.[251]In 2019 5–15% of the Ukrainian population were categorized as middle class.[252]In 2020 Ukraine'sgovernment debtwas roughly 50% of its nominal GDP.[253][254]
In 2021 mineral commodities and light industry were important sectors.[254]Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles andspacecraft.[255][256][257]TheEuropean Unionis the country's main trade partner, and remittances from Ukrainians working abroad are important.[254]
Agriculture
Ukraine is among the world's top agricultural producers and exporters and is often described as the "bread basket of Europe". During the 2020/21 international wheat marketing season (July–June), it ranked as the sixth largest wheat exporter, accounting for nine percent of world wheat trade.[258]The country is also a major global exporter of maize, barley and rapeseed. In 2020/21, it accounted for 12 percent of global trade inmaizeandbarleyand for 14 percent of worldrapeseedexports. Its trade share is even greater in the sunflower oil sector, with the country accounting for about 50 percent of world exports in 2020/2021.[258]
According to theFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO), further to causing the loss of lives and increasing humanitarian needs, the likely disruptions caused by theRusso-Ukrainian Warto Ukraine's grain and oilseed sectors, could jeopardize the food security of many countries, especially those that are highly dependent on Ukraine and Russia for their food and fertilizer imports.[259]Several of these countries fall into theLeast Developed Country(LDC) group, while many others belong to the group ofLow-Income Food-Deficit Countries(LIFDCs).[260][261]For exampleEritreasourced 47 percent of its wheat imports in 2021 from Ukraine. Overall, more than 30 nations depend on Ukraine and the Russian Federation for over 30 percent of their wheat import needs, many of them in North Africa and Western and Central Asia.[258]
Tourism
Before theRusso-Ukrainian warthe number of tourists visiting Ukraine was eighth in Europe, according to theWorld Tourism Organizationrankings.[262]Ukraine has numerous tourist attractions: mountain ranges suitable forskiing,hiking and fishing; theBlack Seacoastline as a popular summer destination;nature reservesof differentecosystems;and churches,castleruins and other architectural and park landmarks.Kyiv,Lviv,OdesaandKamianets-Podilskyiwere Ukraine's principal tourist centres, each offering many historical landmarks and extensivehospitalityinfrastructure. TheSeven Wonders of UkraineandSeven Natural Wonders of Ukraineare selections of the most important landmarks of Ukraine, chosen by Ukrainian experts and an Internet-based public vote. Tourism was the mainstay of Crimea's economy before a major fall in visitor numbers following the Russian annexation in 2014.[263]
Transport
Many roads and bridges were destroyed, and international maritime travel was blocked by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[247]Before that it was mainly through thePort of Odesa,from where ferries sailed regularly toIstanbul,VarnaandHaifa.The largest ferry company operating these routes wasUkrferry.[264]There are over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) ofnavigablewaterways on 7 rivers, mostly on theDanube,DnieperandPripyat.All Ukraine's rivers freeze over in winter, limiting navigation.[265]
Ukraine's rail networkconnects all major urban areas, port facilities andindustrial centres.The heaviest concentration ofrailway trackis theDonbasregion.[266]Althoughrail freight transportfell in the 1990s, Ukraine is still one of theworld's highest rail users.[267]
Ukraine International Airlines,is theflag carrierand the largestairline,with its head office inKyiv[268]and its main hub at Kyiv'sBoryspil International Airport.It operated domestic and international passenger flights and cargo services to Europe, the Middle East, the United States,[230]Canada,[269]and Asia.
Energy
Energy in Ukraine is mainly fromgasandcoal,followed bynuclearthen oil.[172]The coal industry has been disrupted by conflict.[270]Most gas and oil is imported, but since 2015energy policyhas prioritised diversifying energy supply.[271]
About half ofelectricity generationis nuclear and a quarter coal.[172]The largestnuclear power plantin Europe, theZaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant,is in Ukraine.Fossil fuel subsidieswere US$2.2 billion in 2019.[272]Until the 2010s all of Ukraine's nuclear fuel came from Russia, but now most does not.[273]
Some energy infrastructure was destroyed in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[274][275]The contract to transitRussian gasexpires at the end of 2024.[276]
In early 2022 Ukraine andMoldovadecoupled their electricity grids from theIntegrated Power Systemof Russia andBelarus;and theEuropean Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricitysynchronized them withcontinental Europe.[277][278]
Information technology
Key officials may useStarlinkas backup.[279]The IT industry contributed almost 5 per cent to Ukraine's GDP in 2021[280]and in 2022 continued both inside and outside the country.[281]
Demographics
Source:Ethnic composition of the population of Ukraine, 2001 Census
Before the2022 Russian invasion of Ukrainethe country had an estimated population of over 41 million people, and was theeighth-most populous countryin Europe. It is aheavily urbanized country,and its industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most densely populated—about 67% of its total population lives in urban areas.[282]At that time Ukraine had apopulation densityof 69.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (180 inhabitants/sq mi), and the overalllife expectancy in the countryat birth was 73 years (68 years for males and 77.8 years for females).[283]
Following thedissolution of the Soviet Union,Ukraine's population hit a peak of roughly 52 million in 1993. However, due to itsdeath rateexceeding itsbirth rate,mass emigration, poor living conditions, and low-quality health care,[284][285]the total population decreased by 6.6 million, or 12.8% from the same year to 2014.
According to the2001 census,ethnicUkrainiansmade up roughly 78% of the population, whileRussianswere the largest minority, at some 17.3% of the population. Small minority populations included:Belarusians(0.6%),Moldovans(0.5%),Crimean Tatars(0.5%),Bulgarians(0.4%),Hungarians(0.3%),Romanians(0.3%),Poles(0.3%),Jews(0.3%),Armenians(0.2%),Greeks(0.2%) andTatars(0.2%).[2]It was also estimated that there were about 10–40,000Koreansin Ukraine, who lived mostly in the south of the country, belonging to the historicalKoryo-saramgroup,[286][287]as well as about 47,600Roma(though theCouncil of Europeestimates a higher number of about 260,000).[288]
Outside the former Soviet Union, the largest source of incoming immigrants in Ukraine's post-independence period was from four Asian countries, namely China, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan.[289]In the late 2010s 1.4 million Ukrainians wereinternally displaceddue to thewar in Donbas,[290]and in early 2022 over 4.1 millionfledthe country in the aftermath of theRussian invasion.[291]Most male Ukrainian nationals aged 18 to 60 were denied exit from Ukraine.[292]
Language
According to Ukraine's constitution, thestate languageisUkrainian.[293]Russianis widely spoken in the country, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine.[293][294]Most native Ukrainian speakers know Russian as a second language.[293]Russian was thede factodominant language of the Soviet Union but Ukrainian also held official status in the republic,[295]and in the schools of theUkrainian SSR,learning Ukrainian was mandatory.[293]
Effective in August 2012,a new law on regional languagesentitled any local language spoken by at least a 10 percent minority be declared official within that area.[296]Within weeks, Russian was declared a regional language of several southern and easternoblasts(provinces) and cities.[297]Russian could then be used in the administrative office work and documents of those places.[298][299]
In 2014, following theRevolution of Dignity,theUkrainian Parliamentvoted to repeal the law on regional languages, making Ukrainian the sole state language at all levels; however, the repeal was not signed by actingPresident Turchynovor by President Poroshenko.[300][301][302]In 2019, the law allowing for official use of regional languages was found unconstitutional.[303]According to the Council of Europe, this act fails to achieve fair protection of thelinguistic rightsofminorities.[304]
Ukrainian is the primary language used in the vast majority of Ukraine. 67% of Ukrainians speak Ukrainian as their primary language, while 30% speak Russian as their primary language.[305]In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is the primary language in some cities, while Ukrainian is used in rural areas.Hungarianis spoken inZakarpattia Oblast.[306]There is no consensus among scholars whetherRusyn,also spoken in Zakarpattia, is a distinct language or a dialect of Ukrainian.[307]The Ukrainian government does not recognise Rusyn andRusynsas a distinct language and people.[308]
For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly.[309]Following independence, the government of Ukraine began restoring the use of the Ukrainian language in schools and government through a policy ofUkrainisation.[310][311]Today, most foreign films and TV programs, including Russian ones, are subtitled or dubbed in Ukrainian.[312]Ukraine's 2017education lawbars primary education in public schools in grade five and up in any language but Ukrainian.[313][314]
Diaspora
The UkrainiandiasporacomprisesUkrainiansand their descendants who live outside Ukraine around the world, especially those who maintain some kind of connection to the land of their ancestors and maintain their feeling of Ukrainian national identity within their own local community.[315]The Ukrainian diaspora is found throughout numerous regions worldwide including otherpost-Soviet statesas well as inCanada,[316]and other countries such asPoland,[317]the United States,[318]the UK[319][320]andBrazil.[321]
The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has led tomillions of Ukrainian civilians movingto neighbouring countries. Most crossed into Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic, and others proceeded to at least temporarily settle in Hungary, Moldova, Germany, Austria, Romania and other European countries.[322]
Religion
Ukraine has the world'ssecond-largest Eastern Orthodox population,after Russia.[324][325]A 2021 survey conducted by theKyiv International Institute of Sociology(KIIS) found that 82% of Ukrainians declared themselves to be religious, while 7% wereatheists,and a further 11% found it difficult to answer the question.[326]The level of religiosity in Ukraine was reported to be the highest inWestern Ukraine(91%), and the lowest in theDonbas(57%) andEastern Ukraine(56%).[327]
In 2019, 82% of Ukrainians were Christians; out of which 72.7% declared themselves to beEastern Orthodox,8.8%Ukrainian Greek Catholics,2.3%Protestantsand 0.9%Latin Church Catholics.OtherChristianscomprised 2.3%.Judaism,Islam,andHinduismwere the religions of 0.2% of the population each. According to the KIIS study, roughly 58.3% of the Ukrainian Orthodox population were members of theOrthodox Church of Ukraine,and 25.4% were members of theUkrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate).[328]Protestantsare a growing community in Ukraine, who made up 1.9% of the population in 2016,[329]but rose to 2.2% of the population in 2018.
Health
 | This section needs to beupdated.(March 2022) |
Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide.[330]The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a regular basis.[331]
All of Ukraine's medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to theMinistry of Healthcare,which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system. Despite this, standards of hygiene and patient-care have fallen.[332]
Ukraine faces a number of major public health issues[citation needed]and is considered to be in a demographic crisis because of its high death rate, low birth rate, and high emigration.[333]A factor contributing to the high death rate is a highmortality rateamong working-age males from preventable causes such asalcohol poisoningand smoking.[334]
Active reformation of Ukraine's healthcare system was initiated right after the appointment ofUlana Suprunas a head of theMinistry of Healthcare.[335]Assisted by deputy Pavlo Kovtoniuk, Suprun first changed the distribution of finances in healthcare.[336]Funds must follow the patient. General practitioners will provide basic care for patients. The patient will have the right to choose one. Emergency medical service is considered to be fully funded by the state.Emergency Medicine Reformis also an important part of the healthcare reform. In addition, patients who suffer from chronic diseases, which cause a high toll of disability and mortality, are provided with free or low-price medicine.[337]
Education
According to theUkrainian constitution,access to free education is granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis.[338]
Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education for all citizens, which continues today, theliteracy rateis an estimated 99.4%.[50]Since 2005, an eleven-year school programme has been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education takes four years to complete (starting at age six), middle education (secondary) takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three years.[339]Students in the 12th grade take Government tests, which are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later used for university admissions.
Among the oldest is also theLviv University,founded in 1661. More higher education institutions were set up in the 19th century, beginning with universities inKharkiv(1805),Kyiv(1834),Odesa(1865) andChernivtsi(1875) and a number of professional higher education institutions, e.g.:Nizhyn Historical and Philological Institute(originally established as the Gymnasium of Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute (1873) and aTechnological Institute(1885) inKharkiv,aPolytechnic Institutein Kyiv (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) inKaterynoslav.Rapid growth followed in theSovietperiod. By 1988 the number of higher education institutions increased to 146 with over 850,000 students.[340]
The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments,scientificandmethodologicalfacilities under national,municipaland self-governing bodies in charge of education.[341]The organisation of higher education in Ukraine is built up in accordance with the structure of education of the world's higherdeveloped countries,as is defined byUNESCOand the UN.[342]
Ukraine produces the fourth largest number ofpost-secondary graduatesin Europe, while being ranked seventh in population.[343]Higher educationis either state funded or private. Most universities provide subsidised housing for out-of-city students. It is common for libraries to supply required books for all registered students. Ukrainian universities confer two degrees: the bachelor's degree (4 years) and the master's degree (5–6th year), in accordance with theBologna process.Historically,Specialist degree(usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree awarded by universities in Soviet times.[344]Ukraine was ranked 55th in 2023 in theGlobal Innovation Index.[345]
Regional differences
Ukrainianis the dominant language inWestern Ukraineand inCentral Ukraine,whileRussianis the dominant language in the cities ofEastern UkraineandSouthern Ukraine.In theUkrainian SSRschools, learningRussianwas mandatory; in modern Ukraine, schools with Ukrainian as the language of instruction offer classes in Russian and in the other minority languages.[293][346][347][348]
On theRussian language,onSoviet UnionandUkrainian nationalism,opinion in Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine tends to be the exact opposite of those in Western Ukraine; while opinions in Central Ukraine on these topics tend be less extreme.[347][349][350][351]
Similar historical divisions also remain evident at the level of individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly betweenLviv,identifying more withUkrainian nationalismand theUkrainian Greek Catholic Church,andDonetsk,predominantly Russian orientated and favourable to theSoviet era,while in central and southern Ukraine, as well asKyiv,such divisions were less important and there was less antipathy toward people from other regions.[352]
However, all were united by an overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties, showing that other attitudes are determined more by culture and politics than by demographic differences.[352][353]Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that the feeling of belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in theDonbas(about 40%) and the Crimea (about 30%).[354]
Duringelectionsvoters of Western and Central Ukrainianoblasts(provinces) vote mostly for parties (Our Ukraine,Batkivshchyna)[355][356]and presidential candidates (Viktor Yuschenko,Yulia Tymoshenko) with apro-Westernand state reformplatform,while voters in Southern and Eastern oblasts vote for parties (CPU,Party of Regions) and presidential candidates (Viktor Yanukovych) with apro-Russianandstatus quoplatform.[357][358][359][360]However, this geographical division is decreasing.[361][362][363]
Culture
Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced byOrthodox Christianity,the dominant religion in the country.[364]Gender roles also tend to be more traditional, and grandparents play a greater role in bringing up children, than in the West.[365]The culture of Ukraine has also been influenced by its eastern and western neighbours, reflected in itsarchitecture,music and art.[366]
The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine.[367]In 1932, Stalin madesocialist realismstate policy in the Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organisations". This greatly stifled creativity. During the 1980sglasnost(openness) was introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they wanted.[368]
As of 2023[update],UNESCO inscribed 8 properties in Ukraine on theWorld Heritage List.Ukraine is also known for its decorative and folk traditions such asPetrykivka painting,Kosiv ceramics,andCossack songs.[369][370][371][372]Between February 2022 and March 2023, UNESCO verified the damage to 247 sites, including 107religious sites,89 buildings of artistic or historical interest, 19 monuments and 12 libraries.[373]Since January 2023, thehistoric centreofOdesahas been inscribed on theList of World Heritage in Danger.[374]
The tradition of theEaster eggs,known aspysanky,has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine.[375]In the city ofKolomyianear the foothills of theCarpathian Mountains,themuseum of Pysankawas built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of theSeven Wonders of Ukraineaction.
Since 2012, the Ministry of Culture of Ukraine has formed theNational Inventory of Elements of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Ukraine,[376]which consists of 103 items as of July 2024.[29]
Libraries
TheVernadsky National Library of Ukraine,is the main academic library and main scientific information centre in Ukraine.
During the2022 Russian invasion of Ukrainethe Russians bombed the Maksymovych Scientific Library of the Taras Shevchenko Kyiv National University, Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine, the National Scientific Medical Library of Ukraine and the Kyiv city youth library.[377]
Literature
Ukrainian literature has origins inOld Church Slavonicwritings, which was used as aliturgicalandliterary languagefollowingChristianizationin the 10th and 11th centuries.[378][379][better source needed][h]Other writings from the time includechronicles,the most significant of which was thePrimary Chronicle.[citation needed]Literary activity faced a sudden decline after theMongol invasion of Kievan Rus',before seeing a revival beginning in the 14th century, and was advanced in the 16th century with the invention of theprinting press.[378]
TheCossacksestablished an independent society and popularized anew kindofepic poem,which marked a high point of Ukrainianoral literature.[379][failed verification]These advances were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, as many Ukrainian authors wrote in Russian or Polish. Nonetheless, by the late 18th century, the modern literary Ukrainian language finally emerged.[378]In 1798, the modern era of the Ukrainian literary tradition began withIvan Kotliarevsky's publication ofEneidain the Ukrainian vernacular.[380]
By the 1830s, a Ukrainianromantic literaturebegan to develop, and the nation's most renowned cultural figure, romanticist poet-painterTaras Shevchenkoemerged. Whereas Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.[381]
Then, in 1863, the use of the Ukrainian language in print was effectivelyprohibitedby the Russian Empire.[72]This severely curtailed literary activity in the area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either publish their works in Russian or release them in Austrian controlledGalicia.The ban was never officially lifted, but it became obsolete after the revolution and the Bolsheviks' coming to power.[379]
Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years when nearly all literary trends were approved. These policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when prominent representatives as well as many others were killed by theNKVDduring theGreat Purge.In general around 223 writers were repressed by what was known as theExecuted Renaissance.[382]These repressions were part of Stalin's implemented policy ofsocialist realism.The doctrine did not necessarily repress the use of the Ukrainian language, but it required that writers follow a certain style in their works.
Literary freedom grew in the late 1980s and early 1990s alongside the decline and collapse of the USSR and the reestablishment of Ukrainian independence in 1991.[378]
Architecture
Ukrainian architecture includes the motifs and styles that are found in structures built in modern Ukraine, and byUkrainiansworldwide. These include initial roots which were established in the state ofKievan Rus'.Following theChristianization of Kievan Rus',Ukrainian architecture has been influenced byByzantine architecture.After theMongol invasion of Kievan Rus',it continued to develop in theKingdom of Galicia-Volhynia.[383]
After the union with theTsardom of Russia,architecture in Ukraine began to develop in different directions, with many structures in the larger eastern, Russian-ruled area built in the styles ofRussian architectureof that period, whilst the western region ofGaliciadeveloped underPolishandAustro-Hungarian architectural influences.Ukrainian national motifs would eventually be used during the period of theSoviet Unionand in modern independent Ukraine.[383]However, much of the contemporary architectural skyline of Ukraine is dominated by Soviet-styleKhrushchyovkas,or low-cost apartment buildings.[384]
Weaving and embroidery
Artisantextile artsplay an important role in Ukrainian culture,[385]especially inUkrainian wedding traditions.Ukrainian embroidery,weavingand lace-making are used in traditionalfolk dressand in traditional celebrations. Ukrainian embroidery varies depending on the region of origin[386]and the designs have a long history of motifs, compositions, choice of colours and types of stitches.[387]Use of colour is very important and has roots inUkrainian folklore.Embroidery motifs found in different parts of Ukraine are preserved in theRushnykMuseum inPereiaslav.
National dress is woven and highly decorated. Weaving with handmade looms is still practised in the village of Krupove, situated inRivne Oblast.The village is the birthplace of two internationally recognized personalities in the scene of national crafts fabrication: Nina Myhailivna[388]and Uliana Petrivna.[389]
Music
Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and many influences. From traditionalfolk music,toclassicalandmodern rock,Ukraine has produced several internationally recognised musicians includingKirill Karabits,Okean ElzyandRuslana.Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into Western music and even into modernjazz.Ukrainian music sometimes presents a perplexing mix of exotic melismatic singing with chordal harmony. The most striking general characteristic of authentic ethnic Ukrainian folk music is the wide use of minor modes or keys which incorporate augmented second intervals.[391]
During the Baroque period, music had a place of considerable importance in the curriculum of theKyiv-Mohyla Academy.Much of the nobility was well versed in music with many Ukrainian Cossack leaders such as (Mazepa,Paliy,Holovatyj,Sirko) being accomplished players of thekobza,banduraortorban.
The first dedicated musical academy was set up inHlukhivin 1738 and students were taught to sing and play violin and bandura from manuscripts. As a result, many of the earliest composers and performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian, having been born or educated in Hlukhiv or having been closely associated with this music school.[392]Ukrainian classical music differs considerably depending on whether the composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine, a composer of non-Ukrainian ethnicity who was a citizen of Ukraine, or part of theUkrainian diaspora.[393]
Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music has been growing in popularity in Ukraine. Folk singer and harmonium playerMariana Sadovskais prominent. Ukrainian pop and folk music arose with the international popularity of groups and performers likeVopli Vidoplyasova,Dakh Daughters,Dakha Brakha,Ivan DornandOkean Elzy.
Media
The Ukrainian legal framework on media freedom is deemed "among the most progressive in eastern Europe", although implementation has been uneven.[394][needs update]The constitution and laws provide forfreedom of speech[395]andpress.The main regulatory authority for the broadcast media is theNational Television and Radio Broadcasting Council of Ukraine(NTRBCU), tasked with licensing media outlets and ensure their compliance with the law.[396]
Kyivdominates the media sector in Ukraine: NationalnewspapersDen,Dzerkalo Tyzhnia,tabloids, such asThe Ukrainian WeekorFocus,and television and radio are largely based there,[citation needed]althoughLvivis also a significant national media centre. The National News Agency of Ukraine,Ukrinformwas founded here in 1918.BBC Ukrainianstarted its broadcasts in 1992.[397]As of 2022[update]75% of the population use the internet, and social media is widely used by government and people.[398]
On 10 March 2024, creators of a documentary film20 Days in Mariupolwere awarded with theOscarin the category "Best Documentary Feature Film", the first Oscar in Ukraine's history.[399]
Sport
Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis onphysical education.These policies left Ukraine with hundreds of stadia, swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.[400]The most popular sport isfootball.The top professional league is theVyscha Liha( "premier league" ).
Many Ukrainians also played for theSoviet national football team,most notablyBallon d'OrwinnersIhor BelanovandOleh Blokhin.This award was only presented to one Ukrainian after the dissolution of the Soviet Union,Andriy Shevchenko.The national team made its debut in the2006 FIFA World Cup,and reached the quarterfinals before losing to eventual champions,Italy.
Ukrainianboxersare amongst the best in the world.[401]Since becoming the undisputed cruiserweight champion in 2018,Oleksandr Usykhas also gone on to win the unified WBA (Super), IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight titles. This feat made him one of only three boxers to have unified the cruiserweight world titles and become a world heavyweight champion.[402]The brothersVitaliandWladimir Klitschkoare formerheavyweightworld champions who held multiple world titles throughout their careers. Also hailing from Ukraine isVasyl Lomachenko,a2008and2012 Olympicgold medalist. He is theunifiedlightweightworld champion who ties the record for winning a world title in the fewest professional fights; three. As of September 2018, he is ranked as the world's best active boxer,pound for pound,byESPN.[403]
Sergey Bubkaheld the record in thePole vaultfrom 1993 to 2014; with great strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the world's best athlete on several occasions.[404][405]
Basketballhas gained popularity in Ukraine. In 2011, Ukraine was granted a right to organizeEuroBasket 2015.Two years later theUkraine national basketball teamfinished sixth inEuroBasket 2013and qualified toFIBA World Cupfor the first time in its history.EuroleagueparticipantBudivelnyk Kyivis the strongest professional basketball club in Ukraine.
Chessis a popular sport in Ukraine.Ruslan Ponomariovis the former world champion. There are about 85Grandmastersand 198International Mastersin Ukraine.Rugby leagueis played throughout Ukraine.[406]
Cuisine
The traditional Ukrainian diet includes chicken, pork, beef, fish and mushrooms. Ukrainians also tend to eat a lot of potatoes; grains; and fresh, boiled or pickled vegetables. Popular traditional dishesvarenyky(boiled dumplings with mushrooms, potatoes,sauerkraut,quark,cherries or berries),nalysnyky(pancakes with quark, poppy seeds, mushrooms,caviaror meat),kapusnyak(cabbage soup that usually consists of meat, potatoes, carrots, onions, millet, tomato paste, spices and fresh herbs), redborscht(soup made of beets, cabbage and mushrooms or meat) andholubtsi(stuffed cabbage rolls filled with rice, carrots, onion and minced meat).[407]Among traditional baked goods are decoratedkorovaisandpaska Easter bread.[408]Ukrainian specialties also includeChicken KievandKyiv cake.
Ukrainians drinkstewed fruit compote,juices, milk,ryazhanka,mineral water, tea and coffee, beer, wine andhorilka.[409]
See also
Notes
- ^/juːˈkreɪn/yoo-KRAYN;Ukrainian:Україна,romanized:Ukraina,pronounced[ʊkrɐˈjinɐ]
- ^Considering only territories located within geographic Europe.
- ^Ukraine also has abattlefrontto its southeast withterritory illegally occupied and annexed from it by Russia.
- ^Which also has the unrecognised breakaway stateTransnistria.
- ^The Ukrainian territories on the Sea of Azov have been occupied and annexed by Russia in 2022, but the annexation has been condemned by the international community.
- ^abThese figures are likely to be much higher, as theydo notinclude Ukrainians of other nationalities or Ukrainian Jews, but onlyethnicUkrainians, from the Ukrainian SSR.
- ^This figure excludesPOWdeaths.
- ^Such writings were also the base for Russian and Belarusian literature.
References
- ^"Law of Ukraine" On ensuring the functioning of Ukrainian as the state language ": The status of Ukrainian and minority languages".20 October 2020.
- ^ab"Population by ethnic nationality, 1 January, year".ukrcensus.gov.ua.Ukrainian Office of Statistics. Archived fromthe originalon 17 December 2011.Retrieved17 April2010.
- ^Особливості Релігійного І Церковно-Релігійного Самовизначення Українських Громадян: Тенденції 2010–2018[Features of Religious and Church – Religious Self-Determination of Ukrainian Citizens: Trends 2010–2018](PDF)(in Ukrainian), Kyiv:Razumkov Centerin collaboration with the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches, 22 April 2018, pp. 12, 13, 16, 31,archived(PDF)from the original on 26 April 2018
Sample of 2,018 respondents aged 18 years and over, interviewed 23–28 March 2018 in all regions of Ukraine except Crimea and the occupied territories of the Donetsk and Luhansk regions. - ^"Ukraine".The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency. 23 March 2022.
- ^Jhariya, M.K.; Meena, R.S.; Banerjee, A. (2021).Ecological Intensification of Natural Resources for Sustainable Agriculture.Springer Singapore. p. 40.ISBN978-981-334-203-3.Retrieved31 March2022.
- ^abcde"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Ukraine)".www.imf.org.International Monetary Fund.16 April 2024.Retrieved17 April2024.
- ^"GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Ukraine".data.worldbank.org.World Bank.Retrieved12 August2021.
- ^"Human Development Report 2023/24"(PDF).United Nations Development Programme.13 March 2024.Retrieved13 March2024.
- ^Net, Korrespondent (18 October 2011).Рішення Ради: Україна 30 жовтня перейде на зимовий час[Rada Decision: Ukraine will change to winter time on 30 October] (in Ukrainian). korrespondent.net.Retrieved31 October2011.
- ^"Ukraine country profile".BBC News.1 March 2022.Retrieved25 March2022.
- ^ab"Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine".Verkhovna Radaof Ukraine.Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2007.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^abBeliakova, Polina; Tecott Metz, Rachel (17 March 2023)."The Surprising Success of U.S. Military Aid to Ukraine".Foreign Affairs.Retrieved13 April2023.
- ^abDorfman, Zach (28 April 2022)."In closer ties to Ukraine, U.S. officials long saw promise and peril".Yahoo News.Retrieved13 April2023.
- ^"Ukraine – Trade – European Commission".ec.europa.eu.2 May 2023.
- ^"What is wrong with the Ukrainian economy?".Atlantic Council.26 April 2019.Retrieved23 August2020.
- ^Dlugy, Yana (1 July 2022)."Corruption in Ukraine".New York Times.Retrieved15 September2022.
- ^"Ukraine becomes world's third biggest grain exporter in 2011 – minister"(Press release). Black Sea Grain. 20 January 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 31 December 2013.Retrieved31 December2013.
- ^"World Trade Report 2013".World Trade Organization. 2013.Retrieved26 January2014.
- ^"Ukrainian Drone Force".www.warpowerukraine.com.
- ^Kramer, Andrew E.; Bilefsky, Dan (30 September 2022)."Ukraine submits an application to join NATO, with big hurdles ahead".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved1 October2022.
- ^"Linguistic divides: Johnson: Is there a single Ukraine?".The Economist.5 February 2014.Retrieved12 May2014.
- ^"Ukraine – Definition".Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.Retrieved4 May2012.
- ^"Why Did" The Ukraine "Become Just" Ukraine "?".www.mentalfloss.com.3 January 2013.
- ^"Ukraine or the Ukraine: Why do some country names have 'the'?".BBC News.7 June 2012.
- ^"The" the "is gone".The Ukrainian Weekly.8 December 1991. Archived fromthe originalon 14 October 2017.Retrieved21 October2015.
- ^Adam Taylor (9 December 2013)."Why Ukraine Isn't 'The Ukraine,' And Why That Matters Now".Business Insider.Retrieved21 October2015.
- ^"'Ukraine' or 'the Ukraine'? It's more controversial than you think ".Washington Post.25 March 2014.Retrieved11 August2016.
- ^Geoghegan, Tom (7 June 2012)."Ukraine or the Ukraine: Why do some country names have 'the'?".BBC NewsMagazine.BBC.
- ^ab"Національний перелік елементів нематеріальної культурної спадщини України".mcip.gov.ua(in Ukrainian). 24 July 2024.Retrieved28 July2024.
- ^Gibbons, Ann (10 June 2015)."Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians".Science.AAAS.
- ^R. Garba, V. Usyk, L. Ylä-Mella, J. Kameník, K. Stübner, J. Lachner, G. Rugel, F. Veselovský, N. Gerasimenko, A. I. R. Herries, J. Kučera, M. F. Knudsen, J. D. Jansen (6 March 2024)."East-to-west human dispersal into Europe 1.4 million years ago".Nature.627(8005): 805–810.Bibcode:2024Natur.627..805G.doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07151-3.ISSN0028-0836.PMID38448591.S2CID268262450.
{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Prat, Sandrine; Péan, Stéphane C.; Crépin, Laurent; Drucker, Dorothée G.; Puaud, Simon J.; Valladas, Hélène; Lázničková-Galetová, Martina; Plicht, Johannes van der; Yanevich, Alexander (17 June 2011)."The Oldest Anatomically Modern Humans from Far Southeast Europe: Direct Dating, Culture and Behavior".PLOS ONE.6(6): e20834.Bibcode:2011PLoSO...620834P.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020834.PMC3117838.PMID21698105.
- ^Jennifer Carpenter (20 June 2011)."Early human fossils unearthed in Ukraine".BBC.Retrieved21 June2011.
- ^"Mystery of the domestication of the horse solved: Competing theories reconciled".sciencedaily (sourced from theUniversity of Cambridge). 7 May 2012.Retrieved12 June2014.
- ^Matossian, Mary Kilbourne (8 May 1997).Shaping World History.Routledge.p. 43.ISBN9780765600622.
- ^"What We Theorize – When and Where Did Domestication Occur".International Museum of the Horse.Archived fromthe originalon 23 July 2013.Retrieved12 December2010.
- ^"Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction".Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald.CBC Radio. 7 March 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 7 October 2014.Retrieved18 September2010.
- ^Balter, Michael (13 February 2015)."Mysterious Indo-European homeland may have been in the steppes of Ukraine and Russia".Science.
- ^Haak, Wolfgang; Lazaridis, Iosif; Patterson, Nick; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Llamas, Bastien; Brandt, Guido; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Harney, Eadaoin; Stewardson, Kristin; Fu, Qiaomei (11 June 2015)."Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe".Nature.522(7555): 207–211.arXiv:1502.02783.Bibcode:2015Natur.522..207H.doi:10.1038/nature14317.ISSN0028-0836.PMC5048219.PMID25731166.
- ^"Scythian".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved21 October2015.
- ^"Scythian: Ancient People".Online Britannica.20 July 1998. Archived fromthe originalon 27 March 2017.Retrieved26 October2017.
- ^"Khazar | Origin, History, Religion, & Facts".Encyclopædia Britannica.12 May 2023.
- ^Magocsi, Paul Robert (16 July 1996).A History of Ukraine.University of Toronto Press.ISBN9780802078209.Retrieved16 July2018– via Google Books.
- ^Belyaev, A. (13 September 2012)."Русь и варяги. Евразийский исторический взгляд".Центр Льва Гумилёва(in Russian).Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^abc"Kievan Rus".The Columbia Encyclopedia(6 ed.). 2001–2007. Archived fromthe originalon 19 August 2000.Retrieved8 January2014.
- ^A Geography of Russia and Its NeighborsISBN978-1-606-23920-9p. 69
- ^Kubicek, Paul (2008).The History of Ukraine.Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. 20–22.ISBN9780313349201.
- ^Martin, Janet (6 April 2009). Gleason, Abbott (ed.).A Companion to Russian History.John Wiley & Sons.pp. 37–40.ISBN978-1-4443-0842-6.
- ^The Dynasty of Chernigov, 1146–1246ISBN978-0-521-82442-2pp. 117–118
- ^abc"Ukraine".CIA World Factbook.13 December 2007.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^Power Politics in Kievan Rus': Vladimir Monomakh and His Dynasty, 1054–1246ISBN0-888-44202-5pp. 195–196
- ^Carter V. Findley,The Turks in World History(Oxford University Press, October 2004)ISBN0-19-517726-6
- ^"The Destruction of Kiev".University of Toronto's Research Repository.Archived fromthe originalon 19 August 2016.Retrieved3 January2008.
- ^"Roman Mstyslavych".encyclopediaofukraine.com.
- ^Ougrin, Dennis; Ougrin, Anastasia (2020).One Hundred Years in Galicia: Events That Shaped Ukraine and Eastern Europe.Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 11.ISBN9781527558816.
- ^Rowell, C. S. (1994).Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire Within East-Central Europe, 1295–1345.Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought: Fourth Series.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521450119.
- ^"Genuezskiye kolonii v Odesskoy oblasti – Biznes-portal Izmaila"Генуэзские колонии в Одесской области – Бизнес-портал Измаила[Genoese colonies in the Odesa region – Izmail's business portal] (in Russian). 5 February 2018. Archived fromthe originalon 5 February 2018.Retrieved17 November2020.
- ^Plokhy, Serhii (2017).The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine.New York:Basic Books.ISBN9780465050918.
- ^Radio Lemberg."A History of Ukraine. Episode 33. The Crimean Khanate and Its Permanent Invasions of Ukraine".radiolemberg.com.Archived fromthe originalon 12 May 2020.Retrieved26 September2019.
- ^Kizilov, Mikhail (2007)."Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards: The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captives in the Crimean Khanate".Journal of Jewish Studies.58(2): 189–210.doi:10.18647/2730/JJS-2007.ISSN0022-2097.
- ^İnalcik, Halil(1979)."Servile Labour in the Ottoman Empire".In Ascher, Abraham; Király, Béla K.; Halasi-Kun, Tibor (eds.).The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern.New York, NY: Brooklyn College Press. pp. 25–43.ISBN978-0-93088800-8.Archived fromthe originalon 4 May 2017.
- ^Subtelny, pp. 92–93
- ^Krupnytsky B. and Zhukovsky A."Zaporizhia, The".Encyclopedia of Ukraine.Retrieved16 December2007.
- ^ab"Ukraine – The Cossacks".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved21 October2015.
- ^Matsuki, Eizo (2009)."The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves"(PDF).econ.hit-u.ac.jp.Hitotsubashi University(Mediterranean Studies Group). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 5 June 2013.
- ^"Poland".Encyclopædia Britannica(fee required).Archived fromthe originalon 11 October 2007.Retrieved12 September2007.
- ^Subtelny, pp. 123–124
- ^Okinshevych, Lev; Arkadii Zhukovsky (1989)."Hetman state".Encyclopedia of Ukraine.Vol. 2.
- ^abMagocsi, Paul Robert (2010).A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples, Second Edition.Toronto:University of Toronto Press.pp. 255–263.ISBN9781442640856.
- ^Hardaway, Ashley (2011).Ukraine.US: Other Places Publishing. p. 98.ISBN9781935850045.
- ^Makuch, Andrij; Zasenko, Oleksa Eliseyovich; Yerofeyev, Ivan Alekseyevich; Hajda, Lubomyr A.; Stebelsky, Ihor; Kryzhanivsky, Stepan Andriyovich (13 December 2023)."Ukraine under direct imperial Russian rule".Encyclopædia BritannicaOnline.Retrieved11 December2023.
- ^abRemy, Johannes (March–June 2007). "The Valuev Circular and Censorship of Ukrainian Publications in the Russian Empire (1863–1876): Intention and Practice".Canadian Slavonic Papers.47(1/2): 87–110.doi:10.1080/00085006.2007.11092432.JSTOR40871165.S2CID128680044.
- ^"The First Ukrainian Political Program: Mykhailo Drahomanov'sIntroductionto Hromadaurl ".www.ditext.com.Retrieved26 March2021.
- ^"Shevchenko, Taras".encyclopediaofukraine.com.Retrieved1 November2017.
- ^Magocsi, Paul Robert (16 July 2018).The Roots of Ukrainian Nationalism: Galicia as Ukraine's Piedmont.University of Toronto Press.doi:10.3138/9781442682252.ISBN9781442682252.S2CID128063569.
- ^Kravčenko, Volodymyr Vasylʹovyč (2022).The Ukrainian-Russian borderland: history versus geography.Montreal & Kingston London Chicago: McGill-Queen’s University Press. pp. 26–35.ISBN978-0-2280-1199-6.
- ^"Industrial Revolution | Key Facts".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved30 July2022.
- ^"On the industrial history of Ukraine".European Route of Industrial Heritage.Retrieved30 July2022.
- ^Satzewich, Vic (2002).The Ukrainian diaspora.London:Routledge.pp. 26–48.ISBN0-415-29658-7.OCLC252946784.
- ^Münz, Rainer; Ohliger, Rainer (2003).Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: German, Israel, and Post-Soviet Successor States in Comparative Perspective.Routledge.p. 164.ISBN0-7146-5232-6– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Subtelny, Orest(2000).Ukraine: a history.University of Toronto Press.p. 262.ISBN0-8020-8390-0– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Smele, Jonathan D. (2015).Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926.Rowman & Littlefield.p. 476.ISBN978-1-4422-5281-3– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Subtelny, Orest(2000).Ukraine: A History.University of Toronto Press.pp.340–344.ISBN978-0-8020-8390-6.
- ^Nahylo, Bohdan (1999).The Ukrainian Resurgence.London: Hurst. p. 8.ISBN9781850651680.OCLC902410832.
- ^"Ukraine – World War I and the struggle for independence".Encyclopædia Britannica.20 May 2023.
- ^"The Famine of 1920–1924".The Norka – a German Colony in Russia.Archived fromthe originalon 13 January 2015.Retrieved4 March2015.
- ^"Famine of 1921–3".Encyclopedia of Ukraine.Retrieved3 March2015.
- ^Timothy Snyder. (2003)The Causes of Ukrainian-Polish Ethnic Cleansing 1943, The Past and Present Society: Oxford University Press. p. 202
- ^Timothy Snyder. (2005).Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine.New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 32–33, 152–162
- ^Revyuk, Emil (8 July 1931)."Polish Atrocities in Ukraine".Svoboda Press– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Skalmowski, Wojciech (8 July 2003).For East is East: Liber Amicorum Wojciech Skalmowski.Peeters Publishers.ISBN9789042912984– via Google Books.
- ^Subtelny, p. 380
- ^Service, Robert (1997).A History of Twentieth-Century Russia.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 124–125.ISBN0674403487.
- ^Christopher Gilley, 'The "Change of Signposts" in the Ukrainian emigration: Mykhailo Hrushevskyi and the Foreign Delegation of the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries',Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas,Vol. 54, 2006, No. 3, pp. 345–74
- ^"Ukraine remembers famine horror".BBC News.24 November 2007.
- ^Wheatcroft, Stephen G.(2007). "Agency and Terror: Yevdokimov and Mass Killing in Stalin's Great Terror".Australian Journal of Politics and History.53(1): 20–43.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.2007.00440.x.ISSN0004-9522.Full text inEbsco.See also Robert Conquest,The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet collectivization and the terror-famine(1986). Mark B. Tauger, "The 1932 Harvest and the Famine of 1933"Slavic Review,Vol. 50, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 70–89, notes the harvest was unusually poor.online in JSTOR;R. W. Davies,Mark B. Tauger,S. G. Wheatcroft,"Stalin, Grain Stocks and the Famine of 1932–1933",Slavic Review,Vol. 54, No. 3 (Autumn, 1995), pp. 642–657online in JSTOR;Michael Ellman. "Stalin and the Soviet famine of 1932–33 Revisited",Europe-Asia Studies,Volume 59, Issue 4 June 2007, pages 663–693.
- ^Wilson, p. 17
- ^Subtelny, p. 487
- ^"Treaty of Peace with Romania: February 10, 1947".Avalon Project.Retrieved25 September2022.
- ^Roberts, p. 102
- ^Boshyk, p. 89
- ^ab"Ukraine – World War II and its aftermath".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived fromthe originalon 27 February 2010.Retrieved28 December2007.
- ^Berkhoff, Karel Cornelis(April 2004).Harvest of despair: life and death in Ukraine under Nazi rule.Harvard University Press.p. 164.
- ^ab"World wars".Encyclopedia of Ukraine.Retrieved20 December2007.
- ^Subtelny, Orest (1988).Ukraine: A History.University of Toronto Press. p. 410.ISBN9781442609914– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Vedeneev, Dmitry (7 March 2015)."Військово-польова жандармерія - спеціальний орган Української повстанської армії"[Military Field Gendarmerie - special body of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army]. Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2015.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^Snyder, Timothy (24 February 2010)."A Fascist Hero in Democratic Kiev".The New York Review of Books.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^Motyka, Grzegorz (2002). "Polska reakcja na działania UPA – skala i przebieg akcji odwetowych" [Polish reaction to the actions of the UPA – the scale and course of retaliation]. InMotyka, Grzegorz;Libionka, Dariusz(eds.).Antypolska Akcja OUN-UPA, 1943–1944, Fakty i Interpretacje[Anti-Polish Action OUN-UPA, 1943–1944, Facts and Interpretations](PDF).Warsaw:Instytut Pamięci Narodowej.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 August 2014.
- ^Snyder, Timothy (2003)."The Causes of Ukrainian-Polish Ethnic Cleansing 1943".Past & Present(179): 197–234.doi:10.1093/past/179.1.197.ISSN0031-2746.JSTOR3600827.
- ^Piotrowski pp. 352–354
- ^Weiner pp. 127–237
- ^Kalb, Marvin (21 September 2015).Imperial Gamble: Putin, Ukraine, and the New Cold War.Brookings Institution Press.ISBN978-0-8157-2665-4.OCLC1058866168.
- ^"Losses of the Ukrainian Nation, p. 2".Peremoga.gov.ua(in Ukrainian). Archived fromthe originalon 15 May 2005.Retrieved16 December2007.
- ^Subtelny, p. 476
- ^Magocsi, p. 635
- ^"Ukrainian Insurgent Army".Encyclopedia of Ukraine.Retrieved20 December2007.
- ^Weinberg, p. 264
- ^"Losses of the Ukrainian Nation".Peremoga.gov.ua(in Ukrainian). p. 1. Archived fromthe originalon 25 October 2007.Retrieved16 December2007.
- ^abStanislav Kulchytskyi (1 October 2004)."Demohrafichni vtraty Ukrayiny v khkh stolitti"Демографічні втрати України в хх столітті[Demographic losses of Ukraine in the 20 century] (in Ukrainian).Kyiv,Ukraine:Dzerkalo Tyzhnia.Retrieved20 January2021.[permanent dead link]
- ^Smale, Alison (27 January 2014)."Shedding Light on a Vast Toll of Jews Killed Away From the Death Camps".The New York Times.Retrieved13 December2023.
- ^ab"Losses of the Ukrainian Nation, p. 7".Peremoga.gov.ua(in Ukrainian). Archived fromthe originalon 15 May 2005.Retrieved16 December2007.
- ^Overy, p. 518
- ^abКривошеев Г. Ф.,Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: потери вооруженных сил. Статистическое исследование(Krivosheev G. F.,Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: losses of the Armed Forces. A Statistical Study)(in Russian)
- ^"Вихідні та святкові дні 2022 року в Україні/Holidays 2022 in Ukraine".Consulate General of Ukraine in New York(in Ukrainian). 29 December 2021. Archived fromthe originalon 4 August 2022.Retrieved31 July2022.
- ^"Ukraine: World War II and its aftermath".Encyclopædia Britannica(fee required).Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2007.Retrieved12 September2007.
- ^"Activities of the Member States – Ukraine".United Nations.Retrieved17 January2011.
- ^"United Nations".U.S. Department of State.Retrieved22 September2014.
Voting procedures and the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council were finalized at theYalta Conferencein 1945 when Roosevelt and Stalin agreed that the veto would not prevent discussions by the Security Council. Roosevelt agreed to General Assembly membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States.
- ^"United Nations".U.S. Department of State.Retrieved22 September2014.
Voting procedures and the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council were finalized at the Yalta Conference in 1945 when Roosevelt and Stalin agreed that the veto would not prevent discussions by the Security Council. In April 1945, new U.S. President Truman agreed to General Assembly membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States.
- ^Malynovska, Olena (14 June 2006)."Migration and migration policy in Ukraine".Archived fromthe originalon 23 September 2013.
- ^"The Transfer of Crimea to Ukraine".International Committee for Crimea. July 2005.Retrieved25 March2007.
- ^Cook, Bernard A.; Cook, Bernard Anthony (2001).Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-0-8153-4058-4.
- ^"Ukraine – The last years of Stalin's rule".Encyclopædia Britannica (fee required).Archived fromthe originalon 15 January 2008.Retrieved28 December2007.
- ^Magocsi, p. 644
- ^Magocsi, 1996, p. 704
- ^Remy, Johannes (1996)."'Sombre anniversary' of worst nuclear disaster in history – Chernobyl: 10th anniversary ".UN Chronicle.Find articles. Archived fromthe originalon 28 June 2012.Retrieved16 December2007.
- ^Geller, Mikhail (1991).Седьмой секретарь: Блеск и нищета Михаила Горбачева(1st Russian ed.). London. p. 352=356.ISBN1-870128-72-9.OCLC24243579.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^"Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine".Verkhovna Radaof Ukraine.16 July 1990. Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2007.Retrieved12 September2007.
- ^"Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine Resolution On Declaration of Independence of Ukraine".Verkhovna Radaof Ukraine.24 August 1991. Archived fromthe originalon 30 September 2007.Retrieved12 September2007.
- ^Nohlen & Stöver, p1985
- ^"Soviet Leaders Recall 'Inevitable' Breakup Of Soviet Union".RadioFreeEurope.8 December 2006.Retrieved12 September2007.
- ^Лащенко, Олександр (26 November 2020).""Україні не потрібно виходити із СНД – вона ніколи не була і не є зараз членом цієї структури"".Радіо Свобода.
- ^Solodkov, Artem (27 December 2021)."Период распада: последний декабрь Союза. 26 декабря 1991 года".РБК(in Russian).Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^Shen, p. 41
- ^abcSutela, Pekka."The Underachiever: Ukraine's Economy Since 1991".Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Retrieved3 August2022.
- ^"Ukrainian GDP (PPP)".World Economic Outlook Database, October 2007.International Monetary Fund(IMF).Retrieved10 March2008.
- ^"Can Ukraine Avert a Financial Meltdown?".World Bank.June 1998. Archived fromthe originalon 12 July 2000.Retrieved16 December2007.
- ^Figliuoli, Lorenzo; Lissovolik, Bogdan (31 August 2002)."The IMF and Ukraine: What Really Happened".International Monetary Fund.Archived fromthe originalon 17 October 2002.Retrieved16 December2007.
- ^"Дефолт 1998 года: 10 лет спустя".ukraine.segodnya.ua(in Russian). 11 July 2022.Retrieved4 August2022.
- ^"The stable crisis. Ukraine's economy three years after the Euromaidan".OSW Centre for Eastern Studies.5 April 2017.Retrieved3 August2022.
- ^"War to cause Ukraine economy to shrink nearly a third this year – EBRD report – Ukraine".ReliefWeb.10 May 2022.Retrieved3 August2022.
- ^Dickinson, Peter (19 June 2021)."Ukraine's choice: corruption or growth".Atlantic Council.Retrieved3 August2022.
- ^Aslund, Anders; Aslund, Anders (Autumn 1995). "Eurasia Letter: Ukraine's Turnaround".Foreign Policy.100(100): 125–143.doi:10.2307/1149308.JSTOR1149308.
- ^Mykhnenko, Vlad (15 March 2020)."Causes and Consequences of the War in Eastern Ukraine: An Economic Geography Perspective".Europe-Asia Studies.72(3): 528–560.doi:10.1080/09668136.2019.1684447.ISSN0966-8136.S2CID214438848.
- ^Ludvigsson, Jonas F.; Loboda, Andrii (July 2022)."Systematic review of health and disease in Ukrainian children highlights poor child health and challenges for those treating refugees".Acta Paediatrica.111(7): 1341–1353.doi:10.1111/apa.16370.ISSN0803-5253.PMC9324783.PMID35466444.
- ^"Impact of war on the dynamics of COVID-19 in Ukraine - Ukraine".reliefweb.int.17 April 2022.Retrieved4 August2022.
- ^Shevel, Oxana (1 September 2015)."The parliamentary elections in Ukraine, October 2014".Electoral Studies.39:159–163.doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2015.03.015.ISSN0261-3794.
- ^Kuzio, Taras (1 October 2005)."Neither East Nor West: Ukraine's Security Policy Under Kuchma".Problems of Post-Communism.52(5): 59–68.doi:10.1080/10758216.2005.11052215.ISSN1075-8216.S2CID157151441.
- ^""Хунта" и "террористы": война слов Москвы и Киева ".BBC News Русская служба(in Russian). 25 April 2014.Retrieved4 August2022.
- ^"Putin accuses US of orchestrating 2014 'coup' in Ukraine".Al Jazeera.22 June 2021.Retrieved3 March2022.
- ^"The Maidan in 2014 is a coup d'etat: a review of Italian and German pro-Russian media".Retrieved4 August2022.
- ^Kuzio, Taras (4 May 2018)."Euromaidan revolution, Crimea and Russia–Ukraine war: why it is time for a review of Ukrainian–Russian studies".Eurasian Geography and Economics.59(3–4): 529–553.doi:10.1080/15387216.2019.1571428.ISSN1538-7216.S2CID159414642.
- ^Hosaka, Sanshiro (3 July 2019)."Putin the 'Peacemaker'?—Russian Reflexive Control During the 2014 August Invasion of Ukraine".The Journal of Slavic Military Studies.32(3): 324–346.doi:10.1080/13518046.2019.1646950.ISSN1351-8046.S2CID210591255.
- ^Potočňák, Adam; Mares, Miroslav (16 May 2022)."Donbas Conflict: How Russia's Trojan Horse Failed and Forced Moscow to Alter Its Strategy".Problems of Post-Communism.70(4): 341–351.doi:10.1080/10758216.2022.2066005.ISSN1075-8216.S2CID248838806.
- ^Lock, Samantha; Singh, Maanvi; Oladipo, Gloria; Michael, Chris; Jones, Sam (24 February 2022)."Ukraine-Russia crisis live news: Putin declares operation to 'demilitarise' Ukraine – latest updates".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved24 February2022.
- ^Gutiérrez, Pablo; Kirk, Ashley."A year of war: how Russian forces have been pushed back in Ukraine".the Guardian.
- ^Lonas, Lexi (12 May 2022)."5 ways Russia has failed in its invasion".The Hill.Retrieved4 August2022.
- ^"Ukraine Country Report".EU-LISTCO.11 December 2019.Retrieved4 August2022.
- ^ab"EU awards Ukraine and Moldova candidate status".BBC News.23 June 2022.Retrieved4 August2022.
- ^"Top Ukrainian officials quit in anti-corruption drive".BBC News.24 January 2023.Retrieved25 January2023.
- ^"Ukraine – Relief".Encyclopædia Britannica (fee required).Archived fromthe originalon 15 January 2008.Retrieved27 December2007.
- ^Tabuchi, Hiroko(2 March 2022)."Before Invasion, Ukraine's Lithium Wealth Was Drawing Global Attention".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved3 March2022.
- ^abcd"Mining – UkraineInvest".8 May 2020.Retrieved3 March2022.
- ^Nature, Preferred by."Ukraine Timber Risk Profile".NEPCon – Preferred by Nature.Archived fromthe originalon 26 November 2020.Retrieved3 March2022.
- ^Overview of soil conditions of arable land in Ukraine – Study case for steppe and forest-steppe zones.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.2020.doi:10.4060/ca7761en.ISBN978-92-5-132215-4.S2CID242588829.Retrieved7 March2022.
- ^"Ukraine invasion: rapid overview of environmental issues".CEOBS.25 February 2022.Retrieved3 March2022.
- ^Bank, World (January 2016)."Ukraine Country Environmental Analysis".World Bank.doi:10.1596/24971.hdl:10986/24971.
- ^"Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)".www.unicef.org.Archived fromthe originalon 3 March 2022.Retrieved3 March2022.
- ^"Environmental issues in Ukraine".Naturvernforbundet. 16 July 2017. Archived fromthe originalon 6 March 2022.Retrieved6 March2022.
- ^"Ten-Step plan to address environmental impact of war in Ukraine"PAX for Peace. 24 February 2023. Accessed 30 April 2023.
- ^"One Year In, Russia's War on Ukraine Has Inflicted $51 Billion in Environmental Damage"e360.yale.edu. 22 February 2023. Accessed 30 April 2023.
- ^"Ukrainians hope to rebuild greener country after Russia's war causes 'ecocide'".The Independent.19 March 2022.Retrieved7 June2023.
- ^"The Environmental Cost of the War in Ukraine".International Relations Review.2 June 2023.Retrieved7 June2023.
- ^Graham-Harrison, Emma (27 August 2022)."Toxins in soil, blasted forests – Ukraine counts cost of Putin's 'ecocide'".The Observer.ISSN0029-7712.Retrieved7 June2023.
- ^"One Year In, Russia's War on Ukraine Has Inflicted $51 Billion in Environmental Damage".Yale E360.Retrieved1 July2023.
- ^"Ukraine".Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles.Food and Agriculture Organization.Archived fromthe originalon 6 October 2016.Retrieved8 August2016.
- ^abc"Ukraine – Climate".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved20 October2015.
- ^Didovets, Iulii; Krysanova, Valentina; Hattermann, Fred Fokko; del Rocío Rivas López, María; Snizhko, Sergiy; Müller Schmied, Hannes (1 December 2020)."Climate change impact on water availability of main river basins in Ukraine".Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies.32:100761.Bibcode:2020JHyRS..3200761D.doi:10.1016/j.ejrh.2020.100761.ISSN2214-5818.S2CID230613418.
- ^Skrypnyk, Andriy; Zhemoyda, Oleksandr; Klymenko, Nataliia; Galaieva, Liudmyla; Koval, Tatiana (1 March 2021)."Econometric Analysis of the Impact of Climate Change on the Sustainability of Agricultural Production in Ukraine".Journal of Ecological Engineering.22(3): 275–288.doi:10.12911/22998993/132945.ISSN2299-8993.S2CID233801987.
- ^"World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal".climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org.
- ^Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017)."An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm".BioScience.67(6): 534–545.doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014.ISSN0006-3568.PMC5451287.PMID28608869.
- ^abShvidenko, Anatoly; Buksha, Igor; Krakovska, Svitlana; Lakyda, Petro (30 June 2017)."Vulnerability of Ukrainian Forests to Climate Change".Sustainability.9(7): 1152.doi:10.3390/su9071152.eISSN2071-1050.
- ^Council of Europe. Conference (1 January 2001).Conference Sur la Conservation Et Le Suivi de la Diversite Biologique Et Paysagere en Ukraine[Conference on the Conservation and Monitoring of Biological and Landscape Diversity in Ukraine] (in French).Council of Europe.pp. 78–.ISBN9789287146458.OCLC1056440382.
- ^"Welcome to State of The Environment in Ukraine".The Ministry for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety of Ukraine. Archived fromthe originalon 7 July 2009.Retrieved21 October2013.
- ^"The List of Wetlands of International Importance"(PDF).Ukraine.Ramsar Organization. 11 October 2013.Retrieved21 October2013.
- ^"National planning tool for the implementation of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands"(PDF).Ramsar organization. 2002.Retrieved21 October2013.
- ^"Regions of Ukraine and their divisions".Verkhovna Radaof Ukraine Official Web-site(in Ukrainian). Archived fromthe originalon 31 December 2007.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^"Number of Present Population of Ukraine, as of January 1"(PDF).ukrstat.gov.ua.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 July 2022.
- ^Choudhry, Sujit (2018).Semi-presidentialism and Inclusive Governance in Ukraine Reflections for Constitutional Reform(PDF).Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. p. 16.ISBN978-91-7671-154-5.OCLC1038616889.
- ^ab"Ukraine celebrating 20th anniversary of Constitution".www.unian.info.16 June 2016.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^Yulia Tymoshenko Goes On Trial A Day Before Constitution Day,Eurasia Daily Monitor(30 July 2011)
- ^1996: the year in reviewArchived3 March 2016 at theWayback Machine,The Ukrainian Weekly(29 December 1996)
- ^"Ukraine's parliament backs changes to Constitution confirming Ukraine's path toward EU, NATO".www.unian.info.Retrieved7 February2019.
- ^"General Articles about Ukraine".Government Portal.Archived fromthe originalon 20 January 2008.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^"Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine".Verkhovna Radaof Ukraine Official Web-site.Archived fromthe originalon 23 December 2007.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^"Constitution of Ukraine".Wikisource.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^Черноватий Л. М.Практичний курс англійської мови. 4-й курс.: Підручник для ВНЗ.Нова Книга. pp. 24–.ISBN9789663821757.
- ^Freedom House (13 September 2004).Nations in Transit 2004: Democratization in East Central Europe and Eurasia.Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 639–.ISBN978-1-4617-3141-2.OCLC828424860.
- ^"Ukraine's president declared martial law after Russia's attack. But what is it?".USA Today.
- ^"Ukraine President Submits Bill Extending Martial Law Until Late April".NDTV.com.Retrieved31 March2022.
- ^"Ukrainian Parliament Extends Martial Law For 90 Days".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.22 May 2022.Retrieved17 June2022.
- ^"WJP Rule of Law Index® 2018–2019".data.worldjusticeproject.org.Archived fromthe originalon 29 April 2015.Retrieved28 April2014.
- ^Byrne, Peter (25 March 2010)."Prosecutors fail to solve biggest criminal cases".Kyiv Post.Archivedfrom the original on 31 March 2010.Retrieved19 January2023.
- ^"Українські суди майже не виносять виправдувальних вироків".Ukrainska Pravda(in Ukrainian).Retrieved6 July2023.
- ^abcByrne, Peter (25 March 2010)."Jackpot".Kyiv Post.Archived fromthe originalon 29 March 2010.Retrieved31 March2010.
- ^ab"Ukraine".United States Department of State.4 November 2021.Retrieved31 March2022.
- ^Interfax-Ukraine (15 December 2011)."Constitutional Court rules Russian, other languages can be used in Ukrainian courts – Dec. 15, 2011".Kyiv Post.Retrieved6 July2023.
"З подачі" Регіонів "Рада дозволила російську у судах".Ukrainska Pravda(in Ukrainian).Retrieved6 July2023. - ^"Російська мова стала офіційною в українських судах".for-ua.com.
- ^Chivers, C. J. (17 January 2005)."How Top Spies in Ukraine Changed the Nation's Path".The New York Times.Retrieved15 June2018.
- ^Background Notes, Ukraine.U.S. Department of State,Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Public Communication, Editorial Division. 2000. pp. 9–.OCLC40350408.
- ^NATO Review.University of Wisconsin– NATO Information Service. pp. 49–.OCLC1387966.
- ^abc"Ukraine has no alternative to Euro-Atlantic integration – Ukraine has no alternative to Euro-Atlantic integration – Poroshenko".Interfax-Ukraine.23 December 2014.
"Ukraine abolishes its non-aligned status – law".Interfax-Ukraine.23 December 2014.
"Ukraine's complicated path to NATO membership".Euronews.23 December 2014.
"Ukraine Takes Step Toward Joining NATO".The New York Times.23 December 2014.
"Ukraine Ends 'Nonaligned' Status, Earning Quick Rebuke From Russia".The Wall Street Journal.23 December 2014. - ^"Teixeira: Ukraine's EU integration suspended, association agreement unlikely to be signed".Interfax.31 August 2012.Retrieved6 September2012.
- ^"EU, Ukraine to sign remaining part of Association Agreement on June 27 – European Council".Retrieved25 June2016.
- ^"EU-Ukraine Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area"(PDF).European Union.Retrieved21 June2021.
- ^"The EU-Ukraine Association Agreement and Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area"(PDF).European Union.Retrieved21 June2021.
- ^Patricolo, Claudia (29 July 2018)."Ukraine looks to revive V4 membership hopes as Slovakia takes over presidency".Emerging Europe.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^"Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine Inaugurate 'Lublin Triangle'".Jamestown.
- ^"Україна, Грузія та Молдова створили новий формат співпраці для спільного руху в ЄС".www.eurointegration.com.ua.
- ^"У 2024 році Україна подасть заявку на вступ до ЄС".www.ukrinform.ua.29 January 2019.
- ^ab"Ukraine International Airlines launches direct Kyiv–New York flights".KyivPost.6 June 2014.Retrieved24 April2015.
- ^ab"The history of the Armed Forces of Ukraine".Ministry of Defence of Ukraine.Retrieved5 July2008.
- ^Kelly, Mary Louise; Lonsdorf, Kat (21 February 2022)."Why Ukraine gave up its nuclear weapons – and what that means in an invasion by Russia".NPR.org.Retrieved9 November2022.
- ^ab"White Book 2006"(PDF).Ministry of Defence of Ukraine. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 November 2007.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^Walters, Alex (24 February 2022)."In numbers: How does Ukraine's military stack up against Russia?".Forces Network.
- ^"Ukrainian Navy Warship Hetman Sagaidachniy Joins EU Naval Force Counter Piracy Operation Atalanta".Eunavfor.eu. 6 January 2014. Archived fromthe originalon 28 February 2021.Retrieved26 January2014.
- ^"Multinational Peacekeeping Forces in Kosovo, KFOR".Ministry of Defence of Ukraine.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^"Peacekeeping".Ministry of Defence of Ukraine.Retrieved2 May2008.
- ^"Kyiv Post. Independence. Community. Trust – Politics – Parliament approves admission of military units of foreign states to Ukraine for exercises".22 May 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 22 May 2010.
- ^Collins, Liam (8 March 2022)."In 2014, the 'decrepit' Ukrainian army hit the refresh button. Eight years later, it's paying off".The Conversation.Retrieved18 March2022.
- ^Al Jazeera Staff."What's in the new US military aid package to Ukraine?".www.aljazeera.com.Retrieved18 March2022.
- ^"Is an outright Russian military victory in Ukraine possible?".The Guardian.17 March 2022.Retrieved18 March2022.
- ^"Troop Deaths and Injuries in Ukraine War Near 500,000, U.S. Officials Say".The New York Times.18 August 2023.
- ^"The council reduced the number of districts in Ukraine: 136 instead of 490".Ukrainska Pravda(in Ukrainian). 17 July 2020.
- ^Bohdan Ben (25 September 2020)."Why Is Ukraine Poor? Look To The Culture Of Poverty".VoxUkraine.Retrieved4 March2021.
- ^"CPI 2023 for Eastern Europe & Central Asia: Autocracy & weak justice…".Transparency.org.30 January 2024.Retrieved31 January2024.
- ^"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021".IMF.org.International Monetary Fund.Retrieved17 April2020.
- ^ab"Ukraine economy could shrink by up to 35% in 2022, says IMF".The Guardian.14 March 2022.Retrieved24 March2022.
- ^"What will it cost to rebuild Ukraine?".The Economist.ISSN0013-0613.Retrieved24 May2022.
- ^Jaroslav Romanchuk (29 December 2021)."Ukrainian Economy in 2021: Procrastination Without Innovation".Get the Latest Ukraine News Today – Kyivpost.Kyiv Post.Retrieved27 January2022.
- ^"Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) – Ukraine | Data".data.worldbank.org.Retrieved17 April2021.
- ^"Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (national estimate) – Ukraine | Data".data.worldbank.org.Retrieved17 April2021.
- ^Lyubomyr Shavalyuk (10 October 2019)."Where Ukraine's middle class is and how it can develop".The Ukrainian Week.Retrieved6 November2020.
- ^"Ukraine Government Debt: % of GDP".CEIC.Retrieved17 April2021.
- ^abc"Ukraine's economy is more than just wheat and commodities | DW | 15 March 2022".DW.COM.Retrieved24 March2022.
- ^"Statistics of Launches of Ukrainian LV".www.nkau.gov.ua.State Space Agency of Ukraine.Archived fromthe originalon 10 December 2018.Retrieved24 December2007.
- ^"Missile defence, NATO: Ukraine's tough call".Business Ukraine. Archived fromthe originalon 21 November 2008.Retrieved5 July2008.
- ^"Ukraine Special Weapons".The Nuclear Information Project.Retrieved5 July2008.
- ^abcFOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (2022).FOOD OUTLOOK – BIANNUAL REPORT ON GLOBAL FOOD MARKETS: november 2021.[S.l.]: FOOD & AGRICULTURE ORG.ISBN978-92-5-135248-9.OCLC1291390883.
- ^"FAO Information Note: The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict, 25 March 2022 Update"(PDF).Food and Agriculture Organization.
- ^"LDCs at a Glance | Department of Economic and Social Affairs".www.un.org.Retrieved15 April2022.
- ^"FAO Country Profiles".www.fao.org.Retrieved15 April2022.
- ^"UNWTO World Tourism Barometer"(PDF).UNWTO World Tourism Barometer.6(2). June 2008.ISSN1728-9246.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 August 2008.
- ^Ash, Lucy (8 August 2014)."Tourism takes a nosedive in Crimea".BBC News.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^"Судоходная компания Укрферри. Морские паромные перевозки на Черном Море между Украиной, Грузией, Турцией и Болгарией".Ukrferry.com.Retrieved30 December2010.
- ^"Киевскую дамбу может разрушить только метеорит или война — Эксперт".www.segodnya.ua.Archived fromthe originalon 19 February 2012.Retrieved15 June2022.
- ^"Ukraine – Resources and power | Britannica".www.britannica.com.
- ^"Transportation in Ukraine".U.S. Government Printing Office.Retrieved22 December2007.
- ^"UIA Contacts".FlyUIA.Archived fromthe originalon 9 February 2017.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^Liu, Jim (29 November 2017)."Ukraine International plans Toronto launch in June 2018".Routesonline.Retrieved29 November2017.
- ^"The paradox threatening Ukraine's post-coal future".openDemocracy.Retrieved27 February2022.
- ^"Ukraine – Countries & Regions".IEA.Retrieved27 February2022.
- ^"Fossil-Fuel Subsidies in the EU's Eastern Partner Countries: Estimates and Recent Policy Developments".OECD.Retrieved1 March2022.
- ^"Westinghouse and Ukraine's Energoatom Extend Long-term Nuclear Fuel Contract".11 April 2014.Westinghouse. Archived fromthe originalon 11 April 2014.Retrieved15 April2014.
- ^Lock, Samantha (27 February 2022)."Russia-Ukraine latest news: missile strikes on oil facilities reported as some Russian banks cut off from Swift system – live".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved27 February2022.
- ^Taylor, Kira (26 February 2022)."Ukraine's energy system coping but risks major damage as war continues".www.euractiv.com.Retrieved27 February2022.
- ^"Ukraine plans to end Russian gas transit contract in 2024 – interview for Deutsche Welle | Naftogaz Ukraine".www.naftogaz.com.24 October 2023.Retrieved30 December2023.
- ^"Ukraine joins European power grid, ending its dependence on Russia".CBS News.No. 16 March 2022.Associated Press.Archived fromthe originalon 16 March 2022.Retrieved23 March2022.
- ^"Continental Europe successful synchronisation with Ukraine and Moldova power systems".ENTSO-E.16 March 2022.Retrieved17 March2022.
- ^"Could Russia shut down the internet in Ukraine?".The Guardian.1 March 2022.Retrieved15 March2022.
- ^Davies, Pascale (11 March 2022)."Ukraine's tech companies are finding ways to help those fleeing war".euronews.Retrieved15 March2022.
- ^Journal, Sam Schechner | Photographs by Justyna Mielnikiewicz/MAPS for The Wall Street (2 March 2022)."Ukraine's Vital Tech Industry Carries On Amid Russian Invasion".The Wall Street Journal.ISSN0099-9660.Retrieved15 March2022.
- ^"Ukraine – Statistics".United Nations Children's Fund(UNICEF).Archived fromthe originalon 3 April 2019.Retrieved7 January2008.
- ^"Life expectancy and Healthy life expectancy, data by country".World Health Organization. 2020.Retrieved19 April2021.
- ^Peterson, Nolan (26 February 2017)."Why Is Ukraine's Population Shrinking?".Newsweek.Retrieved9 July2019.
- ^"Population".State Statistics Service of Ukraine.Retrieved9 July2019.
- ^"Koreans of Ukraine. Who are they?".Ukrainer.30 October 2019.Retrieved19 April2021.
- ^Alina Sandulyak (18 July 2017)."Phantom Syndrome: Ethnic Koreans in Ukraine".Bird In Flight.Retrieved15 April2019.
- ^"Ukraine - World Directory of Minorities & Indigenous Peoples".Minority Rights Group.19 June 2015.
- ^"Caught Between East and West, Ukraine Struggles with Its Migration Policy".Migration Policy Institute. January 2006.
- ^"National Monitoring System Report on the Situation of Internally Displaced Persons – March 2020 – Ukraine".ReliefWeb.21 January 2021.
- ^Hatoum, Bassam; Keaten, Jamey (30 March 2022)."Number of Ukraine refugees passes worst-case U.N. estimate".Associated Press.Medyka.Retrieved30 March2022.
- ^Kramer, Andrew (3 April 2024)."Zelensky Lowers Ukraine's Draft Age, Risking Political Backlash".New York Times.
- ^abcdeSerhy YekelchykUkraine: Birth of a Modern Nation,Oxford University Press(2007),ISBN978-0-19-530546-3
- ^Armitage, Susie (8 April 2022)."'Ukrainian has become a symbol': interest in language spikes amid Russia invasion ".The Guardian.Retrieved18 April2022.
Like most Ukrainians, Sophia Reshetniak, 20, is fluent in both Ukrainian and Russian.
- ^L.A. Grenoble (2003).Language Policy in the Soviet Union.Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1.ISBN978-1-4020-1298-3.
- ^"Yanukovych signs language bill into law".Kyivpost.com. 8 August 2012.Retrieved26 January2014.
- ^"Russian spreads like wildfires in dry Ukrainian forest".Kyivpost.com. 23 August 2012.Retrieved26 January2014.
- ^"Romanian becomes regional language in Bila Tserkva in Zakarpattia region".Kyiv Post.Interfax-Ukraine. 24 September 2012.Retrieved20 October2015.
- ^Michael Schwirtz (5 July 2012)."Ukraine".The New York Times.
- ^Проект Закону про визнання таким, що втратив чинність, Закону України "Про засади державної мовної політики"[Draft Law on the recognition of the void Law of Ukraine "On the basic principles of State Language Policy" ] (in Ukrainian). Ukrainian Parliament.Retrieved12 March2015.
- ^Ian Traynor (24 February 2014)."Western nations scramble to contain fallout from Ukraine crisis".The Guardian.
- ^Andrew Kramer (2 March 2014)."Ukraine Turns to Its Oligarchs for Political Help".New York Times.Retrieved2 March2014.
- ^"Constitutional Court Declares Law On Language Policy Unconstitutional".ukranews.com.28 February 2018.
- ^"New Language Requirement Raises Concerns in Ukraine".Human Rights Watch.19 January 2022.
- ^"Language data for Ukraine".Translators without Borders.March 2022.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^"Hungary plays ethnic card in all neighboring countries: experts explain" language row "with Ukraine".Unian.7 December 2017.
- ^Moser, Michael A. (2016)."Rusyn: A New-Old Language In-between Nations and States".The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders.London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 124–139.doi:10.1007/978-1-137-34839-5_7.ISBN978-1-349-57703-3.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2020.Retrieved16 October2019.
- ^Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and culture.Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press. 2002.ISBN0802035663.
- ^Shamshur, pp. 159–168
- ^"Світова преса про вибори в Україні-2004 (Ukrainian Elections-2004 as mirrored in the World Press)".Архіви України (National Archives of Ukraine).Archived fromthe originalon 8 January 2009.Retrieved7 January2008.
- ^"Criticism of Ukraine's language law justified: rights body".Reuters.7 December 2017.
- ^"New language law could kill independent media ahead of 2019 elections".Kyiv Post.19 October 2018.
- ^"Ukrainian Language Bill Facing Barrage Of Criticism From Minorities, Foreign Capitals".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.24 September 2017.
- ^"Ukraine defends education reform as Hungary promises 'pain'".The Irish Times.27 September 2017.
- ^Vic Satzewich,The Ukrainian Diaspora(Routledge, 2003).
- ^Cecco, Leyland (3 March 2022)."In Canada, world's second largest Ukrainian diaspora grieves invasion".the Guardian.Retrieved3 September2023.
- ^"How many refugees have fled Ukraine and where are they going?".BBC News.15 March 2022.Retrieved16 March2022.
- ^"'Lot of determination': Ukrainian Americans rally for their country ".The Guardian.25 February 2022.Retrieved16 March2022.
- ^"Ukrainian refugees are now living in the UK - so how is it going?".BBC News.28 May 2022.
- ^"Hosts of Ukrainians in UK to receive government praise for generosity".30 July 2022.
- ^"Canada has opened its doors for war-ravaged Ukrainians. Does it have the capacity? - National | Globalnews.ca".Global News.Retrieved16 March2022.
- ^UNHCR (11 March 2022)."UNHCR scales up for those displaced by war in Ukraine, deploys cash assistance".Unhcr.
- ^"Kyiv Saint Sophia Cathedral".United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).UN.Retrieved8 July2008.
- ^"Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe".Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project.10 May 2017.
- ^"Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century".Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project.10 November 2017.
- ^"Press releases and reports – Religious self-identification of the population and attitude to the main Churches of Ukraine: June 2021 (kiis.com.ua)".
- ^Релігія, Церква, суспільство і держава: два роки після Майдану[Religion, Church, Society and State: Two Years after Maidan](PDF)(in Ukrainian), Kyiv:Razumkov Centerin collaboration with the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches, 26 May 2016, pp. 22, 27, archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 April 2017,retrieved7 January2019
- ^"ПРЕС-РЕЛІЗ ЗА РЕЗУЛЬТАТАМИ СОЦІОЛОГІЧНОГО ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ «УКРАЇНА НАПЕРЕДОДНІ ПРЕЗИДЕНТСЬКИХ ВИБОРІВ 2019»".socis.kiev.ua(in Ukrainian).Retrieved22 August2021.
- ^Релігія, Церква, суспільство і держава: два роки після Майдану[Religion, Church, Society and State: Two Years after Maidan](PDF)(in Ukrainian), Kyiv:Razumkov Centerin collaboration with the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches (sample of 2,018 people), 26 May 2016, pp. 22, 29, archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 April 2017,retrieved7 January2019
- ^"Medical Care in Ukraine. Health system, hospitals and clinics".BestOfUkraine.com. 1 May 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 9 December 2010.Retrieved30 December2010.
- ^Romaniuk, Piotr; Semigina, Tetyana (23 November 2018)."Ukrainian health care system and its chances for successful transition from Soviet legacies".Global Health.14(116): 116.doi:10.1186/s12992-018-0439-5.ISSN1744-8603.PMC6260664.PMID30470237.
- ^Ukraine."Health in Ukraine. Healthcare system of Ukraine".Europe-cities.com. Archived fromthe originalon 16 October 2015.Retrieved30 December2010.
- ^"'We are dying out here': Study hears Ukrainian voices on depopulation crisis ".Phys.org.27 April 2023.Retrieved15 January2024.
- ^"What Went Wrong with Foreign Advice in Ukraine?".The World Bank Group.Archived fromthe originalon 20 July 2009.Retrieved16 January2008.
- ^"What do you need to know about the healthcare reform in Ukraine?".UNIAN.19 October 2017.Retrieved24 January2018.
- ^"Ministry of Health: Medical institutions will receive guidance on how to convert to enterprises".Ukraine Crisis Media Center.24 April 2017.Retrieved24 January2018.
- ^"What do you need to know about the healthcare reform in Ukraine?".Ukraine Crisis Media Center.11 September 2017.Retrieved24 January2018.
- ^"Constitution of Ukraine, Chapter 2, Article 53. Adopted at the Fifth Session of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on 28 June 1996".Archived fromthe originalon 15 April 1997.
- ^"General secondary education".Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. Archived fromthe originalon 16 October 2007.Retrieved23 December2007.
- ^"Higher education in Ukraine; Monographs on higher education; 2006"(PDF).Retrieved30 December2010.
- ^"System of Higher Education of Ukraine".Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. Archived fromthe originalon 17 December 2007.Retrieved23 December2007.
- ^"System of the Education of Ukraine".Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. Archived fromthe originalon 12 December 2007.Retrieved23 December2007.
- ^"export.gov".www.export.gov.Archived fromthe originalon 6 March 2022.Retrieved6 March2022.
- ^"Міносвіти скасує" спеціалістів "і" кандидатів наук "".life.pravda.com.ua.11 July 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 29 December 2016.Retrieved13 December2023.
- ^Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (30 October 2023).Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition.World Intellectual Property Organization.doi:10.34667/tind.46596.ISBN9789280534320.
- ^The Educational System of Ukraine,National Academic Recognition Information Centre,April 2009, archived fromthe originalon 12 July 2020,retrieved7 March2013
- ^ab"The language question, the results of recent research in 2012".Rating.25 May 2012.
- ^"Poll: Ukrainian language prevails at home",Ukrinform,UA, 7 September 2011, archived fromthe originalon 9 July 2017,retrieved7 January2019
- ^Timothy Snyder(21 September 2010)."Who's Afraid of Ukrainian History?".The New York Review of Books.
- ^"Poll: Over half of Ukrainians against granting official status to Russian language".Kyiv Post.27 December 2012.Retrieved8 January2014.
- ^Ставлення населення України до постаті Йосипа Сталіна[Attitude of the Ukrainian population to the figure of Joseph Stalin] (in Ukrainian).Kyiv International Institute of Sociology.1 March 2013.
- ^ab"Ukraine. West-East: Unity in Diversity".Research & Branding Group.March 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 8 January 2014.Retrieved8 January2014.
- ^Malanchuk, Oksana (2005), "Social Identification Versus Regionalism in Contemporary Ukraine",Nationalities Papers,33(3): 345–68,doi:10.1080/00905990500193204,ISSN0090-5992,S2CID154250784
- ^Taras Kuzio(23 August 2011)."Soviet conspiracy theories and political culture in Ukraine: Understanding Viktor Yanukovych and the Party of Region"(PDF).taraskuzio.net.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 16 May 2014.
- ^Вибори народних депутатів України 2012[The Elections of People's Deputies of Ukraine 2012] (in Ukrainian). Central Election Commission of Ukraine. 28 November 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 16 October 2012.Retrieved8 March2013.
- ^"CEC substitutes Tymoshenko, Lutsenko in voting papers".30 August 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 13 August 2014.Retrieved6 November2015.
- ^Backes, Uwe;Moreau, Patrick (2008),Communist and Post-Communist Parties in Europe,Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,p. 396,ISBN978-3-525-36912-8
- ^Ukraine right-wing politics: is the genie out of the bottle?,openDemocracy.net,3 January 2011, archived fromthe originalon 14 October 2017,retrieved8 March2013
- ^Kuzio, Taras(17 October 2012),"Eight Reasons Why Ukraine's Party of Regions Will Win the 2012 Elections",Jamestown,The Jamestown Foundation
- ^Kuzio, Taras(5 October 2007),UKRAINE: Yushchenko needs Tymoshenko as ally again(PDF),Oxford Analytica,archived fromthe original(PDF)on 15 May 2013
- ^Sonia, Koshkina (15 November 2012)."Ukraine's Party of Regions: A pyrrhic victory".EurActiv.
- ^Rachkevych, Mark (11 February 2010)."Election winner lacks strong voter mandate".Kyiv Post.Archived fromthe originalon 17 February 2010.Retrieved13 December2023.
- ^Ostaptschuk, Markian (30 October 2012)."Shake-up in Ukraine".DW.Retrieved13 December2023.
- ^"State Department of Ukraine on Religious".2003 Statistical report.Archived fromthe originalon 4 December 2004.Retrieved27 January2008.
- ^Lysenko, Tatiana (2014).The Price of Freedom.Lulu Publishing Services. p. 4.ISBN978-1483405759.
- ^"Culture in Ukraine | By Ukraine Channel".ukraine.com.Retrieved24 March2018.
- ^"Interwar Soviet Ukraine".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived fromthe originalon 18 April 2008.Retrieved12 September2007.
In all, some four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite was repressed or perished in the course of the 1930s
- ^"Gorbachev, Mikhail".Encyclopædia Britannica (fee required). Archived fromthe originalon 18 December 2007.Retrieved30 July2008.
Under his new policy of glasnost ( "openness" ), a major cultural thaw took place: freedoms of expression and of information were significantly expanded; the press and broadcasting were allowed unprecedented candour in their reportage and criticism; and the country's legacy of Stalinist totalitarian rule was eventually completely repudiated by the government
- ^"UNESCO – Petrykivka decorative painting as a phenomenon of the Ukrainian ornamental folk art".ich.unesco.org.Retrieved4 March2022.
- ^"UNESCO – Tradition of Kosiv painted ceramics".ich.unesco.org.Retrieved4 March2022.
- ^"UNESCO – Cossack's songs of Dnipropetrovsk Region".ich.unesco.org.Retrieved4 March2022.
- ^Centre, UNESCO World Heritage."Ukraine – UNESCO World Heritage Convention".UNESCO World Heritage Centre.Retrieved6 April2023.
- ^"Damaged cultural sites in Ukraine verified by UNESCO".UNESCO.Retrieved6 April2023.
- ^"Unesco adds Ukrainian city of Odesa to World Heritage List of endangered sites".The Art Newspaper – International art news and events.2 February 2023.Retrieved6 April2023.
- ^"Pysanky – Ukrainian Easter Eggs".University of North Carolina.Archived fromthe originalon 25 January 2021.Retrieved28 July2008.
- ^"Про затвердження Порядку ведення Національного переліку елементів нематеріальної культурної спадщини України".Офіційний вебпортал парламенту України(in Ukrainian).Retrieved1 February2023.
- ^Marche, Stephen (4 December 2022)."'Our mission is crucial': meet the warrior librarians of Ukraine ".The Observer.ISSN0029-7712.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^abcd"Ukraine – Cultural Life – The Arts – Literature".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved8 January2014.
- ^abc"Ukraine – Literature".MSN Encarta.Archived fromthe originalon 6 April 2008.Retrieved3 July2008.
- ^"Ukrainian literature".Encyclopædia BritannicaOnline.4 July 2023.Retrieved11 March2023.
- ^Danylo Husar Sruk."Literature".Encyclopedia of Ukraine.Retrieved17 January2008.
- ^Yuriy Lavrinenko (2004).Розстріляне відродження: Антологія 1917–1933[The Executed Renaissance: Anthology 1917–1933] (in Ukrainian). Kyiv: Smoloskyl. Archived fromthe originalon 13 December 2010.
- ^abIvan Katchanovski;Zenon E. Kohut; Bohdan Y. Nebesio; Myroslav Yurkevich (11 July 2013).Historical Dictionary of Ukraine(2 ed.). Scarecrow Press. pp. 29–.ISBN978-0-8108-7847-1.OCLC851157266.
- ^Kharchenko, Serhiy."The Khrushchovkas".The Ukrainian Observer.Archived fromthe originalon 6 February 2007.
- ^"Ukrainian folk dress. Traditional clothes of Ukraine".Ua-travelling.com. Archived fromthe originalon 25 July 2013.Retrieved8 January2014.
- ^"Podvyzhnytsi narodnoho mystetstva", Kyiv 2003 and 2005, by Yevheniya Shudra, Welcome to Ukraine Magazine
- ^"Traditional Ukrainian Embroidery".Ukrainian Museum-Archives. Archived fromthe originalon 8 January 2014.Retrieved8 January2014.
- ^Рівненська обласна державна адміністрація – Обласний центр народної творчості[Rivne Regional State Administration – The Regional Centre for Folk Art] (in Ukrainian). Rv.gov.ua. Archived fromthe originalon 26 January 2011.Retrieved30 December2010.
- ^"ПІСНІ ТА ВИШИВКИ УЛЯНИ КОТ – Мистецька сторінка".Storinka-m.kiev.ua.Retrieved30 December2010.
- ^Risch, W.J. (2011).The Ukrainian West: Culture and the Fate of Empire in Soviet Lviv.Harvard historical studies. Harvard University Press. p. 44.ISBN978-0-674-06126-2.Retrieved9 March2022.
- ^Sonevytsky, M. (2019).Wild Music: Sound and Sovereignty in Ukraine.Music / Culture. Wesleyan University Press. p. intro.ISBN978-0-8195-7915-7.Retrieved9 March2022.
- ^Struk, D.H. (1993).Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Volume III: L-Pf.Heritage. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. p. 1461.ISBN978-1-4426-5125-8.Retrieved9 March2022.
- ^"Traditional Ukrainian songs and music".Ukrainian people(in Ukrainian). 16 May 2017.Retrieved9 March2022.
- ^Freedom House,Ukraine 2015 Freedom of the PressArchived16 November 2018 at theWayback Machinereport
- ^"Ukraine: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report".Freedom House.Retrieved27 March2022.
- ^"National Council".Національна рада України з питань телебачення і радіомовлення.Archived fromthe originalon 9 March 2022.Retrieved9 March2022.
- ^"BBCUkrainian.com | Про нас | Бі-Бі-Сі – зрозуміти світ".www.bbc.com.Retrieved18 March2022.
- ^"The invasion of Ukraine is not the first social media war, but it is the most viral".The Economist.26 March 2022.ISSN0013-0613.Retrieved27 March2022.
- ^"'20 Days in Mariupol' wins best documentary Oscar, a first for AP and PBS' 'Frontline'".AP News.11 March 2024.
- ^"Ukraine – Sports and recreation".Encyclopædia Britannica (fee required).Archived fromthe originalon 15 January 2008.Retrieved12 January2008.
- ^"Boxing Lessons learned from Dion's Ukraine Visit".Viva Fitness.14 September 2013.
- ^Douglas, Steve (25 September 2021)."Usyk ends Joshua's reign as heavyweight champ".Associated Press.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2021.Retrieved25 September2021.
- ^"Pound-for-pound rankings: Vasiliy Lomachenko still No. 1".ESPN.com.Retrieved18 May2018.
- ^International Olympic Committee."Mr. Sergey BUBKA".Official website of the Olympic Movement.Retrieved27 May2010.
... voted world's best athlete on several occasions.
- ^"Track and Field Athlete of the Year".Trackandfieldnews.com. Archived fromthe originalon 11 May 2011.Retrieved30 January2011.
- ^"Legion XIII dominate Ukrainian season".RLEF. 23 November 2017. Archived fromthe originalon 1 December 2017.Retrieved23 November2017.
- ^"Ukraine has a glorious cuisine that is all its own".The Economist.5 March 2022.ISSN0013-0613.Retrieved14 April2022.
- ^"CCHM – Breads".www.cchm.ca.Retrieved15 March2022.
- ^Stechishin, Savella."Traditional Foods".Encyclopedia of Ukraine.Retrieved10 August2007.
Print sources
Reference books
- Encyclopedia of Ukraine(University of Toronto Press,1984–1993) 5 vol;partial online version,from Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies
- Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia Vol.1ed by Volodymyr E. KubijovyC; University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188pp
Recent (since 1991)
- Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul.Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough(2006)
- Birch, Sarah.Elections and Democratization in UkraineMacmillan, 2000online edition
- Edwards Mike: "Ukraine – Running on empty"National Geographic MagazineMarch 1993
- Ivan Katchanovski:Cleft Countries: Regional Political Divisions and Cultures in Post-Soviet Ukraine and Moldova,Ibidem-Verlag, 2006,ISBN978-3-89821-558-9
- Kuzio, Taras:Contemporary Ukraine: Dynamics of Post-Soviet Transformation,M.E. Sharpe, 1998,ISBN0-7656-0224-5
- Kuzio, Taras.Ukraine: State and Nation Building,Routledge, 1998online edition
- Shamshur O. V., Ishevskaya T. I.,Multilingual education as a factor of inter-ethnic relations: the case of the Ukraine,inLanguage Education for Intercultural Communication,by D. E. Ager, George Muskens, Sue Wright, Multilingual Matters, 1993,ISBN1-85359-204-8
- Shen, Raphael (1996).Ukraine's Economic Reform: Obstacles, Errors, Lessons.Praeger/Greenwood.ISBN978-0-275-95240-2.
- Whitmore, Sarah.State Building in Ukraine: The Ukrainian Parliament, 1990–2003Routledge, 2004online edition
- Wilson, Andrew,Ukraine's Orange Revolution(2005)
- Wilson, Andrew,The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation,2nd ed. 2002;
- Wilson, Andrew,Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith,Cambridge University Press,ISBN0-521-57457-9
- Zon, Hans van.The Political Economy of Independent Ukraine.2000online edition
History
- UKRAINIAN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC BETWEEN 40/10.000 BP
- Bilinsky, YaroslavThe Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II(Rutgers University Press,1964)onlineArchived7 July 2020 at theWayback Machine
- Hrushevsky, Michael.A History of Ukraine(1986)
- Katchanovski Ivan; Kohut, Zenon E.; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich, Myroslav.Historical Dictionary of Ukraine.Second Edition. Scarecrow Press, 2013. 968 pp.
- Kononenko, Konstantyn.Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917(Marquette University Press 1958)onlineArchived7 July 2020 at theWayback Machine
- Luckyj, George S.Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995.(1996)
- Magocsi, Paul Robert,A History of Ukraine.University of Toronto Press,1996ISBN0-8020-7820-6
- Reid, Anna.Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine(2003)online edition
- Subtelny, Orest.Ukraine: A History,1st edition. Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1988.ISBN0-8020-8390-0.
- Yekelchyk, Serhy.Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation(Oxford University Press 2007)onlineArchived7 July 2020 at theWayback Machine
World War II
- Boshyk, Yuri (1986).Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath.Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies.ISBN978-0-920862-37-7.
- Berkhoff, Karel C.Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule.Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp.
- Cliff, Tony (1984).Class Struggle and Women's Liberation.Bookmarks.ISBN978-0-906224-12-0.
- Gross, Jan T.Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia(1988).
- Lower, Wendy.Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine.U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 307 pp.
- Piotrowski Tadeusz,Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947,McFarland & Company, 1998,ISBN0-7864-0371-3.
- Redlich, Shimon.Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945.Indiana U. Press, 2002. 202 pp.
- Zabarko, Boris, ed.Holocaust in the Ukraine,Mitchell Vallentine & Co, 2005. 394 pp.
External links
Definitionsfrom Wiktionary
Mediafrom Commons
Newsfrom Wikinews
Quotationsfrom Wikiquote
Textsfrom Wikisource
Textbooksfrom Wikibooks
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
Travel informationfrom Wikivoyage
- Ukraineinformation from theUnited States Department of State
- Key Development Forecasts for UkrainefromInternational Futures
- Encyclopedia of Ukraine
- Government
- Economy
- World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Ukraine
- Ukraine Corruption ProfileArchived3 March 2022 at theWayback Machinefrom theRisk & Compliance Portal
- Demographics
